Chapter 5

I. Molarity
a. M = Moles of solute/Liter of solution
b. Aqueous solution: water is the solvent (greater amount of it; vs solute)
c. Dilution
i. More concentration = more solute dissolved per unit of solvent
ii. For dilution, begin with more concentrated solution and decrease the
concentration by adding solvent (amount of solute constant)
1. M1V1 = M2V2 (units constant!)
iii. Ex: 1.25M NaCl diluted from 25.0mL to 100.mL. Resulting conc.?
1. MV=MV – (1.25M)(25.0mL) = (100.mL)M – M = .313M
2. Increase the volume = decreased molarity
d. Stoichiometry
i. The reactants and products may be given as molarities and must calculate
the number of moles (given one solution and asked about another)
1. Ex: 27.25mL of 1.00M NaOH + 25.00 mL H3PO4. Initial conc of
acid?
a. 3NaOH + H3PO4  Na3PO4 +3H2O
b. Begin with the one that isn’t the conversion factor (Volume
here (3 of 4 variables given, use the variable with both
known)
c.

mL∗1 L
∗1 mol NaOH
1000mL
∗mol H 3 PO 4
1 L NaOH H 3 PO 4
27.25 =.009 mol =.363 M H 3
3 mol NaOH .02500 L
ii. Ion Molarity
1. Number of moles of an ion / L of solution
2. Look at subscripts to see ratio (3 mol Cl- in AlCl3
iii. Density
1. g/mL
 2. use to get from volume to mol/g to mol-to-mol
II. Titration (on test? Technically yes) (use stochiometry)
a. Determines number of moles of a substance dissolved in an aqueous solution
b. Know the concentration and volume of 1 (standard solution or titrant) and volume
of the other (analyte), find concentration of analyte
c. Reaction is at equivalence point when molanalyte = moltitrant
d. Ex: conc of HCl if 25mL of it with 2M NaOH (and determine the eq.)
i. Acid-base reaction: determine products
ii.

