Mathematical Structure:

An Introduction to Mathematical Reasoning and Proofs

Andrew D. Jones, Jr.

Florida A & M University

Talitha M. Washington
University of Evansville
Contents

0 Preface 1

1 STATEMENTS AND INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 4

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Logical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Conjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Disjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4 Summary of Operators in Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Relationships in Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Conditional Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 Converse, Inverse, Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.3 Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.4 Truth Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 SETS 12
2.1 Sets and Subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Set Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3 NUMBER SYSTEMS 19
3.1 Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Natural Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3 Computations on Natural Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4 Solving Natural Number Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.5 Whole Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.6 Solving Whole Number Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

i
ii CONTENTS

3.7 Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.8 Solving Integer Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.9 Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.10 Solving Rational Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.11 Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.11.1 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.11.2 Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.11.3 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.11.4 Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4 INDUCTION AND EXPONENTS 42

4.1 Using Mathematical Induction to Prove Statements . . . . . . . . 42
4.2 Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

5 POLYNOMIALS 46
5.1 Polynomials as a Mathematical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.2 Operations on the Set of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2.1 Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2.2 Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2.3 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2.4 Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.5 Long Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

6 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 56

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.2 Equivalence Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.3 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.4 Operations: Arithmetic, Composition and Inverse . . . . . . . . . 60
6.4.1 Addition and Subtraction of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.4.2 Composition of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.5 Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

7 QUANTIFIERS AND INDUCTION 65

7.1 Introduction to Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Chapter 0

Preface

Those who know how

can only follow
those who know why.

– Andrew D. Jones, Sr.

Mathematical systems all have the same structure. They begin with a set of
objets, the relationships between the objects, operations or things to do with the
objects, and a set a rules or axioms. We utilize these things to logically draw
conclusions called theorems.
We will motivate the construction of mathematical systems by considering
solvability. This approach is both historically motivated and intuitively correct.
Each time a mathematical system (physics, monopoly and basketball) is studied,
modifications and extensions of these systems are created to achieve a solution of
problems.
Previously in your education, you may have been taught that mathematics is
basically a collection of algorithms to get answers. In fact, you may have been
encouraged to memorize formulas and methods. However, the first formal math-
ematician Gaber Ben Hayyan, aka Eulcid, said that a collection of mathematical
facts and techniques is no more mathematics than a pile of stones is a house. It is
not the algorithms that are important but the structure. Understanding the structure
will allow you to create the techniques needed to solve problems.
We now begin with mathematics as a structure that can be used to describe
any natural phenomena. We refer to this structure as mathematical system. A
mathematical system consists of

1
2 CHAPTER 0. PREFACE

1. A set
2. Relationships
3. Operations
4. Axioms (or rules)
5. A system of logic
6. From which follow theorems.
Some terms are primitive and are taken as basic and understood and are not
formally defined. Primitive terms are necessary to avoid circular definitions. For
example, to define the word ”set” we could define it as a collection of objects.
Now we could define a collection of objects as a group of things that are aggre-
gated. Then we could define a group of objects that are aggregated as a set. Hence,
we end our definition with the word that we sought to define. Thus, the word set
is undefined and we simply have a mutual understanding of the word. In the same
way, we have axioms which are statements that we agree to be true and need no
further justification. Theorems are statements deduced from definitions, axioms
or a previously proved theorem.
Everyone has experienced a mathematical system. For example, games and
our judicial system are mathematical systems. Consider the game of basketball.
In basketball, we have the following:

Mathematical System Basketball

The set The ball, the court, the hoop and the players
Relationships Ball in hoop, players on court, same team
Operations Shooting the ball, dribbling the ball, etc.
Axioms (or rules) You cannot double dribble,you should not foul, etc
A system of logic Strategy - implicit in basketball
From which follow theorems Can be considered plays for basketball i.e. pick and roll

Mathematical System The Legal System

The set attorneys, judges, jurors, plaintiffs, defendants, etc.
Relationships Prosecutor cross examines defendant etc.
Operations Testify, cross examine, draw analogies, file motions, etc.
Axioms (or rules) United States Constitution and other state constitutions
A system of logic Will be addressed in Chapter 2
From which follow theorems Brown vs. Board of Education, Roe vs. Wade, etc.
 3

All games are mathematical systems. In the judicial system, the same system-
atic approach applies.
In this text, we build the sets of statements, sets, numbers and functions. We
will define what equality means on a each set. We will also define six other re-
lationships. Axioms will be listed. We will develop a system of logic in chapter
2. The objective is to teach the construction of algorithms and the creation of
theorems.
Chapter 1

STATEMENTS AND
INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC

1.1 Introduction

Logic is a comprehensive subject that utilizes formal reasoning to analyze

arguments. We begin by defining the system of logic as a mathematical system.

Mathematical System Logic

The set Statements
Relationships Implication and equivalence
Operations And, or, not
Axioms (or rules) Modus ponens
A system of logic Deduction
From which follow theorems Will be discussed throughout the chapter

In logic, the set is the set of all statements. Statements are declarative sen-
tences that can be judged either as true or as false. They are not commands or
opinions because the sentence must have a truth value. For example, ”the sky is
beautiful” is not a statement because the sky may be beautiful to one person and
ugly to the next. However, ”the sky is blue” is a statement since the sky could be
blue or not blue if it is a cloudy day.

4
1.2. LOGICAL OPERATORS 5

1.2 Logical Operators

1.2.1 Conjunction
The statement ”P and Q” is called a conjunction where ”and” is the binary op-
eration. A conjunction is true if and only if both conjuncts are true. That is, if
statement P and statement Q are both true. For example,
”5 is a prime number and 8 is an even number”
is a true statement because both conjuncts are true. However,
”5 is a prime number and 8 is an odd number”
is a false statement since 8 is not an odd number. All of the possible truth value
combinations for two statements P ∧ Q, are presented in the table below.

P Q P∧Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Table 1.1: Definition of ∧.

1.2.2 Disjunction
The statement ”P or Q” is called a disjunction where ”or” is the binary operation.
A disjunction is true when one or both statements are true. This is referred to as
the inclusive or. For example,
”5 is a prime number or 8 is an even number”
and
”5 is a prime number or 8 is an odd number”
are both true statements because at least one conjunct is true. The next table
shows the truth values of P ∨ Q for each of the four possible combinations of
truth values of two statements P, Q .
6 CHAPTER 1. STATEMENTS AND INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC

P Q P∨Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Table 1.2: Definition of ∨.

1.2.3 Negation
A negation is true whenever the opposite of the original statement is false. For
example the statement

”4 is an even number”

is a true statement and its negation

”4 is not an even number”

is a false statement. The following truth table shows the truth values of ∼ P
(read not P) for each of the possible values of P:

P ∼P
T F
F T
Table 1.3: Definition of ∼.

1.2.4 Summary of Operators in Logic

We summarize the operators in logic via the following table.

Operator Connective Sentence Form Symbolic Form

conjunction and P and Q P∧Q
disjunction or P or Q P∨Q
negation not not P ∼P
1.3. RELATIONSHIPS IN LOGIC 7

1.3 Relationships in Logic

1.3.1 Conditional Statements
A relationship in logic is implication or conditional. That is, a statement P can
imply a statement Q. In this case we write

P⇒Q

Two statements can be equivalent. That is, P can imply Q and Q can imply P
in which case we write

P ⇔ Q.

This is also called a bi-conditional and can be read P if and only if Q.

Conditional statements are very important in mathematics because all math-
ematical theorems can be posed in the form of a conditional or bi-conditional
statement. Most theorems have the form
if P then Q
where P is called the anaceedetend and Q is called the consequence. We may also
refer to the conditional statement as
P implies Q
or in symbolic form as
P⇒Q
Consider the statements
P: It rains.
Q: I will carry an umbrella.
P implies Q states that if it rains, then I will carry an umbrella. Now suppose you
contract somebody to keep your hair dry on your walk to school and they make
the statement to you that if it rains, then I will carry an umbrella. If it rains and
they brought you the umbrella then they have told the truth. However, it does not
rain and they do not bring the umbrella then they have also told the truth because
they did not say what they would do in the case of no rain. Similarly, if it does not
rain but they bring the umbrella anyway, they have told the truth. However in the
8 CHAPTER 1. STATEMENTS AND INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC

P Q P⇒Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Table 1.4: Definition of ⇒.

case where it does rain and they do not bring the umbrella they have made a false
statement. This is summarized in the following truth table.

Notice that a conditional statement is false only in the case that P, the an-
tecedent, is true and Q, the consequence, is false otherwise P ⇒ Q is true. Often
people misunderstand when a conditional statement is true or false. For example,
a parent once told their child that if they do not clean the room, then he will not
take you to the store to buy a cell phone. The child proceeded to clean their room
expecting to go and told the parent that they were ready to go. But my parent
responded, ”I never said what I would do if you actually cleaned up your room.”
Consequently, the child never confused implication again!

In the English language, there are several ways to express the conditional state-
ment P ⇒ Q other than the form ” if P, then Q”. This can be illustrated as follows:

Form Example
If P then Q If x is even, then x is a multiple of 2.
P implies Q x is even implies x is a multiple of 2.
P only if Q x is even only if x is a multiple of 2.
Q is a necessary condition for P x is a multiple of 2 is necessary for x to be even.
P is a sufficient condition for Q x is even is sufficient for x to be a multiple of 2.
Every P is Q Every even number is a multiple of 2.

1.3.2 Converse, Inverse, Contrapositive

In any conditional statement, P ⇒ Q, read as ”if P, then Q”, three variants can
be derived from any given conditional statement. These three variants are called
1.3. RELATIONSHIPS IN LOGIC 9

the inverse, converse, and contrapositive. The table below shows how these three
variants are formed.

Conditional Variant Name of Variant

P⇒Q Q ⇒P Converse
P⇒Q ∼P⇒ ∼Q Inverse
P⇒Q ∼Q⇒ ∼P Contrapositive

Example 1. Given the following conditional, form the converse, inverse and con-
trapositive.

If it rains, then I will bring an umbrella.

