SG Chapters 1-2

I. Matter (anything with mass occupying space)

a. Pure substances: only a single type of atom or molecule
i. Elements: cannot be broken down chemically into anything simpler
ii. Compounds: a fixed, definite proportion of 2+ elements
b. Mixtures: variable proportions of 2+ atom or molecule types
i. Heterogeneous: compositions vary per region (mcs here, elemental atoms
there) [wet sand]
ii. Homogeneous: composition is the same throughout [tea with sugar]
c. Properties
i. Physical: displayed without changing composition [color]
1. Physical changes alter only the state/appearance
ii. Chemical: displayed only when a chemical change alters its composition
[acidity, flammability]
1. Chemical changes alter the composition—atoms rearrange and
transform it into a different substance
iii. Extensive: depends on sample quantity [mass]
iv. Intensive: remain unchanged regardless of sample size [boiling point]
II. Scientific Method
a. Hypothesis: tentative explanation of observations that can be supported/refuted
with further observation
b. Experiment: controlled procedures that generate the observations which can later
be examined to support/refute the hypothesis
i. Observation  hypothesis  experiment results inconsistent with
hypothesis  revise hypothesis  experiment  evidence supports
hypothesis  scientific theory
c. Scientific theory:
i. explains why nature does what it does
ii. often predict the behavior beyond the observations/laws they’re based off
iii. can be supported by experimental data, but never proven (those which are
consistent with experimental results remain accepted
 d. Scientific law: summarizes past observations and predict future ones; are like
hypotheses in that experiments can support/refute them
III. Notation + Digits
a. Do we need to know the SI prefixes
b. Accuracy: how close the measured value is to the actual value
c. Precision: how close a series of measurements are to one another/reproducibility
d. Significant Figures
i. The last digit is estimated on a measuring device—if 50mL increments,
what is the uncertainty (and for 25mL?) how to know this and at what
value do you estimate
ii. Rules
1. All nonzero terms are significant
2. Zeroes between two nonzero terms are significant
3. Any other zeroes preceding a nonzero term are insignificant
4. All zeroes at the end/after a decimal are significant
5. If a decimal not present, the zeroes at the end of the number are
insignificant
iii. Exact numbers: no uncertainty; countable/defined quantities/integral
numbers within an equation
iv. Addition/Subtraction
1. Answer has same number of decimal places as the least precise
measurement
2. 83.5 + 23.289301 = 106.789301 106.8
v. Multiplication/Division
1. Answer has the same number of sig figs as the measurement with
the fewest sig figs
2. 9.2 [2]* 6.80 [3]* 0.3744 [4] = 23.4225  23 [2]
vi. Rounding
1. Dropped number > 5 – round up
2. Dropped number < 5 – round down
 3. Dropped number = 5 – round up if predecessor is odd, unchanged
if even
a. 17.75 ~ 17.8, but 17.65 ~ 17.6
b. If “5” is followed by zeros, do above. If “5” followed by
nonzeroes, round up.