added∗1 L
∗2 mol NaOH
1000 mL
∗mol HCl
1 L NaOH HCl
37.25 mL NaOH =.07450 mol =2.900 M HCl
mol NaOH .025 L
Chapter 6: Thermochemistry
I. Energy (in J) will conversions be given? No—write conversions
a. Energy: capacity to do work or transfer heat
b. Mechanical energy: energy from motion or position
1 2
i. Kinetic: energy of motion, KE= m v
2
ii. Potential: energy of position
1. Chemical: associated with position/composition of e-
c. Conversions
i. 1 Joule = 1 kg*m2/s2
ii. 1 L*atm = 101.325 J
iii. 1 calorie = 4.184 J
iv. 1 Calorie = 1000 calories = 4184 J
d. Systems
i. Parts
1. System: part of universe under consideration
2. Surroundings: everything but the system (usually the container too)
3. Universe = surroundings + system
 ii. Types
1. Open: matter and energy are transferable between the system and
surroundings
2. Closed: only energy is transferable the system and surroundings
(like heating the table but no gas escapes)
3. Isolated: neither matter nor energy enter/exit system
iii. Law of Conservation of Energy: matter can’t be created/destroyed, just
transformed
e. Laws
i. First Law
1. Total energy of the universe is constant (only ever transformed; q
to w to q)
ii. Internal energy (∆ U =¿ q + w) table 6.2 showing all signs/meanings
1. KE + PE = heat + work = compose the energies of the system
2. If ∆ U positive, internal energy increased (and vice versa)
a. ∆ U system =−∆ U surroundings
3. ∆ U =∆ U final−∆ U initial
4. “system contracts” = surroundings are doing work (+w)
5. ∆ U is a state function (so is enthalpy)
a. Value depends only on the (final) state of the system, not
how it arrived there
b. Path function: affected by how you arrive (heat and work
are path functions because the sign shows direction)
II. Work
a. Work: the result of a force acting over a distance (“w”)
i. Work done on the system/by the surroundings: w is positive
ii. Work is done by the system/on the surroundings: w is negative
b. Heat: 2nd way that energy is transferred; flow of energy as the result of differences
in temperature (“q”)
i. Heat is added to the system: q is positive
ii. Heat is released by the system: q is negative
 c. Pressure-volume work: w=−P∗∆ V in L*atm (may need to convert to J) where
pressure is constant
III. Enthalpy (heat exchange)
a. ∆ H =∆ U + P ∆ V
i. If pressure is constant, then ∆ U =q constant pressure + w and
w=−P ∆ V =−0∗V =0 so ∆ H =q constant pressure=H f −H i
ii. So a change in enthalpy is the flow of heat at constant pressure
iii. What happens if pressure not constant?—either pressure is constant
(so ∆ H =q constant pressure=H f −H i ) or volume is constant What’s the point
of the first equation?
b. System
i. Exothermic: system releases heat (∆ H is negative)
ii. Endothermic: system absorbs heat (∆ H is positive)
c. q=mc ∆T
i. q = heat in Joules
ii. m = mass in grams
iii. ∆ T = the change in temperature (Celsius or Kelvin)
iv. c=¿specific heat of the material
1. Specific heat: the number of calories to raise 1 g of the specific
substance by 1C
2. Molar heat capacity: the number of calories to raise 1 mol by 1C
(in J/mol*K)
3. H2O (g): 2.042 J/gC
4. H2O (l): 4.184 J/gC
5. H2O (s): 2.089 J/gC
v. qcal = -qrxn; qsurroundings = -qsystem
IV. Calorimetry
a. Shows heat transfer by measuring temperature changes in substances
b. Constant pressure
i. q p=∆ H
 ii. Surroundings: the solution in which the reaction takes place (includes the
qcal and qsolution
iii. qsurroundings = -qsystem or -qreaction
c. constant volume
i. in a bomb calorimeter (isolated)
ii. ∆ U rxn=q+ w=q v =q rxn because ∆ V =0∧w=−P∗0=0
iii. qcal is the heat absorbed by the calorimeter
iv. combined heat capacity of the calorimeter heat capacity and the water
inside it = ccal
1. qsolution+calorimeter = ccal*T = -qcv
a. or qcv = qrxn = -ccal*T
2. once ccal is known, determine qcv (= qrxn)
3. need some examples/practice
V. Thermochemical equations
a. Shows chemical equation and its enthalpy change/the enthalpy of reaction (H)
b. Direction
i. Separated from chemical equation
1. Negative: exothermic, reaction releases heat
2. Positive: endothermic, reaction absorbs heat from its surroundings
ii. Within equation
1. With products: exothermic, “heat is produced/given off”
2. With reactants: endothermic, “heat is inserted”
c. Enthalpies of reaction are shown per mole of reaction (must do stoichiometry to
find enthalpy change for the situation)
d. Hess’s Law
i. Because enthalpy is a state function, the enthalpy change for any process
is independent of how it is carried out (so multiple equations can be used
to form one equation)
ii. If the reaction is reversed, the H is negated
iii. Sum of the reaction enthalpies
iv. Standard enthalpies of formation
 1. Enthalpy change for reaction that makes only one mole and is
formed from its elements
a. Hfo of any element in its most stable form = 0
b. ∆ H of =( Σ product s' ∆ H of ) −(Σ reactant s' ∆ H of )

c. ∆ H of =( Σ m∗product s ' ∆ H of ) −n (Σ n∗reactant s ' ∆ H of )

2. Can have fractional coefficients because making only one mole of
product
3. Need an example where you make fractional coefficients

