2) PDTRGP OTT Lae @ aye fa. fo, evan»? CREE Le- BAW we, ° fae %- erweele Contents Preface v 1 | Introduction to Signals and Systems co 1 M1 Signals and Systems 1 £2 Classification of Signals 9 vGF Classification of Systems 13 1.4 Systems Modelling 20 1.5 Some Ideal Signals 28 1.6 Energy and Power Signals 36 1.7 Frequency Response 38 1.8 Discretisation of Continuous-Time Signals 42 1.9 Topological Models 46 Additional Examples 49 Problems 66 [2] Analysis of Continuous-Time Systems 11 Time Domain and Frequency Domain - 2.1 Introduction 7/ 2.2. Properties of Elementary Signals 72 2.3 Linear Convolution Integral 78 2.4 Response of Continuous-Time Systems 85 vQ%S_Fourier Series and Its Properties 99 6 Fourier Transform 110 o2T Properties of Fourier Transform 116JL Introduction to Signals and Systems 1.1| SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS The term system is used in all areas of science and technology and it has also become common place in economics, social sciences, humanities and many other areas of study. This book will deal only with the physical systems which are well defined and governed by immutable laws of nature. Out of several definitions of the term system, we reproduce here the one that suits our needs the most. “A system is a collection of components wherein individual components are constrained by the connecting inter-relationships such that the system as a whole fulfills some specific functions in response to varying demands”. Varying demand is a function of one or more parameters and is called the signal. This signal carries the demand information in various physical forms like a current, voltage, mechanical movement, etc. The response of a system to the input signal is the output signal. The system indeed is then a set of cause-effect relationships. This is represented as a block diagram in Fig. 1.1(a). It is evident from this diagram that there is another input signal to the system which in fact is an unwanted signal called disturbance. This signal could also arise internally. In general a system may have several inputs and outputs as shown in Fig. 1.1(b). Here thick arrow represefits multiple input/output signals. Not only the response signal but even the signals inside the system structure may also be of interest to the designer/user of the system. Further it is usuallyV2 signals and Systems Disturbance Disturbance ft signals signal Output Input Output —— =>) system -— wien Eignals signal signals! (a) (b) Fig. 1.1 convenient and possible to divide the system into several subsystems and these are linked together by cause-effect relationships. The environment in which the system is embedded may also produce interactive effects on the system performance. For example, in a closed cooling/heating system, the environ- ment would produce a disturbance effect (signal) on the system and similarly an electronic circuit would be affected by environmental temperature. The system (subsystem) boundary and cause-effect relation can be modelled mathematically or algorithmically but it is not possible in case of nonphysical systems such as management systems. In such systems the cause-effect signals are not unidirectional and there may be several ill-defined interactions between subsystems constituting the system and also the environment may affect it in several ways and so sufficient clarity may not emerge. Model of a physical system, however well-defined, is subject to the approximations made in applying the physical laws to the system components (elements). Therefore, the model always has to be validated for known data or by testing its prototype. This would be all the more necessary for the models of nonphysical systems. In analysis or design of a system there is a need to examine the system response to all possible inputs. As this is not a feasible task, we need to select some typical ideal forms of inputs. Both dynamic and steady-state response of the system would be of interest to the designer and analyst. There are situations wherein we need to set up a system to suitably modify the signal, build missing/hazy information or reject some unwanted frequencies in the system. So far we have introduced some general ideas about signals and systems. Now we will support these ideas with the following examples. Example 1.1 Measurement of acceleration of a moving vehicle. Let us consider a system for the measurement of acceleration of a moving vehicle shown in Fig. 1.2. Let © a(t) = vehicle acceleration © K, M = spring constant and mass (to which pointer is attached) © x = displacement of the pointer from its equilibrium position- Introduction to Signals and Systems 3 tT QUT EL Casing (negligible mass) ae a(t) Fig. 1.2 ‘The force on the mass caused by input acceleration signal is balanced by the spring force, i.e. M a(t) = Kx (i) or x() = (MIK)a(s) di) It may be noted that the mass of the casing has been considered negligible and therefore does not absorb any force. In this idealized system, the system responds instantaneously and output x(#) is a replica of a(t) as per Eq. (ii) and is therefore, a measure of acceleration. It may be noted that x will have an upper limit because of the limited capacity of spring war. stretching or compression. Example 1.2 Measurement of velocity of a moving vehicle by means of the accelerometer defined in Example 1.1 Velocity being an integral of acceleration, can be measured by integrating x. The output signal of the accelerometer is converted into an electrical signal by means of a linear potentiometer (centre tapped) as shown in Fig. 1.3. put .v, is then proportional to x and is fed to an The potentiometer out in Fig. 1.3). The output signal (which is in voltage OPAMP integrator (as i form) is 7 volt) = foo dt The accelerometer and the OPAMP circuit taken together form a system whose purpose is to process the input acceleration (mechanical) signal to an output voltage signal, which is a measure of velocity from 1 = 0 onwards. ‘This system has a limitation as v, in an OPAMP cannot be allowed to exceed a specified value. To keep the integrator in the linear region, the input signal has to be suitably scaled down.