i. 17.6500 ~ 17.6
ii. 17.6513 ~ 17.7
4. Round off final answer only
IV. Units
a. Cancel out units with table, leaving the desired unit on the top
b. Celsius is based on water properties: 0 degrees—freezing, 100 degrees—boiling
c. Kelvin is the SI temperature unit and is based on gas properties: no negative
Kelvin [0K is absolute zero]
i. K = C + 273.15
V. Atoms
a. Image/move atoms via scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)
b. Laws
i. Law of Conservation of Mass: mass of the products in a reaction = mass of
reactants used
ii. Law of Definite Proportions: any given compound is composed in definite
proportions of elements (by mass)
iii. Law of Multiple Proportions: in compounds composed of the same
elements, for a given mass of one element, the ration of the masses of the
remaining elements is a whole number ratio
c. History
i. Dalton’s atomic theory
1. Atoms (very tiny, indivisible particles) make up matter
2. Each atoms of a certain element has the same mass, but this atomic
mass is unique from the mass of an atom of another element
3. Atoms combine to form molecules in small, whole-number ratios
4. Model: an indivisible sphere
 ii. Thomson: discovered the electron (negatively charged subatomic particle)
iii. Millikan’s Plum-Pudding Model
1. Atoms are always neutral; protons = electrons
2. Measured the mass of a single electron (tiny)
3. Model: negative electrons suspended in a positive sphere
iv. Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment—the nuclear model
1. the positive charge and the majority of the atom’s mass are located
in the small nucleus (p + n = majority of mass)
2. the atom is mostly empty space with lightweight, scattered
electrons
3. number of protons in nucleus = number of electrons
d. Isotopes/Ions/Particles
i. Atom number: the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus
1. ALL atoms of a given element have the same number of protons
2. Changing the number of protons changes the element
ii. Isotopes: different number of neutrons in an atom of an element
1. C-14 has a mass number of 14—6 protons, 8 neutrons
2. C-12 has a mass number of 12—6 protons, 6 neutrons
3. p [atomic number] + n = mass number
iii. Ions: a different number of electrons in an atom; has a net charge
1. Anions: negative, more electrons than protons
2. Cations: positive, more protons than electrons
3. Monatomic ions:
https://sites.google.com/site/chempendix/polyatomic-ions
4. Polyatomics:
iv. Atomic Mass: the weighted average of the masses of the naturally-
occurring isotopes
1. Average atomic mass is found below the elemental symbol
2. Avg . atomicmass=∑ (% abundance )( isotope mass)
a. 2 stable Carbon isotopes—C-12 (12.0000 amu, 98.93%)
and C-13 (13.0036 amu, 1.07%)
 b. = (12.0000*.9893) + (13.0036*.0107) = 12.0107 amu
c. If given average mass, set % of one = x and the other % =
(1-x)
d. If three isotopes and the percentage of one,
avg mass=mass a ( given ) +mass b ( x )+ mass c (1−given−x)
e. Periodic Table
i. Increasing atomic number/proton number
ii. Groups: vertical columns
1. Group 1 (minus Hydrogen): Alkali Metals
2. Group 2: Alkaline earth metals
3. Group 1B: coinage metals
4. Group 7A: Halogens
5. Group 8A: Noble gases
iii. Periods: rows across
iv. Other categories
1. H + right of stair step: Nonmetals
2. Stair step—B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, At: Metalloids
3. Remaining: metals
Chapter 3: Compounds and the Mole
I. Formulas
a. Formula unit is either:
i. An atom or molecule of an uncombined element
1. Single Ar atoms
ii. A molecule of a covalent (2+ nonmetals) compound
1. Individual particles made up of bonded atoms
2. Br2 diatomic molecules
3. 7 Diatomics: H, N, O, F, Cl, Br, I [no charge in elemental form]
iii. A set of ions in an ionic compound (nm-metal, anion-cation)
1. Extended 3D lattice structures
2. 1 NaCl lattice structure