Chapter 7: Gases

I. Vgas = Vcontainer
II. Standards
a. 1 atm = 760mm Hg = 760 torr =101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa
b. Pressure = force exerted/unit area (higher density gas = higher pressure)
c. FOR A GAS: 1 atm (P) and 273.15K (or O’C) (T)
i. C + 273.15 = K
III. Laws (always in Kelvin!!!)
a. Boyle’s Law: P1 V 1=P2 V 2 [constant temp; inversely proportional]
V1 V2
b. Charles’s Law: = [constant pressure; TEMP IN K; proportional]
T 1 T2
P1V 1 P2V 2
c. Combined gas law: = [constant moles of gas; TEMP IN K]
T1 T2
V1 V2
d. Avogadro’s Law: = [constant P and T; proportional]
n1 n2
e. Ideal Gas Law: PV =nRT
L∗atm
i. R=0.08206
mol∗K
f. Dalton’s Law: Ptotal =Σ P1+ P 2+ …+ Pn
i. Can use PV=nRT for both individual gases and the total gas
mol
ii. Mole fraction: =Χ (X1+X2+… = 1)
total moles
 1. Pi= X i∗Ptotal
2. Ex: 15.5 mol of mixed gas. 4.50 mol O2 with Pi = 3.10 atm. Ptotal?
4.50 mol O 2
a. =.029=X
15.5 mol total
b. 3.10 atm=.029∗Ptotalso Ptotal=10.7=11 atm
IV. Stoichiometry
a. Use PV=nRT to find moles of gas present
b. Ex: 2.00g Al + 1.5L O2 at 20C and 2.25 atm. Mass of alumimum oxide produced?
i. 4Al + 3O2  2 Al2O3
PV ( 2.25 atm )( 1.5 L )
ii. n= = =.140 mol O2
RT ( .08206 )( 20+ 273.15 )
2∗2 mol Al 2 O3
∗101.96 g Al 2 O3
iii. 3 mol O2
.140 mol O =9.54 g Al 2 O 3
mol Al 2 O3
Al∗mol Al
∗2 mol Al 2O 3
26.98 g Al
iv. ∗101.96 g Al 2O 3
4 mol Al
2.00 g =3.78 g Al 2 O 3
1 mol Al 2 O3
v. Al is the limiting reactant, 3.78g Al2O3 produced
V. Kinetic Molecular Theory
a. Postulates
i. Gas molecules are in constant motion
ii. Molecular volume insignificant to volume occupied by gas/of the
container
iii. Molecular forces are negligible except when molecules collide
1. Force of collisions of particle-container is the source of pressure
iv. But molecular collisions are perfectly elastic (no energy lost)
v. Increase in temp = increase in Avg KE of gas mcs
b. Partial pressures
i. KME doesn’t care about the identity of the gas (so if moles of Br2 =
number of Ar moles, same partial pressure)
ii. Partial pressure of a gas related to number of moles/gas
c. Particle Movement
 i. Same temp = same avg KE for all particles of same mass (heavier =

1 2
slower) ( KE= m v )
2
ii. Higher temp = greater speed
iii. Increase in temperature = increased range of average speeds
iv. Root mean square speed (vrms)
1. Velocity of particles possessing the average KE in a gas sample
with a known molar mass
3 RT
2. v rms=
√ M
a. vrms = velocity (m/s)
b. T = temp (K)
c. M = molar mass (kg/mol)
d. R = 8.314 J/(mol*K)
3. Mean free path: avg distance a molecule travels between collisions
(increased pressure = decreased distance between collisions)
v. Diffusion
1. Response to concentration gradient
2. Increased mass = decreased diffusion rate
vi. Effusion
1. From container into a vacuum via a small hole
2. Increased mass = decreased effusion
3. Graham’s Law of Effusion
r1 M2
a.
r2
=
√M1
i. r: effusion rates (m/s)
ii. M: molar masses (g/mol)
b. Ex: H2 effuses 5.2x faster than the same volume of another
gas. What is the molecular weight of the second gas?
 i.

r1 M 2 5.2 Mgas Mgas

r2
=
√M1
→
1
=
√
MH 2
→ 5.2=
2.02√→ Mgas=55 g/mol

VI. Ideal vs. Real

a. Ideal
i. Gas particle volume is negligible
ii. No interactions between gas particles
b. Real
i. With high pressures and low temperatures, not “ideal”
ii. Temperature effect
1. (Higher temps: particles move too fast for attractions to matter)
2. Lower temps: lower KE = less energetic collisions = attractions
affect pressure (decreased pressure on container)
c. Van der Waals Eq.
2
n
i. [ ( )]
P+ a
V
∗( V −nb )=nRT

ii. n = number of gas particles

iii. a = constant specific to each gas
iv. b = constant specific to each gas
v. used for what? It’s PV=nRT for real gases