Solution 1. Notice from the table above, the converse is formed by interchanging
the hypothesis and the conclusion. Therefore, if the conditional statement is f it
rains then I will bring an umbrella, then the converse is

If I bring an umbrella, then its raining.

What is the inverse formed using the conditional statement? In this case the in-
verse is

If it is not raining, then I will not bring an umbrella.

According to the table, what is the contrapositive? Using the table, the contrapos-
itive is as follows

If I am not carrying an umbrella, then it is not raining.

1.3.3 Equivalence
Before we can introduce equivalent statements, we must first talk about a bicon-
ditional statement.

Definition 1. For statements P and Q, the biconditional (in the form ”P if and
only if Q” and notated as P ⇐⇒ Q) is the conjunction (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ P).
10 CHAPTER 1. STATEMENTS AND INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC

Example 2. Construct a truth table to for (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ P).

Solution 2.

P Q P⇒Q Q⇒P (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ P)
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

Definition 2. Two statements P and Q are equivalent if P implies Q and Q implies

P and we write
P ≡ Q.

1.3.4 Truth Tables

We now look at a few examples showing how to prove statements either true or
false using truth tables.

Example 3. Construct a truth table to show that ∼(P ∨ Q) ≡ (∼ P ∧ ∼Q).

Solution 3.

P Q ∼P ∼Q P ∨ Q ∼P ∨ Q ∼P ∧ ∼Q
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T

This is also called DeMorgan’s Law.

Example 4. Construct a truth table to show that (∼Q ⇒ ∼P) ≡ (P ⇒ Q).

Solution 4.
1.3. RELATIONSHIPS IN LOGIC 11

P Q ∼P ∼Q P⇒ Q ∼Q ⇒ ∼P
T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

Example 5. Construct a truth table to prove ∼(∼P) ≡ P.

Solution 5.

P ∼P ∼(∼P)
T F T
T F T
F T F
F T F

Example 6. Construct a truth table to show that P ⇒ (Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ ∼ Q) ⇒ R.

Solution 6.

P Q Q R Q∨R P∧ Q P ⇒ (Q ∨ R) (P ∧ ∼Q) ⇒ R
T T F T T F T T
T T F F T F T T
T F T T T T T T
T F T F F T F F
F T F T T F T T
F T F F T F T T
F F T T T F T T
F F T F F F T T
Chapter 2

SETS

2.1 Sets and Subsets

In this chapter we study we develop a mathematical system using sets as the

objects. What follows is not a comprehensive treatment of set theory. We do not
even include all of the operations. We do provide a sufficient number of definitions
to produce a systematic treatment of sets.
We begin by defining the system of sets as a mathematical system.

Mathematical System Sets

The set Set of all sets
Relationships Equality, subset, proper subset
Operations Intersection, union, complement, cartesian product
Axioms (or rules) Axiom of choice
A system of logic The results of Chapter 2
From which follow theorems Will be discussed throughout the chapter

A set is a ”well-defined” collection of objects. The concept of ”well-defined”

means that for any object, it can be determined whether or not the object is a
member of the set being investigated. For example, consider the set of all people
in the U.S.A. who are more than 6 feet tall. It is easy to demonstrate whether a
person is taller than 6 feet. Hence, this is a well defined set. If we consider the
set of all short people in the U.S.A., then this set is not well defined because the
meaning of short is ambiguous.

12
2.2. SET NOTATION 13

2.2 Set Notation

The symbol ∈ is used to denote set membership. We will generally use upper-case
letters to indicate sets and lower-case elements to indicate members of sets. Thus,

x∈A

stands for ”x is a member (or element) of A” . We represent ”x is not a member

of A” by:
x∈ /A

Definition 1. The empty set, φ, is the set that contains no elements.

Definition 2. The universal set, U , is the set which contains all elements includ-
ing itself.

Example 1. Let N be the universal set and P (x) is the open sentence x ≤ 5 where
x ∈ N. Describe the set P in set builder and list notation.

Solution 1. If S = N and P (x) is the open sentence x ≤ 5, then

{x ∈ N|P (x)} = {x ∈ N|x ≤ 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

Definition 3. A set is said to be finite provided that it has only a fixed number
of elements. Formally, a set is finite if and only if it can be put in one-to-one
correspondence with an initial segment of the set of natural numbers. Otherwise,
the set is called infinite.

2.3 Relationships
We will now define relationships on the set of all sets.
14 CHAPTER 2. SETS

Definition 4. A is a subset of B, written as A ⊆ B, if and only if x ∈ A implies

x ∈ B. That is,
A ⊆ B ⇔ (x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B)

Definition 5. Two sets A and B are said to be equal if and only if A is a subset
of B and B is a subset of A. That is,

A = B ⇔ (A ⊆ B) ∧ (B ⊆ A)

Example 2. Suppose you have two sets:

A = {a, b, c}, B = {10, cat, 5, c, 45, b, 1, a}.

Is set B a subset of set A?

Solution 2. If we refer back to the definition of a subset, for B to be a subset of A,

every element in B must be in A. B contains the elements 10, cat, 5, c, 45, b, 1, a.
A contains the elements a, b, c. By inspection, we can see that B has 8 elements
and A only contains 3 elements. We can therefore conclude that B is not a subset
of A.
However, is A a subset of B? We can see that all of the elements of A, {a, b, c},
are contained in B, {10, cat, 5, c, 45, b, 1, a}. Thus, we can conclude that A is a
subset of B because every element in A is an element of B.

Definition 6. A is a proper subset of B if and only if A ⊂ B and A 6= B and we

write A ⊂ B. That is,

A ⊂ B ⇔ (A ⊆ B) ∧ (A 6= B)

Example 3. Using the same sets as in the previous example, is set A a proper
subset of B?
2.4. OPERATIONS 15

Solution 3. Using our definition of a proper subset, set A is a proper subset of

set B when set A is a subset of set B and B contains at lease one element not in
A. From our example, we know that A is a subset of B. Now, does B contain
at least one element that is not an element of B? Set B contains the elements
10, cat, 5, c, 45, b, 1, a and set A contains the elements a, b, c. From inspection, we
can see that 10 ∈ B but 10 ∈ / A. Also, cat, 5, 1 ∈ B but ∈/ A. Therefore, we can
say that set A a proper subset of B.

Example 4. Suppose set A = {a, b, c} and set B = {a, b, c}. A and B equal?
Solution 4. Two sets are A and B are equal if and only if A is a subset of B
and B is a subset of A. First, we must determine if A is a subset of B. For
A to be a subset of B, the elements of A must also be an element of B. Since
set A = {a, b, c} and set B = {a, b, c}, the elements of A are contained in B.
Because the elements of A are contained in B, A is a subset of B. Similarly for
the elements of B contained in A; that is, B is a subset of A. Since A is a subset
of B and B is a subset of A, A equals B or A = B.

2.4 Operations
To help us understand and write simplified sentences which have the same mean-
ing as more complex sentences, we will consider certain set operations. The word
operation suggests a well defined process. Similar to operations such as addition
that define a binary process on numbers, a set operation defines a process on sets.
Definition 7. The union of set A and B is the set consisting of every element
belonging to either set A or set B, or both. The symbol ∪ denotes a union between
two sets and is read ”A union B”. Symbolically stated:

A ∪ B ≡ {x|x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B, or both}

Example 5. Let A = {car, oil, tires, gears} and B = {wheel, gears, mirror}.
Describe A ∪ B.
16 CHAPTER 2. SETS

Solution 5. To determine A ∪ B we must first list the elements of set A, then we

will list the elements from set B that have not already been listed.
A ∪ B = {car, oil, tires, gears, wheel, mirror}.
Notice that the word gears is only listed once even though it appears in both sets
A and B. It is only necessary to list an element only once to indicate its being in
the set.

Definition 8. The intersection of set A and set B is the set whose elements belong
to both set A and set B. We denote intersection by the symbol ∩ and is read ”A
intersect B”. Using set builder notation,
A ∩ B ≡ {x|x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}.

Example 6. Let A = {car, oil, tires, gears} and B = {wheel, gears, mirror}.
Describe A ∩ B.
Solution 6. Referring back to the definition of intersection, the elements of A ∩ B
are those elements which are common in both set A and set B. Thus,
A ∩ B = {gears}.

Definition 9. The difference of two sets is the set of elements in one set and not
the other. Set difference is denoted by the symbol − . Symbolically,

A − B = {x|x ∈ A ∧ x ∈
/ B}.

Example 7. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 5}, find A − B.

Solution 7. If the difference between two sets is defined as the elements in one
set and not in the other, then

A − B = {1, 2, 3, 4} − B = {2, 4}.

Thus,
{1, 2, 3, 4} − B = {2, 4} = {1, 3}.
2.4. OPERATIONS 17

Definition 10. The complement of a set is defined as the set of elements in the
universal set but not in the actual set itself. Set complement is denoted by the
symbol Ac . Symbolically,

Ac ≡ {x ∈ U |x ∈
/ A} = U − A.

Example 8. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and A = {1, 3, 5}. Find Ac .

Solution 8. Ac is the set of all elements in U that are not in A. Therefore

Ac = {2, 4}.

Definition 11. The Cartesian product of a set A and set B is the set whose
elements are all of the possible ordered pairs (x, y) such that the replacement set
for x is set A and the replacement set for y is set B. We denote the Cartesian
product by the symbol × and is read ”A cross B”. Symbolically stated:

A × B ≡ {(x, y)|x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B}.

Example 9. Find the Cartesian product A × B if A = {0, 1} and B = {5, 6}.

Solution 9. The elements of the set named first in the symbol A × B will appear
as the first components of the ordered pairs. The elements of the set named second
in the symbol A × B will become the second components of the ordered pairs.
Therefore
A × B = {(0, 5), (0, 6), (1, 5), (1, 6)}

We will now use the definition of Cartesian product, difference, intersection

and union to prove some equalities. The strategy is the same in all cases. We trans-
late the set operations into logical operations, manipulate the statements logically
and then translate the logical operators to set operations.
18 CHAPTER 2. SETS

Example 10. Prove that (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c .