- 4 Signials and Systems t=0 (close/open) Linear = potentiometer a 7 g 2. 5 - Fig. 1.3 Instead of using the analog method, we could carry out the integration of a(t) numerically from its value recorded from the accelerometer. The graphs of a(t), a(nT) are shown in Fig. 1.4. Here a(nT) is the signal value at t= nT, T being the sampling period. Velocity is the area underneath the curve. The graph between adjacent values under which the area is shaded is assumed to be linear. al a(n +2)T aln+4)T area = Tla(nT)+ (n+ 1)TV2 @=)T aT (n+ tT (near 7 Fig. 1.4 Computation of Velocity by Numerical Integration If T is short enough compared to the variations in a(¢), this area represents the actual area quite accurately. We shall discuss later in Chapter 5 that sampling frequency is a certain value compared to the signal bandwidth (band of frequencies contained in the signal). The velocity v up to (n + 1)T is then, computed by recursive relationship (trapezoidal rule) as v[(n's DT] = voor) + 7[se2 tons or Such computation could be carried on line by means of a Digital Signal Processing (DSP) chip.Introduction to Signals and Systems 5 Example 1.3 Automatic Control Systems: Tank Level Control The distinguishing feature of automatic control systems is the principle of feedback. Consider a simple system shown in Fig. 1.5. Here, an attempt is made to hold the tank level h within reasonable, acceptable limits even when the outlet flow through valve V, varies. This can be achieved by irregular and intermittent manual adjustment of the inlet flow rate by valve V9. Ye Fig. 1.5 Tank Level Control System The scheme of Fig. 1.6 provides automatic control of the level of the tank. It can maintain the desired tank level within quite accurate tolerances even when the output flow rate through valve V, is varied. This system differs from the one illustrated in Fig. 1.5, in terms of the feedback action. Here, the tank Error-sensing potentiometer Y Fig. 1.6 Auiomatic Tank Level Control System6 Signals and Systems level is sensed by a float and converted to an electrical signal by means of a potentiometer. The potentiometer pair acts as an error detector which Compares the signal e,, corresponding to the output response (the head h) with the reference input ¢, (at steady state, h = desired head H and ¢,= ey). Any difference between these two signals constitutes an error or an actuating signal, which actuates the control elements (the power amplifier and motor). The control elements in turn alter the conditions in the plant (controlled member- Valve V;) in a manner so as to reduce the original error (H — h). Such systems are called closed-loop systems or automatic control systems. Systems which do not have any feedback comparison (e.g. the system shown in Fig. 1.5) are called open-loop systems. Figure 1.7 gives the general block diagram of a closed-loop system. Observe that each block has a cause-effect relationship and the signal flow is unidirectional (indicated by arrows). Forward-path be “elements Error or Controlled actuating signal Control elements Feedback path elements Fig. 1.7. General Block Diagram of an Automatic Control System Ena offers certain distinct advantages and is therefore, inherent to most physical and nonphysical systems though not always i d i identified form as in Fig, 1,7, ° ee Example 14° Autoinatic Aitcraft Landing System This single example demonstrates many of the concepts of signals and systems, such as subsystem, signal Processing, signal modification and feedback control loop to achieve desired Performance, etc, Some of these concepts have been illustrated by earlier examples, The aircraft landing system consists of three basic i. aircraft, the radar unit and the controlling unit as shown, ae re illustrative purpose, we shall consider only the lateral control 7 in Fig.1.8 (b), where aircraft lateral position signal y(t) ig first sampled by switch unit with sampling time T = 0.05 s, to y(nT), where n = 0,1,2, courte that (0 is continuous time signal and y(n7) is discrete time signal, The digital ci oeOPS OO Introduction to Signals and Systems 7 controller processes the sampled values and generates the bank command at discrete intervals, ie. the bank command is updated (signal modification) at every T= 0.05 s. The bank command signal is made continuous by data hold (explained in Chapter 4) to produce 9(¢) which is fed to the aircraft lateral adjustment system and the lateral position y(‘) changes accordingly. The control system thus brings y(t) close within the value commanded by the radar unit (or applied externally by the pilot) for safe landing of the aircraft. We Radar Transmitter nk Bank Lateral command position Jax Postion _| Pitch Controlling Vertical command unit |____position (a) Schematic diagram of aircraft landipg system | ot) [Aircraft iateral | _ 0) ——_—I Si ler Sone] system [—Aireral ] “Sten position command Data’ hold Lateral digital controller Desired position (b) Lateral landing system Fig. 1.8 Automatic Aircraft Landing System Example 1.5 Satellite Communication System The most important application of signals and Systems is in speech and image where restoration and enhancement of signals is a great challenge. processing, brought out by the satellite communication system, This importance isaaa w 8 Signals and Systems in Fi i is transmitted illustrated in its most basic form in Fig. 1.9. Here, the signal i from one station and received at the other station via the satelite The receiving station