Chapter 8: Quantum Model of the Atom

I. Light
a. Definitions
i. Visible light: what humans see
ii. Electromagnetic spectrum: full range of light energies
1. Highest frequency to lowest (shortest wavelengths to longest):
gamma, x-rays, UV, visible, infrared, microwaves, radio waves
b. Characteristics
i. Light wave consists of the electric and magnetic fields
ii. Wavelength (): distance b/w repetitions (in nm or m)
 1. 1 nm = 10-9 m
iii. Amplitude: wave height, shows intensity
iv. Frequency (): # of waves passing a set point in a second (in sec-1 or Hz)
1. Visible light: 750nm (red—low energy, low frequency) to 400nm
(violet—high energy, high frequency)
v. Speed of light (c): 3.00 x 108 m/s
1. c=¿
a. Longer  = lower  (radio waves, microwaves, infrared)
b. Shorter  = higher  (gamma, x-rays, UV)
c. Make sure  is in meters
c. Electromagnetic spectrum
i. Absorption
1. Atom absorbs light energy from its surroundings; gains the energy
2. Atom gains energy
3. Absorption spectrum
a. Unique to every element (each absorb light of specific
wavelengths )
ii. Emission
1. Atoms has excess energy
2. Atom gives off excess energy by emitting light
iii. Wave-particle duality
1. Wave nature validated by diffraction
2. Photoelectric effect
a. To validate particle nature of light
b. When light strikes metal, if  is high enough, the e- in the
metal will eject
3. Sometimes light is better described as a wave and sometimes better
as a particle
iv. Photons
1. Collections of packets of energy (6.022 x 1023 photons/mol)
 hc
2. E photon= =h
❑
a. h=6.626 x 10−34 J∗s
b. wavelength in m, frequency in s-1 or Hz, energy in J
c. c = speed of light = 3.00 x 108 m/s
3. Energy of a mole of photons: multiply above by Avogadro’s
number
II. Bohr Model
a. Postulates
i. When gas atoms of a specific element are heated, emit specific of light
ii. Electrons found at specific distances from the nucleus (orbits)
iii. Electrons travel in circular paths in discrete energy levels (almost true—s
subshell is spherical)
iv. Each element has a unique set of energy levels (almost—have a unique e-
configuration)
b. States
i. Ground state: lowest energy level (electrons are as close to the nucleus as
possible)
ii. Excited state
1. when e- absorb energy and move to higher levels (creates an
absorption spectrum
2. When the e- emit energy, they decrease in energy levels (light
emitted forms the emission spectrum)
3. Wavelength needed to cause an e- to move up in energy levels
(where it will then emit light and return to ground state)
a. Wavelength of light absorbed = wavelength of light emitted
c. Rydberg equation
i. Predicts wavelengths of hydrogen emission lines
1 1 1
7 −1
(
ii. λ =( 1.097 x 10 m ) 2 − 2
n 1 n2 )
1. Wavelength in meters and n1 and n2 are integers (n2 > n1)
 1 1
iii. E=( 2.179 x 10
−18
J)
( −
n21 n22 )
d. Energy Levels
i. Biggest energy difference between first and second levels (distance
between levels increasingly smaller)
ii. e- removed from atom has an energy level of ∞ and E = 0 J
iii. energy emitted = energy absorbed
iv. lower energy levels have less potential energy than an e- in its highest
energy level
III. Electrons
a. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
i. Position of e- related to particle nature
ii. Velocity of e- related to wave nature
iii. Can’t know both velocity and position of an electron simultaneously
b. Schrodinger wave equation
i. Shows 3D distribution map for probable position of an e- in an atom
(increased probability in certain regions—the orbital)
ii. Basis of quantum mechanical model
c. Orbitals: max 2 e- per orbital; most likely place around nucleus to find e-
i. Subshells: group of orbitals (have the same energy)
1. S subshell: 1 orbital, 2 e- max; spherical
2. P subshell: 3 orbitals, 6 e- max; 90 from each other, dumbbells