Proof. First we must show that (A ∪ B)c ⊆ Ac ∩ B c . Let x ∈ (A ∪ B)c . Then
x∈/ A ∪ B which means that x ∈ / A∨x ∈ / B. Since x ∈/ A, x ∈ Ac . Also, x ∈/ B,
x ∈ B . Thus, x ∈ A∧x ∈ B. Therefore, x ∈ A ∩B and so (A∪B) ⊆ A ∩B c .
c c c c c

Now we need to show that Ac ∩ B c ⊆ (A ∪ B)c . Let x ∈ Ac ∪ B c . Then

x∈/ A ∪ B. That is x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B. Thus x ∈ / A∧x ∈ / B which means that
x ∈ Ac ∧ x ∈ B c . Therefore, x ∈ Ac ∩ B c .

Example 11. Prove that A − (B ∪ C) = (A − B) − C.

Proof. First, we must show that A−(B ∪C) ⊆ (A−B)−C. Let x ∈ A−(B ∪C).
Then, x ∈ A and x ∈ / (B ∪ C). By the previous theorem we have x ∈ A and x ∈
(B ∩ C ). Thus, x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B c ∧ x ∈ C c . Thus we have x ∈ (A − B) ∧ x ∈ C c .
c c

That is, x ∈ (A − B) − C which completes the first part of the proof.

Now we must show that (A − B) − C ⊆ A − (B ∪ C). Let x ∈ (A − B) − C.
Then, x ∈ (A−B)∧C c . That is, x ∈ A∧B c ∧C c . Thus, x ∈ A∧x ∈ (B c ∩C c ). By
the previous theorem, we have that x ∈ A ∧ x ∈
/ (B ∪ C). Thus, x ∈ A − (B ∪ C)
which completes the proof.

Example 12. Prove that A ∪ (B − A) = B ∪ A.

Proof. Let x ∈ (A ∪ (B − A)). Then x ∈ A or x ∈ (B − A). If x ∈ A then
x ∈ B ∪ A and we are done. Suppose that x ∈ B − A. Then x ∈ B ∧ x ∈ Ac or
simply x ∈ B. Thus x ∈ B ∪ A.
Now suppose that x ∈ B ∪ A. Then x ∈ B ∨ x ∈ A. If x ∈ A then
x ∈ A ∪ (B − A) and we are done. Suppose that x ∈ B and that x ∈
/ A. Then
x ∈ (B − A) or x ∈ A ∪ (B − A).

Example 13. Prove that A × (B ∩ C) ⊆ (A × B) ∩ (A × C).

Proof. Let (x, y) ∈ A × (B ∩ C). If (x, y) ∈ A × (B ∩ C), then x ∈ A and
y ∈ (B ∧ C). Thus, x ∈ A, y ∈ B and y ∈ C. Thus we have that x ∈ (A × B) ∧
x ∈ (A × C).
Chapter 3

NUMBER SYSTEMS

3.1 Equality
Recall that a Cartesian product was defined as the set of all ordered pairs (x, y)
where x ∈ A and y ∈ B where A and B are given sets. A relation, denoted by R,
is a subset of a Cartesian product if and only if R ⊆ A × B for some sets A and
B. Now we can define equality as an equivalence relation on a set of numbers.

Definition 1. A relation, R, is an equivalence relation if and only if the following

hold:

1. R is reflexive: ∀ x ∈ A, (x, x) ∈ R.

2. R is symmetric: ∀ x, y ∈ A, (x, y) ∈ R =⇒ (y, x) ∈ R.

3. R is transitive: ∀ x, y, z ∈ A, (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R =⇒ (x, z) ∈ R.

On each set of numbers, equality is defined as an equivalence relation on that

set. That is, equality is reflexive: a = a; equality is symmetric: if a = b then
b = a; and equality is transitive: if a = b and b = c then a = c.
We can now introduce the number systems.

3.2 Natural Numbers

Natural numbers can be taken as given or they can be constructed.

19
20 CHAPTER 3. NUMBER SYSTEMS

Mathematical System Arithmetic on Natural Numbers

The set Natural numbers
Relationship Equality
Operations Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
Axioms (or rules) Closure, commutative, associative, identity, etc.
A system of logic As developed in chapter 2
From which follow theorems Will be developed throughout the chapter

We define the set of Natural Numbers N ≡ {1, 2, 3, 4, ...}. Our relationship is

equality and is defined as an equivalence relationship on the set of numbers. We
define the arithmetic operations, addition and multiplication, by tables.

Definition 2. Addition on N.

+ 1 2 3 4 5 ···
1 2 3 4 5 6 ···
2 3 4 5 6 7 ···
3 4 5 6 7 8 ···
4 5 6 7 8 9 ···
5 6 7 8 9 10 ···
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .

Definition 3. Multiplication on N.

· 1 2 3 4 5 ···
1 1 2 3 4 5 ···
2 2 4 6 8 10 ···
3 3 6 9 12 15 ···
4 4 8 12 16 20 ···
5 5 10 15 20 25 ···
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .

Subtraction and Division will be defined in terms of addition and multiplication,

respectively.

Definition 4. Subtraction. a − b = c if and only if a = b + c.

a
Definition 5. Division. b
= c if and only if a = b · c .
3.2. NATURAL NUMBERS 21

We will assume that the following laws, or axioms, are true for addition and
multiplication of natural numbers m, n and p.

Addition Multiplication
Closure Laws
m + n is a unique natural number m · n is a unique natural number
Identity Laws
m·1=1·m=m
Associative Laws
(m + n) + p = m + (n + p) (mn)p = m(np)
Commutative Laws
m+n=n+m mn = nm
Distributive Law for Multiplication over Addition
m(n + p) = mn + mp

Substitution Law for Equality

For a, b ∈ N, if a = b then a may be substituted for b (and b for a) in any
mathematical statement without changing the truth value of that statement.

The first set of theorems will enable us to solve equations on N.

Theorem 1. If a = b, then a + c = b + c.

Proof. Because equality is reflexive, a + c = a + c. By the substitution law,

a + c = b + c.

Therefore we have just now shown that we can add the same number to both
sides of the equation and the equality still holds. We will now show that we can
subtract the same number from both sides of an equation and the equality still
holds.

Theorem 2. If a + c = b + c, then a = b. (Right-Hand Cancelation Theorem or

RHC)
22 CHAPTER 3. NUMBER SYSTEMS

Proof. Suppose a + c = b + c. Thus a = (b + c) − c by definition of subtraction.

Also, we know that b + c = b + c because equality is reflexive. Therefore, b =
(b + c) − c by definition of subtraction. So, (b + c) − c = b because equality is
symmetric. Therefore a = b by transitivity.

Corollary 3. If c + a = c + b, then a = b. (Left-Hand Cancelation Theorem or

LHC)

Theorem 4. If a, b, c ∈ N, a = b ⇔ ac = bc.
The proof is similar to Theorems 1 and 2 and is left as an exercise.

With the given tables, we can add, subtract, multiply and divide numbers and
solve equations with natural number solutions. Now we can readily verify that
8 + 3 = 11 because of the definition of addition on N. Also, we can show that
6 − 2 = 4. Since we know that 4 + 2 = 6 by definition of addition on N, therefore
6 − 2 = 4. Also, 15 ÷ 3 = 5 since 5 · 3 = 15.
By the definition of subtraction, x + 2 = 6 if and only if x = 6 − 2 but we
have already shown that 6 − 2 = 4. Therefore, by transitivity, x = 4. We can
now solve linear equations while justifying each step with an axiom, definition or
a (proven) theorem.

3.3 Computations on Natural Numbers

We will now demonstrate how to perform computations on the set of natural num-
bers by justifying each step using axioms, theorems and/or definitions.
Example 1. Prove that 10 + 6 = 16.
Solution 1.
Statement Reason
10 + 6 = 16 definition of addition on N

Example 2. Prove that 8 · 2 = 16.

3.4. SOLVING NATURAL NUMBER EQUATIONS 23

Solution 2.
Statement Reason
8 · 2 = 16 definition of · on N

Example 3. Prove that 16 − 10 = 16.

Solution 3. Proof. 16 − 10 = 6 if and only if 16 = 10 + 6 by definition of
subtraction. Since 10 + 6 = 16 from the definition of Addition on N, 16 − 10 =
6

16
Example 4. Verify 2
= 8.
Solution 4. Proof. From definition of division, 16
2
= 8 if and only if 16 = 2 · 8.
From definition of multiplication on N, 2 · 8 = 16. Hence, 16
2
=8

3.4 Solving Natural Number Equations

We will now demonstrate how to solve natural number equations and justifying
each step using axioms, theorems and/or definitions.
Example 5. Solve for x: 2x + 10 = 16.
Solution 5. Proof. 2x + 10 = 16 if and only if 2x = 16 − 10 by definition of
subtraction. We have shown that 16 − 10 = 6 so, 2x = 6. Furthermore, 2x = 6 if
and only if x = 26 by definition of division. We know that 62 = 3 since 3 · 2 = 6.
Therefore, x = 3.

Example 6. Solve for n: 3n − 4 = 5.

Solution 6.
Statement Reason
3n − 4 = 5 Given
3n = 4 + 5 definition of −
3n = 9 definition of + on N
9
n= 3
definition of ÷
9
Since 3 · 3 = 9 by the definition of subtraction, then 3
= 3. Therefore, n = 3.
24 CHAPTER 3. NUMBER SYSTEMS

We may wish to solve equations of the form x + 9 = 9 and there is not natural
number solution. Thus we need to expand our set to the set of whole numbers.

3.5 Whole Numbers

Whole numbers are defined as W ≡ {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }. Our relationship is equality.
The operations are the same except we can now add an identity law for addition.

Mathematical System Arithmetic on Whole Numbers

The set Whole numbers
Relationships Equality
Operations Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
Axioms We add the Identity Law for Addition
A system of logic As developed in chapter 2
From which follow theorems Will be discussed throughout the chapter

In addition to the axioms for the natural numbers, we add the identity law for
addition. Hence, we have the following set of axioms.