b. Nomenclature
i. Binary Covalent Compounds (2 nonmetal elements)
1. Name elements in order (cation-anion) with appropriate prefix
a. Mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca
2. If only one atom of the first element, omit “mono”
3. If prefix ends in “a” or “o,” drop the vowel if naming oxygen
4. Change the second ending to “ide”
5. Ex: N2O6 – dinitrogen hexoxide, CO – carbon monoxide
6. Ex: phosphorous pentachloride—PCl5, xenon tetrachloride—XeF4
ii. Ionic Compounds (atoms with a net charge; m-nm)
1. Monotomic ions: single atoms that gain/lose electrons
a. CO32-: carbonate ion
b. CO3: carbon trioxide
2. Common stable ions
a. Group 1: +1 charge
b. Group 2: +2 charge
c. Group 17: -1 charge
d. Group 16: -2 charge
e. Group 15: -3 charge
f. Ag: +1 Zn: +2 Al: +3
3. Metal + nonmetal atom
a. Metal (cation) atom gives electrons to the nonmetal (anion)
atom (electrostatic interactions)
b. Compounds are overall electrically neutral
c. Polyatomics (crib sheet) have an overall net charge
i. if using NH4+, don’t need metal-nonmetal
4. Naming
a. Cation (first, positive)
i. Name (numeral, if applicable)
ii. Look at charge of anion to determine variable
charge
b. Anion
 i. Monotomic: root + ide
ii. Polyatomic: name
c. Ex: CaCl2 is calcium chloride
d. Ex: Fe2(SO4)2 is iron (III) sulfate
iii. Acids
1. When H2O added, these hydrogen-containing covalent compounds
dissolve into the anion and a hydrogen atom (old acid definition)
2. Ionizable hydrogen atoms: describes the H+ atoms released in the
water
3. Binary Acids
a. H+ + 1 other element (Group 6A [16] or 7A [17])
b. Ex: HCl, HF, H2S
i. HCl  H+ + Cl-
c. Monoprotic acid: releases 1 H+
d. Polyprotic acid: releases >1 H+
e. Naming
i. H + monotomic anion
ii. Hydro + [anion root] + ic +acid
iii. HCl is hydrochloric acid
iv. H2S is hydrosulfuric acid
4. Oxyacid/ternary acids
a. H+ + 2 other elements (oxyanions—polyatomics with
oxygen)
i. H2SO3  H+ + SO3-  H+ + H+ + SO32-
b. Naming
i. H + oxyanion
ii. DON’T say hydro-
iii. “ate”  “-ic acid”
iv. “ite”  “-ous acid”
v. HNO3 is nitric acid
II. Moles
a. Definitions
i. Mole
1. a unit telling how many
2. counts a large number of particles within a sample
3. = 6.022 x 1023 particles/mole (Avogadro’s number)
ii. Atomic Mass
1. Average mass of one atom (in amu)
2. ~ p + n (found on periodic table under element)
3. For conversion between number of moles of atoms and the atoms’
mass
4. Only one of the atom, not both (like for diatomics)
iii. Molar Mass/Molecular Weight
1. Mass of one mole of atoms, molecules, or formula units
2. Amount that can be weighed out
3. In g/mol
4. Moles  atomic mass  molar mass
5. Sum of the atomic masses of all of the atoms in a single compound
iv. Formula weight/formula mass
1. Usually refer to ionic compounds (? Don’t exist as indiv. Mcs)
b. Use
i. Avogadro’s number
1. How many iron atoms in .25 mol of FeS2?
S2∗1 mol Fe
∗6.022 x 10 23 Fe atoms
2. 1 mol Fe S2 23 ats
.25 mol Fe =1.5 x 10 Fe
1 mol Fe
ii. Molar Mass
1. How many molecules are in 300 g of C7H5N3O6?
a. Molar mass: 227.133 g/mol (7*12 + 5*1 + 3*15 + 6*16)
b. (300 g) / (227.133 g/mol) = 1.32 mol C7H5N3O6
c. 1.32 mol C7H5N3O6 * (6.022 x 1023 mcs) = 7.95 x 1023 mcs
C7H5N3O6
c. Percent Composition
 i. Tells what percentage mass of a compound is made up of a certain
component (ratio of the masses within the compound)
total mass of element
ii. % composition= ∗100
total mass of compound
g
1. The mass % of C in CH4 ¿
( 12.011
mol
1 ( 12.011 ) +4 ( 1.008 ))∗100=74.8 %

d. Formulas
i. Empirical Formulas
1. The lowest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound
2. Steps to determine formula
a. Pretend there’s 100g and convert the %s to grams.
b. Convert mass (grams) to moles of each element.
c. Divide all mole numbers by smallest mole #.
d. Scale so all numbers are whole.
e. Insert these numbers as subscripts.