3. D subshell: 5 orbitals, 10 e- max; 4-lobed and dumbbell + donut
4. F subshell: 7 orbitals, 14 e- max
5. Orbitals within a subshell are degenerate (have the same energy)
but 2s vs 2p is non-degenerate; 2px and 2pz are degenerate
ii. Energy level (n): group of subshells
1. Lower value of n = closer to nucleus, fewer subshells and e- held
2. Size of 3s greater than size of 1s
iii. Probability
1. S is spherical: equal probability of finding e- anywhere
 2. Nodes: zero chance of finding e- (both spherical nodes and in
center of dumbbells)
d. Diagrams
i. e- represented by arrows up/down
ii. Aufbau Principle: process of filling subshells from lowest energy upwards
(always begin with 1s before 2s)
iii. Hund’s Rule: within a subshell, e- are placed in their own orbital before
they are paired
iv. Electron configuration: shows orbitals that the e- occupy for a certain
atom
1. Ground state configuration: lowest energy orbitals filled
2. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6
a. Electrons occupy 4s2 before they occupy 3d10, but 3d10 is
lower energy. So because 4s has higher energy, electrons
removed from it first.
3. Noble Gas Configuration: Sc: [Ar] 4s2 3d1
4. Excited state configuration: anything but the ground state config.
e. Electron types
i. Core electrons
1. Inner e-
2. Lie closer to the nucleus
3. Represented by the previous noble gas
4. Completed orbital becomes part of the core electrons
ii. Valence electrons
1. Shown in the noble gas shorthand
2. If stop in the d orbital, these e- are considered valence electrons
a. If pass through, considered core e-
iii. Cations
1. Form when atom loses electrons (become positive because more
photons than electrons)
2. Ca: [Ar] 4s2 Ca2+: [Ar]
 3. Atoms still lose the highest energy e- first
a. Fe: [Ar] 4s2 3d6 Fe2+: [Ar] 3d6 Fe3+: [Ar] 3d5
iv. Anions
1. When an atom gains electrons
2. Just add to the existing configuration
IV. Quantum Numbers
a. Solutions to Schrodinger’s equation
i. Principle quantum number (“n”)
1. n = energy level
2. Increased n = greater distance from nucleus (larger, higher energy)
3. If n = infinity, e- has left the atom
ii. Angular momentum quantum number (“l”)
1. Identifies the subshell
2. L values range from 0 to (n-1)
3. L = 0 = s subshell; 1 = p; 2 = d; 3 = f [table]
iii. Magnetic quantum number (“ml”)
1. Designates orbital within the subshell (shows electron orientation
—which axis)
2. Any value from -L to L (include table)
a. If L = 0, ml = 0 (1 orbital possible in the s subshell)
b. If L = 1, ml = -1,0,1 (3 orbitals possible in the p subshell)
c. If L = 2, ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 (5 orbitals possible in the d
subshell)
d. If L = 3, ml = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 (7 orbitals possible in the
f subshell)
iv. Spin Quantum number (ms)
1. Either +1/2 or –1/2
2. Shown with up/down arrows in orbital diagram
b. Ex: max number of orbitals there can be in a shell with a principle quantum
number of 4?
i. Principle quantum number = n = 4
 ii. If n=4, then l can = 0, 1, 2, 3 (s, p, d, f)
iii. S = 1, p = 3, d = 5, f = 7 so 1+3+5+7 =16 possible orbitals
iv. Number of orbitals in an energy level= n2 (so if n = 4, 16 possible orbitals)
v. Each orbital holds a max of 2 electrons! (here would be 32 e-)
1. Max Electrons held = max possible orbitals * 2
c. Ex: what type of orbital is described by the set of quantum numbers:
i. n = 3, l = 2, ml = -2
1. If n = 3, then l = 0, 1, 2 (s, p, d) and since l = 2 then in the d
orbital. (any one of the 5 3d orbitals)
ii. n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0
1. if n = 1, then l = 0 (s) so 1s orbital
d. Ex: What’s the max number of electrons in the l = 3 subshell of an atom?
i. If l = 3, must be in the f subshell which has 14 electrons