Addition Multiplication
Closure Laws
m + n is a unique whole number m · n is a unique whole number
Identity Laws
m+0=0+m=m m·1=1·m=m
Associative Laws
(m + n) + p = m + (n + p) (mn)p = m(np)
Commutative Laws
m+n=n+m mn = nm
Distributive Law for Multiplication Over Addition
m(n + p) = mn + mp

Substitution Law for Equality

For a, b ∈ W, if a = b then a may be substituted for b (and b for a) in any
mathematical statement without changing the truth value of that statement.
3.6. SOLVING WHOLE NUMBER EQUATIONS 25

Theorem 5. a · 0 = 0

Proof. Because equality is reflexive, a·0 = a·0. From the identity law, a·(0+0) =
a · 0 + 0. By the distributive law, a · 0 + a · 0 = a · 0 + 0. By the commutative law,
a · 0 + a · 0 = 0 + a · 0. By Theorem 2, a · 0 = 0.

3.6 Solving Whole Number Equations

We will now demonstrate how to solve whole number equations and justifying
each step using axioms, theorems and/or definitions.

Example 7. Solve t + 9 = 9 for t.

Solution 7. Proof. We are given that t + 9 = 9. By the identity law, 0 + 9 = 9.

Transitivity yields t+9 = 0+9. Therefore, t equals 0 by the right hand cancelation
theorem.

Example 8. Solve x + 9 = 7 for x.

We are given that x + 9 = 7. There is no whole number solution to this

equation since, hence, we need to expand the set.

3.7 Integers
Now we need to expand the set of whole numbers so that we compute values such
as 7−9. Integers are defined as Z ≡ {−n|n ∈ N}∪W = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }.
The mathematical system will be as follows:

Mathematical System Arithmetic on Integers

The set Integers
Relationships Equality
Operations Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
Axioms We add the inverse law for +
A system of logic As developed in chapter 2
From which follow theorems Will be discussed throughout the chapter
26 CHAPTER 3. NUMBER SYSTEMS

The operations are the same except we can now add an inverse element for
addition, but not multiplication.

Addition Multiplication
Closure Laws
m + n is a unique whole number m · n is a unique whole number
Identity Laws
m+0=0+m=m
Inverse Laws, for m 6= 0
1 1
m + (−m) = 0 = (−m) + m m· m
=1= m
·m
Associative Laws
(m + n) + p = m + (n + p) (mn)p = m(np)
Commutative Laws
m+n=n+m mn = nm
Distributive Law for Multiplication Over Addition
m(n + p) = mn + mp

Substitution Law for Equality

For a, b ∈ Z, if a = b then a may be substituted for b (and b for a) in any mathe-
matical statement without changing the truth value of that statement.

Theorem 6. (−a) · (b) = −(ab)

The theorem states that (−a) · (b) is equal to the additive inverse of ab. So if
we add ab to (−a) · (b) we should get zero. This will be the strategy of the proof.

Proof.
3.7. INTEGERS 27

Statement Reason
(−a) · b + ab = b · (−a) + b · a commutative law for ·
= b · (−a + a) distributive law for · over +
=b·0 inverse law for +
=0 zero law
= −(ab) + ab inverse law for +
= (−a) · b + a · b transitivity
Therefore (−a) · (b) = −(ab) cancelation law

Corollary 7. (−1) · b = −b
Theorem 8. (−a)(−b) = ab
We will use the same technique as in the previous theorem.
Proof.
Statement Reason
(−a)(−b) + −(ab) = (−a)(−b) + (−a)(b) theorem: −(xy) = (−x)y
= (−a)(−b + b) distributive law for · over +
= (−a)(0) inverse law for +
=0 theorem: x · 0 = 0
0 = ab + −(ab) inverse law for +
(−a)(−b) + −(ab) = ab + −(ab) transitivity
(−a)(−b) = ab right hand cancelation theorem

Theorem 9. (i) For any real number a, its additive inverse is unique.
(ii) For any real number a, its multiplicative inverse is unique.
Proof. (i) We assume that there exists another inverse, b, such that a + b = 0 and
show that b must be equal to zero.
Statement Reason
a+b=0 assumption
0 = a + (−a) inverse law
a + b = a + (−a) Transitivity
b = −a by Left Hand Cancelation Theorem
The proof of Theorem 1 part (ii) is left as an exercise.
28 CHAPTER 3. NUMBER SYSTEMS

Theorem 10. a − b = a + (−b)

Starting with the conclusion, we find the motivation for the proof.

Statement Reason
a − b = a + −b given
a = b + (a + −b) definition of subtraction
a = b + (−b + a) commutative law
a = (b + −b) + a associative law
a=0+a inverse law
a=a identity, equality is reflexive
We now state the previous reasoning backwards and this will be the proof of the
theorem.

Statement Reason
a=a equality is reflexive
a=a+0 identity law
a = a + (b + −b) inverse law
a = (a + b) + −b associative law
a = (b + a) + −b commutative law
a = b + (a + −b) associative law
∴ a = b + (a + −b) transitive
∴ a − b + a + −b definition of subtraction

Theorem 11. a − a = 0

Proof.
Statement Reason
a=a reflexive
=a+0 identity law
∴a−a=0 definition of subtraction
3.8. SOLVING INTEGER EQUATIONS 29

3.8 Solving Integer Equations

We will now demonstrate how to solve equations involving integers and justifying
each step using axioms, theorems and/or definitions.

Example 9. Prove that t + 7 − 7 = t.

Solution 8.
Statement Reason
t + 7 − 7 = t + (7 + −7) theorem: a − b = a + (−b)
=t+0 inverse law for +
=t identity law for +

Example 10. Verify −3 + 5 = 2.

Solution 9.
Statement Reason
−3 + 5 = 5 + −3 commutative law for +
= (2 + 3) + −3 definition of + on N
= 2 + (3 + −3) associative law for +
=2+0 inverse law for +
=2 identity law for +

Example 11. Verify (−4) · 4 = −16.

Solution 10.
Statement Reason
(−4) · 4 = −(4 · 4) Theorem: (−a) · b = −(ab)
= −(16) definition of · on N

Example 12. Solve for x − 31 = 43 for x.

30 CHAPTER 3. NUMBER SYSTEMS

Solution 11.
Statement Reason
(x − 31) + 31 = 43 + 31 Theorem: If a = b, then a + c = b + c
(x + −31) + 31 = 43 + 31 Theorem: a − b = a + (−b)
x + (−31 + 31) = 43 + 31 associative law for +
x + 0 = 43 + 31 inverse law for +
x = 43 + 31 identity law for +
x = 74 definition of + on N

Example 13. Solve for 3p = 7 for p.

Given the sets that we currently have, we are unable to solve these types of
problems. Once again, we must expand the set.

3.9 Rational Numbers

Rational numbers are defined as the following set.
na o
Q= |a, b ∈ Z and b 6= 0
b
The mathematical system will be as follows:

Mathematical System Arithmetic on Rational Numbers

The set Rational numbers
Relationships Equality
Operations Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
Axioms We add the inverse law for ·
A system of logic As developed in chapter 2
From which follow theorems Will be discussed throughout the chapter

Our relationship is equality and

a c
b
= d
if and only if ad = bc.
3.9. RATIONAL NUMBERS 31

Our addition operation on Q is defined as

a b a+b
+ ≡
d d d
where a, b, d ∈ Z and d 6= 0. Multiplication of Q is defined as
a c ac
· ≡ .
b d bd
Subtraction and division are defined in terms of addition and multiplication, re-
spectively. That is, if x − y = z if and only if x = z + y. Also, x ÷ y = z if and
only if x = z · y. (Note that ab = a ÷ b.)
For the axioms, we can now have an inverse element for multiplication.

Addition Multiplication
Inverses, for m 6= 0
1 1
m + (−m) = 0 = (−m) + m m· m
=1= m
·m
Identities
1 1
m+0=0+m=m m· m
= m
·m=1

Substitution Law for Equality For a, b ∈ Q, if a = b then a may be substituted

for b (and b for a) in any mathematical statement without changing the truth value
of that statement.

Theorem 12. For m, n ∈ Q, m + n is a unique rational number and m · n (writ-

ten mn ) is a unique whole number (Closure).

Proof. Let m, n ∈ Q. Then m = ab and n = dc for some integers a, b, c, d such

that b 6= 0 and d 6= 0. By definition of addition and the substitution law,...

Theorem 13. For m, n ∈ Q, m + n = n + m and mn = nm (Commutative).

Proof. An exercise.
32 CHAPTER 3. NUMBER SYSTEMS

Theorem 14. For m, n ∈ Q, (m + n) + p = m + (n + p) and (mn)p = m(np)

(Associative).

Proof. An exercise.

Theorem 15. For m, n ∈ Q, m(n + p) = mn + mp and (m + n)p = mp + np

(Distributive).

Proof. An exercise.

a
Theorem 16. If a ∈ Q and a 6= 0, then a
= 1.

Proof. By the definition of division, aa = 1 if and only if a = a · 1. The theorem

follows from the identity law for multiplication.

a
Theorem 17. 1
= a for a ∈ Q.

Proof. An exercise.

a c ad+bc
Theorem 18. For a, b, c, d ∈ Z and b, d 6= 0, then b
+ d
= bd
.

Proof.
Statement Reason
a
b
+ dc = ab · 1 + c
d
·1 identity law for ·
a d cb a c a
b
· d
+ db
= b
·1+ d
· 1 theorem: a
=1
ad cb
= bd
+ db
definition of · on Q
ad bc
= bd
+ bd
commutative law for · on Z
ad+bc
= bd
definition of · on Q
3.9. RATIONAL NUMBERS 33

0
Theorem 19. For b ∈ Z − {0}, b
= 0.

Proof. 0b = 0 if and only if 0 · b = 0 from the definition of division. Follows from

theorem #(put in here).

−a a
Theorem 20. For a, b ∈ Z and b 6= 0, b
= −b
= − ab .

We will play the exact same game we played to show (−a) · b = −(ab).