3. Ex: Determine empirical formula of a compound with percent
composition 43.7% P and 56.3% O.
a. 43.7g P and 56.3g O
P∗1 mol P
i. 43.7 g =1.411 mol P
30.974 g P
O∗1 mol O
ii. 56.3 g =3.519 mol O
16.00 g O
1.411 3.519
b. =1 and =2.494
1.411 1.411
c. 1∗2=2 and 2.494∗2=5
d. P2O5 is the empirical formula [diphosphorous pentoxide]
ii. Molecular Formula
1. Gives the actual number of atoms of each element in one molecule
of a covalent compound; not the lowest ratio (not ionic because
those are formula units) (but would you find the formula for a
formula unit?)
2. Steps
 a. Find empirical formula.
b. Calculate the molar mass of the empirical formula (add
masses of all components)
c. Divide the molar mass of the molecular formula (given) by
molar mass of the empirical formula (found).
d. Multiply each subscript by the scaling factor.
3. Ex: CHO is the empirical formula (found by using percent
composition method) and the molecular weight of the compound is
116.28 g/mol.
a. CHO: 29.02 g/mol
116.28 g /mol
b. =4 so CHO  C4H4O4
29.02 g/mol
iii. Combustion Analysis
1. Determines empirical formulas of compounds containing C, H, O
2. Known mass of a sample reacts with O2 to produce H2O and CO2
a. CxHy + O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
b. ALL Carbon becomes CO2
c. ALL Hydrogen becomes H2O
3. Measure the masses of the products to determine the empirical
formula (CxHy)
4. Ex: compound of C and H makes 2.20g CO2 and 1.35g H2O. Find
the empirical formula
O 2∗1 mol C O 2
∗1 mol C
a. 44.01 g C O 2
2.20 g C =.050 mol C
1 mol C O 2
O∗1mol H 2 O
∗2 mol H
b. 18.01 g H 2 O
1.35 g H 2 =.150 mol H
1 mol H 2 O
.050 mol C .150 mol H
c. =1 and =3 so CH3
.050 .050
5. Find more examples of combustion where the reactant isn’t
just CH
Chapter 4: Chemical Reactions and Aqueous Solutions
I. Chemical Equations
a. Show the transition to new substances (reactants to products) and new phases (g,
s, l, aq)
b. A balanced chemical equation has the same # of atoms/element on either side
(nothing is gained or lost)
i. Unbalanced: SO3  SO2 + O2
c. Balancing
i. Balance the polyatomics first and as a unit (if they’re still together)
ii. Balance single-appearance elements
iii. Resolve odd/even issues by doubling predetermined coefficients
iv. Simplest form of coefficients and no fractions. Check #s.
II. Reactions
a. Synthesis
i. Simple reactants combined into complex products
ii. A + B  AB
b. Decomposition
i. Complex reactants broken down into simpler products
ii. AB  A + B [2H2O  2H2 + O2]
c. Single-replacement
i. Single elements swaps into a compound to make a new compound; reorder
ii. Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq)  ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
iii. Must be able to determine these products (and of 2x replacement)
d. Double-replacement
i. Cations of 2 ionic compounds (cation-anion, usually m-nm) swap to form
two new compounds
ii. Determine solubility!
iii. Ex: 2KI (aq) + Pb(NO3)2 (aq)  2KNO3 (aq) + PbI2 (aq)
iv. Acid-base reactions
1. Acid: compound usually beginning with H; loses H+ in water
2. Base: compound usually w/ OH at the end; hydroxide compounds
 3. Always produce salt (ionic cmpd) + water
4. Acid + Base  salt + H2O
e. Combustion
i. The rapid combination of a substance (only Cs and Hs) and O2 to produce
CO2 + H2O
ii. Ex: C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
f. Driving Forces (?)