Proof.
Statement Reason
−a −a+a
b
+ ab = b
definition of + on Q
0
= b
inverse law for +
=0 theorem: 0b = 0
= − ab + a
b
inverse law for +
−a
∴ − ab + a
b
= b
+ a
b
transitivity
−a
− ab = b
Right Hand Cancelation Theorem

a c a
Theorem 21. For a, b, c, d ∈ Z and b, d 6= 0, b
÷ d
= b
· dc .

Proof. ab = ab · 1 by the identity law for multiplication. By the inverse law for
multiplication, dc · dc = 1. By the substitution theorem, ab = ab · dc · dc . By the
definition of division, ab ÷ dc = ab · dc .

a÷c a
Theorem 22. For a, b, c, d ∈ Z and b, d 6= 0, b÷d
= b
÷ dc .
a÷c a
Proof. By definition of division, b÷d
= (a ÷ c) ÷ (b ÷ d) = c
÷ db .
34 CHAPTER 3. NUMBER SYSTEMS

3.10 Solving Rational Equations

We will now demonstrate how to solve equations involving rational numbers and
justifying each step using axioms, theorems and/or definitions.
Example 14. Find the following sum: 5 + 37 .
Proof.
Statement Reason
5 + 73 = 5 · 77 + 3
7
theorem: a
a
=1

5 · 77 + 3
7
= 5
1
· 77 + 3
7
theorem: a
1
=a
5
1
· 77 + 3
7
= 5·7
1·7
+ 3
7
definition of · on Q
5·7 3 35 3
1·7
+ 7
= 7
+ 7
definition of · on N
35 3 35+3
7
+ 7
= 7
definition of + on Q
35+3 38
7
= 7
definition of + on N

1 6 2


Example 15. Compute: 8 7
+ 7
.
Proof.
Statement Reason
1 6
( + 27 ) = 81 ( 6+2
8 7 7
) definition of + on Q
1 6+2 1 8
8
( 7 ) = 8
· 7
definition of + on N
1 8 1·8
8
· 7
= 8·7
definition of · on Q
1·8 8·1
8·7
= 8·7
commutative law
8·1 8 1
8·7
= 8
· 7
definition of · on Q

8 1 1 a
8
· 7
=1· 7
theorem: a
=1
1 1
1· 7
= identity law for ·
7
3.10. SOLVING RATIONAL EQUATIONS 35
36 CHAPTER 3. NUMBER SYSTEMS

1 6 2


Example 16. Compute: 8 7
+ 7
.

Proof.

Statement Reason
1 6
( + 27 ) =
8 7
1
8
6
· + ·
7
1
8
2
7
distributive law for · over +
1
8
· 67 + 18 · 2
7
= 1·6
8·7
+ 1·2
8·7
definition of · on Q
1·6 1·2 6 2
8·7
+ 8·7
= 56
+ 56
definition of · on N
6 2 6+2
56
+ 56
= 56
definition of + on Q
6+2 8
56
= 56
definition of + on N
8 8
56
= 8·7
definition of · on N
8 8·1
8·7
= 8·7
identity law for ·
8·1 8 1
8·7
= 8
· 7
definition of + on Q
8 1 1 a
8
· 7
=1· 7
theorem: a
=1
1 1
1· 7
= 7
identity law

3 −2
Example 17. Simplify the following: 4
· 3
.
3.10. SOLVING RATIONAL EQUATIONS 37

Statement Reason
3 −2
4
· 3 = 3·−2
4·3
definition of · on Q

3·−2 −2·3
4·3
= 4·3
commutative law
−2·3 −2 3
4·3
·1= 4
· 3
definition of · on Q
−2 3 −2 a
4
· 3
= 4
·1 theorem: a
=1
−2 −2
4
·1= 4
identity law
−2 −2
4
= 2·2
definition of · on N
−2 −2·1
2·2
= 2·2
identity law
−2·1 −2·1
2·2
= 2·2
Theorem 6
−2·1 −1·2
2·2
= 2·2
commutative law
−1·2 −1·2
2·2
= 2·2
Theorem 6
−1·2 −1 2
2·2
= 2
· definition of · on Q
2
−1 2 −1 a
2
· 2
= 2 ·1 theorem: a
=1
−1 −1
2
·1= 2
identity law

5 1 16
Example 18. Verify that 6
+ 2
= 12
.

Proof.
Statement Reason
5
6
+ 12 = (5·2+6·1)
6·2
theorem: a
b
+ c
d
= ad+bc
bd
(5·2+6·1) 10+6
6·2
= 12
definition of · on N
10+6 16
12
= 12
definition of + on N

1 7
Example 19. Solve 3
+r = 8
for r.

Proof.
38 CHAPTER 3. NUMBER SYSTEMS

Statement Reason
( 13 + r) + − 13 = 7
8
+ − 13 theorem: if a = b then a + c = b + c
(r + 13 ) + − 13 = 7
8
+ − 13 commutative law
r + ( 13 + − 13 ) = 7
8
+ − 13 associative law
7
r+0= 8
+ − 13 inverse law
7
r= 8
· 1 + − 31 · 1 identity law
7
= 8
· 33 + − 13 · 8
8
theorem: a
a
=1
7·3
= 8·3
+ − 1·8
3·8
definition of · on Q
21 8
= 24
+ − 24 definition of + on N
21 −8 −a
= 24
+ 24
theorem: − ab = b
21+−8
= 24
definition of + on Q
(13+8)+−8
= 24
definition of + on N
13+(8+−8)
= 24
associative law
13+0
= 24
inverse law
13
= 24
identity law

Example 20. Solve 5x + 2 = 17 for x.

3.10. SOLVING RATIONAL EQUATIONS 39

Statement Reason
5x + 2 = 15 + 2 definition of + on N
(5x + 2) − 2 = (15 + 2) − 2 theorem: if a = b then a − c = b − c
(5x + 2) + −2 = (15 + 2) + −2 theorem: a − b = a + −b
5x + (2 + −2) = 15 + (2 + −2) associative law for +
5x + 0 = 15 inverse law for +
5x = 15 identity law for +
1 1
5x · 5
= 15 · 5
theorem: if a = b then ac = bc
5x 1 15 1 a
1
· 5
= 1
· 5
theorem: = a
1
5x·1
1·5
= 15·1
1·5
definition of ·onQ
5x·1 15·1
5·1
= 5·1 commutative law for ·
5x 1
5
· 1 = 15 5
· 1
1
definition of · on Q
5x 15 a
5
·1= 5 ·1 theorem: a
=1
5x
5
= 155
identity law for ·
5·x
5·1
= 155
identity law for ·
5 x 15
5 1
· = 5
definition of · on Q
x 15 a
1· 1 = 5 theorem: a
=1
x 15
1
= 5
identity law for ·
15 a
x= 5 theorem: 1
=a
= 5·3
5
definition of · on N
5·3
= 5·1 identity law for ·
= 55 · 31 definition of · on Q
= 1 · 31 theorem: a
a
=1
= 13 identity law for ·
a
=3 theorem: 1
=a

Example 21. Solve 5x + 2 = 17 for x.

40 CHAPTER 3. NUMBER SYSTEMS

Statement Reason
5x + 2 = 15 + 2 definition of + on N
5x = 15 right-hand cancellation theorem
5x = 5 · 3 definition of ·
x = 5·35
definition of ÷
5·3
= 5·1 identity
= 55 · 13 definition of · on Q
= 1 · 13 theorem: a
a
=1
a
=1·3 theorem: 1
=a
=3 identity

3.11 Real Numbers

3.11.1 Limits
Before we discuss limits we first introduce the notion of a sequence. A sequence
is a set of numbers that can put into a one-to-one correspondence with the set of
natural numbers. For example, if an = n1 , then the sequence is 1, 12 , 13 , . . . . Note
that when n is large, an gets close to 0.
Definition 6. The limit of an as n goes to infinity is equal to a if and only if for
every  > 0, there exists an N such that for all n > N , |an − a| < .

3.11.2 Real Numbers

r is a real number if and only if r = lim qn where qn ∈ Q. That is, R ≡ r : r =
lim qn for some qn ⊂ Q.
Definition 7. An upper bound of a set A ⊂ R is an element b ∈ R such that
a ≤ b for all a ∈ A. If M ∈ R is a least upper bound of A then there exists a
b ∈ R such that for all x ∈ A, x ≤ b implies that M ≤ b.
The Completeness Axiom Any non-empty set A ⊂ R which has an upper bound
has a least upper bound.
3.11. REAL NUMBERS 41

Example 22. Consider the following set. A = {0.9, 0.99, 0.999, . . . } Determine
the least upper bound.

Solution 12. Note that for all a ∈ A, a ≤ 1. Therefore the set has an upper bound
of 1 and 1 is the least number such that a ≤ 1. Therefore the least upper bound of
A is 1.

The mathematical system will be as follows:

Mathematical System Arithmetic on Rational Numbers

The set Real numbers
Relationships Equality
Operations Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
Axioms We add the inverse law for ·
A system of logic As developed in chapter 2
From which follow theorems Will be discussed throughout the chapter

3.11.3 Limits
Before we discuss limits we first introduce the notion of a sequence. A sequence
is a set of numbers that can put into a one-to-one correspondence with the set of
natural numbers. For example, if an = n1 , then the sequence is 1, 12 , 13 , . . . . Note
that when n is large, an gets close to 0.

Definition 8. The limit of an as n goes to infinity is equal to a if and only if for

every  > 0, there exists an N such that for all n > N , |an − a| < .

3.11.4 Real Numbers

r is a real number if and only if r = lim qn where qn ∈ Q. That is, R ≡ r : r =
lim qn for some qn ⊂ Q.

We now list the field axioms for real numbers.

Chapter 4

INDUCTION AND EXPONENTS

4.1 Using Mathematical Induction to Prove State-

ments
Suppose you are given that the first human couple was mortal. If the child of a
mortal is also mortal then you know that the second generation of humans are
mortal. Since the second generation of humans is mortal and the child of a mortal
is mortal you can conclude that the third generation of humans is mortal. From
this line of inductive reasoning you can conclude that all humans are mortal.
In general, if you know that a set contains the number one and for each nat-
ural number k, if the set contains k then it contains k+1 then you can proceed as
follows.
Since 1 is in the set and 1 is a natural number then (with k=1), 1+1 or 2 is in
the set. Since 2 is in the set and 2 is a natural number then, (with k=2) 2+1 or 3 is
in the set. Since 3 is in the set...
Thus, we can conclude that every natural number is in the set. This is the
contention of The Principal of Mathematical Induction:
Let S be a non-empty set of real numbers such that 1 is in S and if k is in S
then k+1 is in S, then S is the set of natural numbers. Symbolically, if S ⊆ N such
that if 1 ∈ S and k ∈ S ⇒ k + 1 ∈ S then S = N.

We now introduce sigma notation.

n
.
ak ≡ a1 + a2 t + .. + an
X

k=1

42
4.1. USING MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION TO PROVE STATEMENTS 43

For example:

4
X
2·k =2·1+2·2+2·3+2·4
k=1
2 + 4 + 6 + 8 = 20.

7
X
= 32 + 42 + 52 + 62 + 72
k=4
9 + 16 + 25 + 36 + 49 = 135.
n
X n(n + 1)
Theorem 23. k=
k=1
2
n
X n(n + 1)
Proof. Let S = {n ∈ N : k= }. Since
k=1
2
1
X 1 · (1 + 1)
k=1= , 1 ∈ S. Assume m ∈ S; that is,
k=1
2
m
X m(m + 1)
= for some m ∈ N. Then,
k=1
2
m+1
X m
X m+1
X
= k+ k
k=1 k=1 k=m+1
m(m + 1)
= +m+1
2
m(m + 1) 2(m + 1)
= +
2 2
(m + 1)(m + 2)
=
2
(m + 1)[(m + 1) = 1]
=
2
44 CHAPTER 4. INDUCTION AND EXPONENTS

That is, m + 1 ∈ S. Therefore by the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

S = N.

4.2 Exponents
Exponents are defined inductively.

Definition 1. Definition of Exponents If a ∈ R and n ∈ N then a ≡ 1; a1 ≡ a;

and an+1 ≡ a · an .

From this we can determine a2 = a1+1 = a · a1 = a · a

where the equalities are justified by the definition of addition on N, and the
definitions above respectively.
Similarly, we can determine a3 = a2+1 = a · a2 = a · a · a
where the equalities are justified by the definition of addition on N, and the
definition of an and the preceding statement. respectively.
.
In this way it is easy to show that an = a · a · a..a.
To multiply expressions with exponents we have the following theorem:

Theorem 24. If a ∈ R and m, n ∈ N then an · am = am+n .

Proof. Fix m ∈ N and let S = {n ∈ N : an · am = am+n .

Since a1 · am = a · am = a · am = am+1 by the definition of exponents, 1 ∈ S.

Assume k ∈ S, that is, assume ak · am = am+k for some k ∈ N. Then,

Statement Reason
ak+1 · am = (a · ak ) · am definition of exponents
= a(ak · am ) associative law for ·
= a · am+k inductive hypothesis
= a(m+k)+1 definition of exponents
= am+(k+1) associative law for addition
4.2. EXPONENTS 45

Theorem 25. (am )n = am·n .

This proof is left as an exercise.

To calculate integer exponents, we have the following definition:

Definition 2. If a ∈ R and n ∈ N then a−n ≡ 1

an
.

am
Theorem 26. an
= am−n .

The theorem follows from the definition of division, the theorem that ap · aq =
aq+p , and the theorem from the preceding chapter.

To extract roots, we need the following:

√
Definition 3. If a, b ∈ R+ and n ∈ N then n a = b if and only if bn = a.
√
For example: 3 8 = 2 if and only if 23 = 8. We have shown that 23 = 2 · 2 · 2
earlier
√ in this chapter. So, 23 = 8 follows from the definition of multiplication on
3
N ∴ 8 = 2.

To compute exponents with rational numbers, we have the following defini-

tion:
p
Definition 4. Let r = q
with p, q ∈ Z − {0} be a rational number, then an =
p √
a q ≡ ( q a)p .
Chapter 5

POLYNOMIALS

5.1 Polynomials as a Mathematical System

In this chapter, we study the set of polynomials and examine it as a mathematical
system.

Mathematical System Arithmetic on Polynomials

The set Polynomials
Relationships Equality
Operations Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
Axioms (or rules) The real number system
A system of logic As developed in chapter 2
From which follow theorems Will be discussed throughout the chapter

First, a function can be defined as a rule that assigns a given input to a unique
output. The input and output are referred to as the independent and dependent
variables, respectively. In this system, we have the consider set of all polynomials
P which is defined as

P = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · an−1 xn−1 x + an xn , an ∈ R.

Using sigma notation, we can write this polynomial as

46
5.1. POLYNOMIALS AS A MATHEMATICAL SYSTEM 47

n
X
P = ak x k
k=0

Some examples of polynomials are:

5, 2x + 9, 7x3 + 3x2 − 1

Notice that each term in the expressions listed above are in the form of ai xi , where
ai is the coefficient and i is the exponent. The degree of a polynomial is the
greatest value of an exponent in the expression. For example, the polynomial
5x4 − 6x3 + 2x2 + x − 8 has degree 4 since the term with the greatest exponent is
5x4 .

The relation in this mathematical system is equality. That is,

n
X n
X
k
ak x = bk xk if and only if ak = bk
k=0 k=0

for k = 1, . . . , n. That is, for two polynomials to be equal, the coefficients per-
taining to terms of the same degree must be the same.

The operations on the set of polynomials are addition, subtraction, multipli-

cation and division. We can prove the following by using the corresponding laws
for real numbers.
48 CHAPTER 5. POLYNOMIALS

Addition Multiplication
Closure Laws
P + Q is a unique polynomial P · Q is a unique polynomial
Identity Laws
P +0=0+P =P P ·1=1·P =P
Inverse Laws
P + (−P ) = −P + P = 0
Associative Laws
(P + Q) + R = P + (Q + R) (P Q)R = P (QR)
Commutative Laws
P +Q=Q+P P Q = QP
Distributive Law for Multiplication over Addition
P (Q + R) = P Q + P R

5.2 Operations on the Set of Polynomials

In this section we give detail to how we define the operations on the set of poly-
nomials.

5.2.1 Addition
The sum of two polynomials is defined as follows:

n
X n
X n
X
k k
ak x + bk x = (ak + bk )xk
k=0 k=0 k=0
= (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + (a2 + b2 )x2 + ... + (an + bn )xn .

That is, we add the coefficients that have the same powers of variables. Note that
the sum of two polynomials is just another polynomial (Closure Law).
5.2. OPERATIONS ON THE SET OF POLYNOMIALS 49

5.2.2 Subtraction
We define subtraction on the set of polynomials as follows: Given two polynomi-
als, P1 and P2 , then P1 − P2 = P3 if and only if P1 = P3 + P2 .

This is similar to the definition of subtraction on the set of natural numbers.

Example 1. Let P1 = 3x2 + 2x + 5 and P2 = 3x2 + 6x + 8. Using the definition

of subtraction for the set of polynomials, find P3 .

Solution 1. Let P1 = 3x2 + 2x + 5 and P2 = 3x2 + 6x + 8. Using the above

definition,
(3x2 + 2x + 5) − (3x2 + 6x + 8) = P3
if and only if
3x2 + 2x + 5 = P3 + (3x2 + 6x + 8).
Thus, P3 = 0x2 − 4x − 3. Therefore, we can conclude that P1 − P2 = P3 because
P 1 = P3 + P2 .

5.2.3 Multiplication
In junior high school and even in high school, the only way a student was taught
to multiply polynomials was to FOIL (first, outside, inside, last). However, what
instructors have neglected to tell students was that FOIL fails if both polynomials
are not binomials (a polynomial with two terms). If one polynomial is a trinomial
and the other is a monomial, then it is impossible to even use FOIL. Thus, we now
illustrate a different way to approach these types of problems.

Let
P1 = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + ... + an xn
and
P2 = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + b3 x3 + ... + bn xn .
Consider the product

P1 P2 = (a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + ... + an xn )(b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + b3 x3 + ... + bn xn ).

50 CHAPTER 5. POLYNOMIALS

The way that we approach this problem is by asking ourselves a series of ques-
tions:

Question: How do I obtain the degree 0 term?

Answer: I obtain the degree 0 term by multiplying a0 and b0 : (a0 b0 )x0 or simply
a0 b 0 .
Question: How do I obtain the degree 1 term?
Answer: I obtain the degree 1 term by multiplying a0 and b0 and by multiplying
a1 and b0 : (a0 b1 + a1 b0 )x.
Question: How do I obtain the degree 2 term?
Answer: I obtain the degree 2 term by multiplying a0 and b2 , a1 and b1 , and a2
and b0 : (a0 b2 + a1 b1 + a2 b0 )x2 .
..
.
Question: How do I obtain the degree n term?
Answer: I obtain the degree n term by multiplying a0 and bn and an and b0 to-
gether: (a0 bn + an b0 )xn .

Combining all of the terms together, we have

a0 b0 +(a0 b1 +a1 b0 )x+(a0 b2 +a1 b1 +a2 b0 )x2 +(a0 b3 +a1 b2 +a2 b1 +a3 b0 )x3 +· · ·+(a0 bn +an b0 )xn .

2
X
Note that (a0 b2 + a1 b1 + a2 b0 )x = 2
ak b2−k x2
k=0
and
3
X
(a0 b3 + a1 b2 + a2 b1 + a3 b0 )x3 = ak b3−k x3 .
k=0
So, P1 P2 =
X0 1
X 2
X n
X
ak b0−k x0 + ak b1−k x1 + ak b2−k x2 + · · · + ak bn−k xn .
k=0 k=0 k=0 k=0
Or
n X
X i
P 1 P2 ≡ ak bn−k xi .
i=0 k=0

The above double sum is the definition of multiplication on the set of polynomi-
als.
5.2. OPERATIONS ON THE SET OF POLYNOMIALS 51

5.2.4 Division
We now define division on the set of polynomials.

Definition 1. Given two polynomials, P1 and P2 , then

P1
= P3 if and only if P1 = P3 P2 .
P2

Let’s consider an example using this definition.