i. Changes in heat or randomness cause reactions to occur spontaneously
ii. Formation of precipitate
iii. Formation of water (in acid-base reactions)
III. Aqueous Solutions
a. Definitions
i. Aq. Solutions are the result of something dissolved in water
ii. K+ (aq) is floating in water
iii. Solvent: the part of a solution there’s more of; here it’s H2O
iv. Solute: lesser amounts of this cmpd in the solution; dissolves in solvent
v. Insoluble: substance doesn’t dissolve to any measurable extent in this
solution (there is a spectrum, we’re just making a cutoff)
vi. Soluble: substance dissolves easily in the specified solution (here it’s H2O)
b. Solubility
i. Ionic compounds dissociate into their ions—the water is charged now and
can conduct electricity
1. NaCl  Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
2. Na+ + Cl- are hydrated ions (surrounded by H2O mcs)
ii. Electrolytes
1. Substances that dissolve in H2O and produce ions that can conduct
electricity
2. Mobility of ions: attracted to electrodes of opposite charge
3. Strong Electrolytes—ionic cmpds
a. Completely dissociate (100% ions) and conduct well
b. Strong Acids--list
 i. Ionize nearly 100%
ii. Form solutions that conduct electricity well
iii. Ex: HCl  H+ + Cl-
iv. HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, HClO4, HClO3, H2SO4
1. H2SO4 can lose two H+s
c. Strong Bases--list
i. Ionic cmpds with OH- (hydroxide ions)
ii. Form solutions that conduct well
iii. Dissociate nearly 100% in H2O
iv. LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2
1. These are the only soluble OH- cmpds
(coupled with a G1 element)
2. Structures are similar to NH3
3. Weak bases do not have OH-
d. Soluble Salts (ionic cmpds—cation and anion)
4. Weak electrolytes
a. Partially (<10%) dissociated (rest remains as cmpds)
b. Weak Acids
i. Ionize only partially in H2O (<10%)
ii. Form solutions that only conduct electricity slightly
iii. Ex: HF  H+ + F- with ~90% still as HF
c. Weak Bases
i. Don’t conduct well
ii. Molecular/covalent compounds (like NH3)
iii. Only slightly react with H2O to produce OH- (cmpd
takes the H+ from H2O)
5. Nonelectrolytes (nonelectrolytes vs weak?)
a. Do not dissociate into ions
b. Do not conduct electricity
c. Covalent/mcr cmpds (2 nms) [sugar, water]
 iii. A cmpd can dissolve without dissociating, but it cannot dissociate without
dissolving first
iv. Solubility Rules: list on crib sheet
c. Precipitates
i. A double-replacement reaction with a mixture of 2 aqueous solutions (2
soluble ionic cmpds)
ii. An insoluble cmpd product = a precipitate
iii. If no precipitate forms/no driving force = no reaction occurred
iv. Equations
1. Total equations/molecular equations
a. Emphasize the dissociation of reactants and products
b. All strong electrolytes are written in their dissociated forms
(weak electrolytes stay together so they don’t have a
dissociated form)
2. Net ionic: simplify the total equation by omitting spectator ions
which are in the same form/state on either side
3. Predict the products  balance  Determine the solubility
Chapter 5: Stoichiometry
I. Calculating
a. Write the reaction—come up with the products, determine solubility, and balance
b. Mole ratio: to determine how much of another product/reactant will be
needed/made
i. 2 mcs O2 for every 1 mc CH4 so 2 mol O2/1 mol CH4
ii.

Gram amt  moles/g  mol-to-mol whole-number ratio  g/moles

II. Limiting Quantities
a. Must be given the amounts of both reactants
b. Limiting reactant runs out first and determines the amount of product made
 c. Go to moles of product made—whichever one makes the smaller amount is the
limiting reactant
d. Finding excess
i. Use limiting reactant and the mole ratio to determine how many grams of
the other reactant was needed to theoretically go to completion
ii. Subtract used-up 2nd reactant from its original amount
III. Yield
a. Theoretical: the ideal amount of product that a reaction can make mathematically
i. Possible to calculate this amount with simply the periodic table
b. Actual: the amount produced from the reaction in the lab
i. Must be given this amount (or given % yield and actual)
c. Percent yield: the ratio of actual yield to theoretical yield
actual
i. % yield= ∗100
theoretical
ii. Percent error: 100* (measured −exact )/exact