This is also similar to the definition of division on the set of natural numbers.

When dealing with natural numbers, for example, 12 ÷ 6 = 2 if and only if

12 = 6 · 2. From definition of multiplication on N, we know that 6 · 2 = 12.
Because equality is symmetric, 12 = 12. Thus we can conclude that 12 ÷ 6 = 2
because 12 = 6 · 2 is a true statement.

Division on the set of polynomials works much in the same manner. Here is
an example.

Example 2. Let P1 = 4x2 + 6x + 2, P2 = x + 1, and P3 = 4x + 2. Using the

definition of division of polynomials, show that PP21 = P3 .

Solution 2. By definition,

4x2 + 6x + 2
= 4x + 2 if and only if 4x2 + 6x + 2 = (4x + 2)(x + 1).
x+1
We now have to use the steps outlined for multiplication on the set of polynomials
in order to see if this statement is true.
Question: How do I obtain a 0 degree term?
Answer: I get a 0 degree term by multiplying 2 and 1: (2)(1) = 2.
Question: How do I obtain a 1st degree term?
Answer: I get a 1st degree term by multiplying 4x and 1 (and) 2 and x :
((4x)(1) + (2)(x)).
Question: How do I get a 2nd degree term?
Answer: I get a 2nd degree term by multiplying 4x and x: (4x)(x).
52 CHAPTER 5. POLYNOMIALS

Therefore we can state that 4x2 + 6x + 2 = 4x2 + 6x + 2. Since this statement

is true, we can conclude that because 4x2 + 6x + 2 = (4x + 2)(x + 1), then
4x2 + 6x + 2
must equal 4x + 2.
x+1

Here is another example.

Example 3. Let P1 = 3x3 + 4x + 1, P2 = x + 1, and P3 = 3x2 + 3x + 1. Does

P1
P2
= P3 ?
3
Solution 3. By definition, definition, 3x x+1
+4x+1
= 3x2 + 4x + 2 if and only if
3x3 + 4x + 1 = (3x2 + 3x + 2)(x + 1). Thus, we have

(3x2 + 3x + 2)(x + 1) = 2 + (3x)(1) + (3x2 )(1) + (3x)(x) + (3x2 )(x)

= 2 + (3x) + (3x2 + 3x2 ) + 3x3
= 2 + 3x + 6x2 + 3x3
6= 3x3 + 4x + 1.
P1
Therefore, we can conclude that P2
= P3 is not a true statement.

5.2.5 Long Division

From our examples above, three polynomials were given and it was expected for
you to determine if the given statement was true using the definition of division.
Now, we will look at some other problems that only dividing one polynomial into
another. This algorithm is referred to as the long division. We will illustrate this
algorithm with an example.
That is, we seek to find polynomials q and r such that the degree of r is less
than the degree of b and
a r
a = qb + r or =q+ .
b b
In this algorithm a is the dividend, b is the divisor, q is the quotient, and r is the
remainder.
5.2. OPERATIONS ON THE SET OF POLYNOMIALS 53

Recall when you were in grade school and the teacher gave a problem such
60
as 10
.The first question that would be asked is: How many times does 10 go
into 60? Or how many groups of 10 will give you a total of 60? The answer
could obviously not be more than 60. In this case, our answer would be 6 because
6 · 10 = 60 by definition of multiplication on N. Also, 6 groups of 10 give 60.
Notice that in this case that since 10 goes into 60 evenly, the remainder r is 0. This
same approach applies to polynomials as well.

Or, an instructor would assign a problem such as 376 ÷ 3. In order to answer

the problem, we ask ourselves a series of questions:

1. What can we multiply 3 by to get 3?

Our answer is 1. We multiply our quotient, 1, and divisor, 3 together and get
3. We then bring 3 below our dividend and subtract. We then bring down
the next number from the quotient, which, in this case, is 7.

2. What can we multiply 3 by to get 7?

Our answer is 2. We multiply our quotient, 2, and divisor, 3 together and
get 6. We again bring 6 below our dividend and subtract. In this case, we
get 1. We now bring down the next number, 6.

3. What can we multiply 3 by to get 16?

Our answer is 5. We multiply our quotient, 5, and divisor, 3 together and
get 15. We bring down 15 below out dividend and subtract and get 1.

Because we have no other numbers in our dividend, our remainder is 1. There-

fore, we could conclude that our answer is 125 with a remainder of 1 which our
final answer would be in the form of

376

3
3 376
− 376
0

Example 4. Determine the quotient and remainder for (x2 + 6x + 14) ÷ (x + 2).

Solution 4. To solve this problem, we will have to follow these steps:

54 CHAPTER 5. POLYNOMIALS

1. What can we multiply x by to get x2 ?

Our answer is x. Thus, we would write
x

2
x+2 x + 6x + 14

2. We would then find the product of the quotient and the divisor and then
multiply this product by (−1).
x


x+2 x2 + 6x + 14
− x2 − 2x

3. We subtract the product of the quotient and the divisor from the dividend
and then bring down the next term.
x

2
x+2 x + 6x + 14
− x2 − 2x
4x + 14

4. What can we multiply x by to get 4x?

Our answer is 4. So we multiply 4 by the divisor and get
x +4


x+2 x2 + 6x + 14
− x2 − 2x
4x + 14

5. Again we find the product of the quotient and divisor and then multiply the
product by (−1).
x +4

2
x+2 x + 6x + 14
− x2 − 2x
4x + 14
− 4x − 8
5.2. OPERATIONS ON THE SET OF POLYNOMIALS 55

6. We subtract and obtain

x +4

2
x+2 x + 6x + 14
− x2 − 2x
4x + 14
− 4x − 8
6

At this point, we do not have any more terms in the dividend; consequently, we
are left with a remainder r = 6 and quotient q = x + 4. Thus, we have that

x2 + 6x + 14 = (x + 4)(x + 2) + 6.

We may verify our result by multiplying and combining like terms on the right
had side:

(x + 4)(x + 2) + 6 = x2 + 6x + 8 + 6 = x2 + 6x + 14

Thus, we have confirmed that our final solution is

6
x2 + 6x + 14) ÷ (x + 2) = (x + 4) + .
x+2
Chapter 6

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

6.1 Introduction
In this chapter we introduce functions.
Mathematical System
The set Real-valued functions
Relationship Equality
Operations Arithmetic, composition, inverse
Axioms (or rules) Closure, commutative, associative, identity, etc.
A system of logic As developed in chapter 2
From which follow theorems Will be developed throughout the chapter
First we consider the set of relations. In chapter two, we defined a Cartesian
product as the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) such that x ∈ A and y ∈ B where A
and B are given sets. A relation, denoted by R, is a subset of a Cartesian product.
Simply stated, a relation from a set A to a set B is a subset of their Cartesian
product. Symbolically,
R ⊆ A × B.

Example 1. If A = {c, d, 2} and B = {1, 5}, describe A × B.

Solution 1. Recall that the Cartesian product A × B is {(x, y)|x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B}.
Thus, we can write
A × B = {(c, 1), (c, 5), (d, 1), (d, 5), (2, 1), (2, 5)}

56
6.2. EQUIVALENCE RELATION 57

Therefore, we have the following:

A relation with 1 element is: {(c, 1)}.

A relation with 2 elements is: {(c, 1), (c, 5)}.
A relation with 3 elements is: {(c, 1), (c, 5), (d, 1)}.
A relation with 4 elements is: {(c, 1), (c, 5), (d, 1), (d, 5)}.
A relation with 5 elements is: {(c, 1), (c, 5), (d, 1), (d, 5), (2, 1)}.
Notice that a relation with 6 elements would be the entire Cartesian product.

6.2 Equivalence Relation

Definition 1. A relation, R, is an equivalence relation if and only if the following
hold:

1. R is reflexive: ∀ x ∈ A, (x, x) ∈ R.
2. R is symmetric: ∀ x, y ∈ A, (x, y) ∈ R =⇒ (y, x) ∈ R.
3. R is transitive: ∀ x, y, z ∈ A, (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R =⇒ (x, z) ∈ R.

6.3 Function
Recall that the cartesian product of two sets is defined as

A × B ≡ {(x, y)|x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B}.

A relationship is defined as any subset of a cartesian product. We begin with the

following definitions.

Definition 2. The domain of R [written as Dom(R)] is defined as the set of all

first components of the ordered pairs or

{x ∈ A| ∃ y ∈ B with (x, y) ∈ R}

The image or range of R [written Im(R)] is defined as the set of all second com-
ponents of the ordered pairs or

{y ∈ B| ∃ x ∈ A with (x, y) ∈ R}
58 CHAPTER 6. RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

A function is a special type of relation.

Definition 3. Let f ⊂ A × B. f is a function if and only if (x, y) ∈ f and
(x, y 0 ) ∈ f , then y = y 0 . The set A is called the domain of f and the set B is
called the range of f .

We will later show that the same operations performed on a set of relations
can also be performed on the set of functions. We usually write a function as f (x)
where f is the name of the function, x is the independent variable, and f (x) is the
dependent variable. We read f (x) is read ”f of x.”

Example 2. Let f (x) = x2 defined on the domain A = {−2, 0, 2, 5}. Write the
function as a set of ordered pairs.
Solution 2. Evaluating f (x) = x2 for each x ∈ A, we have that

f = {(−2, 4), (0, 0), (2, 4), (5, 25)}.

Example 3. Let f = {(c, 1), (c, 5), (d, 1), (d, 5), (2, 1), (2, 5)}. Is f a function?
Solution 3. Since (d, 1) ∈ f and (d, 5) ∈ f and 1 6= 5, f is not a function.

Example 4. Let f = {(c, 1), (d, 5), (2, 1), }. Is f a function?

Solution 4. Since each first component corresponds to a unique second compo-
nent, the above relation is a function.

Example 5. Let R1 = (x, y) ∈ R x R|y = sin x and R2 = (x, y) ∈ R x R|y = tan x.

Find the domain and range of R1 and R2 .
Solution 5. The domain of R1 is the set of all real numbers x for which sin x is
defined, that is Dom(R1 ) = R. The range of R1 is the set of all y values that
equal sin x for some real number x; thus, Im(R1 ) = {y ∈ R| − 1 ≤ y ≤ 1}.
The domain of R2 is the set of all real numbers x for which tan x is defined;
thus Dom(R2 ) = {x ∈ R|x 6= n( π2 , n = ±1, ±3, ...}. The range of R2 is the set
of all y values that equal tan x for some real number x; thus Im(R2 ) = R.
6.3. FUNCTION 59

Definition 4. Two sets are said to have one-to-one correspondence if every el-
ement of each set can be matched with one and only one element from the other
set.

Example 6. Are the following sets in one-to-one correspondence?

a. {1, 3, 9} and {will, tom, sally}

b. {career, money, car} and {bills, phone}

c. {roses, carnations, tulips, daisies} and {soil, pots, water, sunshine}

Solution 6. a. These two sets are in one-to-one correspondence because each el-
ement from one set can be matched with one and only one element from the
other set.

b. These two sets are not in one-to-one correspondence because the first set has
three elements and the second set has only two elements.

c. These two sets are in one-to-one correspondence because each element from
one set can be matched with one and only one element from the other set.

Example 7. Let A = {x, y, z} and B = {10, 15, 20}. Find A × B, determine the
domain and range and state whether A and B are one-to-one.

Solution 7. A×B = {(x, 10), (x, 15), (x, 20), (y, 10), (y, 15), (y, 20), (z, 10), (z, 15), (z, 20)}
Domain of A×B: {x, y, z} Range of A×B: {10, 15, 20} One-to-one: Yes because
there are exactly three elements in each set and every element can be matched with
one element from the other set.

Theorem 27. If R is a relation from the set A to the set B and that A and B are in
a one-to-one correspondence. Then

1. Dom(R−1 ) = Im(R)
60 CHAPTER 6. RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

2. Im(R−1 ) = Dom(R)

3. (R−1 )−1 = R

Proof. (1) We need to show that (i) Dom(R−1 ) ⊆ Im(R) and (ii) Im(R−1 ) ⊆
Dom(R).

(i) Let y ∈ Im(R). We must show that y ∈ Im(R1 ). By definition of

Dom(R−1) and the fact that R−1 is a relation from B to A, there exists
an x ∈ A such that (y, x) ∈ R−1 . Consequently,, (x, y) ∈ R, by definition
of R−1 . Therefore, y ∈ Im(R), by definition of range.

(ii) Let y ∈ Im(R). We must show that y ∈ Dom(R−1 ). By definition of

Im(R) and the fact that R is a relation from A to B, then there exists an
x ∈ A such that (x, y) ∈ R and therefore (y, x) ∈ R−1 . Consequently,
y ∈ Dom(R−1 ), by definition of domain and a relation.

Therefore Dom(R−1 ) = Im(R). The proofs of (2) and (3) are left as exercises.

6.4 Operations: Arithmetic, Composition and In-

verse
The operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, inverse and com-
position. An inverse relation R−1 is formed by interchanging the components in
each ordered pair of a relation R. That is, let R be a relation from the set A to the
set B. The inverse of R, written R−1 , is the relation from B to A defined by

R−1 = {(y, x) ∈ B, x ∈ A| (x, y) ∈ R}

The following are a few examples.

Example 8. Let C = {(3, −7), (4, 5), (2, 1)}. Find C −1 .

Solution 8. Since C = {(3, −7), (4, 5), (2, 1)}, by definition, C −1 = {(−7, 3), (5, 4), (1, 2)}.
6.4. OPERATIONS: ARITHMETIC, COMPOSITION AND INVERSE 61

Example 9. Let G = {(3, −7), (6, 9), (2, 1)}. Find G−1 .

Solution 9. Since G = {(3, −7), (6, 9), (2, 1)}, by definition, G−1 = {(−7, 3), (9, 6), (1, 2)}.

Example 10. Let L = {(x, y)| y = 13 x − 4}. Find L−1 .

Solution 10. Exercise for the reader.

If R ⊆ A × B and S ⊆ B × C, then their composition S ◦ R is the relation

S ◦ R = {(a, c) ∈ A × C|∃b ∈ B : (a, b) ∈ R ∧ (b, c) ∈ S} ⊆ B × C.

That is, S ◦ R ⊆ A × C is defined by the rule that says that (a, c) ∈ S ◦ R if and
only if there is an element b ∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ S.

6.4.1 Addition and Subtraction of Functions

Let f and g be subsets of A × B. The sum, f + g, is defined as follows. To add
two functions, we have to consider pairs of ordered pairs which have the same
first component. Therefore,

if (x, y) ∈ f and (x, z) ∈ g, then f + g = {(x, y + z)|x ∈ A ∧ y, z ∈ B}.

Similarly, the difference f − g can be found by evaluating f + (−g). This

leads us to the formal definition of the sum and difference of two functions.

Definition 5. If f and g are functions in A × B and D(f ) ∧ D(g) 6= ∅, then the

sum of functions f and g is denoted by f + g and is such that

f + g = {(x, y + z)|(x, y) ∈ f ∧ (x, z) ∈ g}.

Then (f + g)(x) can be written as f (x) + g(x).

Example 11. Let f = {(5, 6), (10, 15), (3, 0)} and g = {(5, 1), (10, 2), (1, 9)}.
Find the sum and difference of f and g.
62 CHAPTER 6. RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Solution 11. f + g = {(5, 6 + 1), (10, 15 + 2)} = {(5, 7), (10, 17)}. Note that
the domain of f is D(f ){3, 5, 10} and the domain of g is equal to D(g){1, 5, 10}
and thus Df ∧ Dg = {5, 10}. Therefore, the domain of f + g is given by

D(f + g) = {5, 10}.

Similarly, f − g = f + (−g) = {(5, 6 − 1), (10, 15 − 2)} = {(5, 5), (10, 13)}.
The domain of f − g is
D(f − g) = {5, 10}.

6.4.2 Composition of Functions

A composition of functions is a function that is composed of two or more func-
tions. The composition of two functions f and g is defined as follows.
Definition 6. Given two functions f and g, the composition is given by

f ◦ g = {(x, z)|(x, y) ∈ g ∧ (y, z) ∈ f }.

That is, f ◦ g is the set of all ordered pairs (x, z) such that (x, y) ∈ gand(y, z)inf .
The functions f and g have domains D(f ) and D(g) and the ranges are given by
R(g) and so Rg ⊆ Df . We can write the composition of f and g as (f ◦ g)(x)) =
f (g(x)).

Example 12. If f = {(x, y)|y = 2x + 3} and g = {(x, y)|y = x − 4} determine,

g ◦ f, f ◦ g, g ◦ g and g ◦ (f ◦ g).
Solution 12. g(f (x)) = g(2x + 3) = (2x + 3) − 4 = 2x − 1 →
g ◦ f = {(x, y) | y = 2x − 1}
f (g(x)) = f (x − 4) = 2(x − 4) + 3 = 2x − 5 → f ◦ g = {(x, y) | y = 2x − 5}
g(g(x)) = g(x − 4) = (x − 4) − 4 = x − 8 → g ◦ g = {(x, y) | y = x − 8}
g(f (g(x))) = g(f (x − 4)) = g(2x − 5) = (2x − 5) − 4 = 2x − 9 → g ◦ (f ◦ g) =
{(x, y) | y = 2x − 9}

Example 13. If f = {(x, y) | y = 3x + 7} and g = {(x, y) | y = x2 − 4},

determine the following:
6.5. INVERSE 63

(a) (f + g)(x)

(b) (f + g)(2)

(c) f (g(x))

(d) g(f (x))

Solution 13. (a) (F + G)(x) = (3x + 7) + (x2 − 4) = x2 + 3x + 3

(b) (f + g)(2) = (2)2 + 3(2) + 3 = 1

(c) f (g(x)) = f (x2 − 4) = 3(x2 − 4) + 7 = 3x2 − 12 + 7 = 3x2 − 5

(d) g(f (x)) = g(3x + 7) = 6(3x + 7)2 − 4 = 6(x2 + 14x + 49) − 4 = 6x2 +
84x + 294 − 4 = 6x2 + 84x + 290

6.5 Inverse
The inverse of a relation R is defined as

R−1 = {(y, x) ∈ B x A|(x, y) ∈ R}.

Consider the set f (x) = x2 on the set {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}. Note that the function is
given by
f = {(−2, 4), (−1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4)}.
Thus, f −1 = {(4, −2), (1, −1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (4, 2) which is not a function since
(4, −2), (4, 2) ∈ f −1 but −2 6= 2. Therefore, f −1 is not a function. Notice that f
is not a one-to-one function.
We now consider a special relation, a function.

Definition 7. Two functions f and g are inverse functions if (x, y) ∈ f if and

only if (y, x) ∈ g. Thus, we have that Rf = Dg , Df = Rg .

Note that f and g must both satisfy the definition of a function. and if
64 CHAPTER 6. RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Example 14. Determine whether f and g are inverse functions. f = {(x, y)|y =
4x − 8} and g = {(x, y)|y = 41 x + 2}

Solution 14. We need to check whether g(f (x)) = f (g(x)) = x.

g(f (x)) = g(4x − 8) = 14 (4x − 8) + 2 = x − 2 + 2 = x f (g(x)) = f ( 14 x + 2) =
4( 14 x + 2) − 8 = x + 8 − 8 = x.

Also, if we solve g(x) for x and then interchange x for y, we then have the
equation y = 4x − 8, which describes f .
Chapter 7

QUANTIFIERS AND INDUCTION

7.1 Introduction to Quantifiers

65