receives very weak and poor quality (noisy) signal. we ° Station 2 Station 1 Fig. 1.9 Satellite Communication Link Let dj, d, be the res pective distances between station 1 and 2 from the satellite. Then 1 = dy/e = time in sec of em-wave t ravel between Station 1 and satellite and %= dyc = time in sec of em-wave travel between Station 2 and satellite where = speed of em-wave The signal is carried waves. The central m each station to satellite is Say f, and it is f, from satellite to any of the station. It is assumed that Sf > fy. This change in frequency occurs in satellite Tepeater called transponder. By this arrangement the transponder generates smaller frequency for sending signal on to stations which leads to reduction in its Weight (payload of the satellite) em-wave carrying the signal gets attenuated during travel because of the following points,w Introduction to Signals and Systems 9 © characteristics (spreading) © travel in the atmospheric part of the distance Let these attenuations be o and B respectively for d, and d, for travel (either way). During travel the em-wave picks noise caused by the em disturbances present in atmosphere and in space. With reference to Fig. 1.9 if a wave packet x(s) is transmitted from Station 1, then on reaching the satellite it can be expressed as @x(t— 1) + noise @ and on reaching the receiving station it becomes GA,Bx(t - | - %) + noise (ii) where A, = gain in the transponder which can only partially make up for the net attenuation. ed and restored by noise reduction to ‘The received signal is then enhanc jancement stringent level. This example is an excellent illustration of signal enh: and restoration. ff2] CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS ignals can be functions of time or any we shall deal with signals which are inuous-time and — In general the independent variable si variable other than time. However, functions of time. Such signals are broadly classified as conti discrete-time signals. Sus-time Signals X signal which is uniquely defined at all ‘time’ as an independent variable, for 2 certain time domain except for disconti ‘at denumberable set of points is known as continuous-time signal, An illustration of ‘such a signal with a Single discontinuity at F=f in the time domain 1 <1 Sts is shown in Fig. 1.10. Several examples of signals and systems have been given in Section 1.1. Consider the speed measuring system of Examples 1.1 and 1.2 comprising accelerometer and integrator which are shown in block form in Fig. 1.11(a). In this system both a(t) and y,(t) are continuous as shown in Fig. 1.11(b). Such a system is called a continuous-time system. There is a variety of (wave forms) input and output signals. If the system is to be simulated or tested in prototype stage, it would be meaningless and also infeasible to test it for all possible input signals. Therefore, certain ideal test signals which characterize a general signal are used. This topic will come up later in the text. —r ase10 Signals and Systems no 4 b ty Fig. 1.10 Continuous-time Signal | —— >| Ace. meter >} J > | (a) al) vol!) Input signal (Output signal " 7 (b) Fig. 1.11 « Dixerefe-time Signals Discrete-time signals are defined only at discrete values of independent variable, time Siween signal values is often same, Dut itis @ | always so. An example of such a kind of signal is money withdrawal from- bank a/c, i.e. one may withdraw money fortnightly, monthly or with no fixed sequence, as shown in Fig. 1.12. Mathematically f(n) as sequence of withdrawal is f(r) = FO), FD, £2), FB: fH, £5), FO, [M) where fO. £@) f), f(6) are zer0, since money is not withdrawn. A discrete sequence could als6 be specified by a rule for calculating the | discrete values. For example f= (U2, U4, + (2 + oy eles \ | It could be equivalently specified asake Introduction to Signals and Systems 11 fn) (Rupees) 1 2 39 4 6 6 7 8 9 Month) Fig. 1.12 Discrete-time Signal (Called a Sequence) _ fart 520 a= {? ik<0 A discrete sequence could also exist for k < 0. Quite often in physical systems continuous-time signals have to be converted to descrete-time signals and at the output end of the signal they have to be converted back to continuous form. Most of the signal processing or off/on- line computation can then be accomplished by digital computer, microprocessors or microcontrollers depending on the size of data and computational effort. This problem is elaborated in Section 1.5. Systems whose input and output are characterized by discrete sequences are known as discrete-time systems. Deterministic/Stochastic Signals Deterministic signals are characterized by the fact that their behaviour is fully known at all times, i.e. these can be described as functions of time with certainty. In real systems, we are uncertain to varying degrees about the values of parameters, measurements, expected inputs and disturbances. The inputs and disturbances can vary randomly and can also contain unwanted random components called noise. In many practical applications, the uncertainties and noise can usually be neglected. Therefore, we proceed as if all quantities have definite values that are known precisely at all times. This is called the deterministic approach to system analysis. There are occasions where the deterministic approach fails because the system and signal data are essentially nondeterministic. For example, in a radar-tracking system, the position and speed of the target to be tracked are not deterministic but vary in general in a random fashion. Such signals are called stochastic signals and systems where these signals are present are known as stochastic systems. Their behaviour can be determined to a considerable degree if various statistical properties (mean, variance, etc.) of the signals and noise are known, This is called the stochastic approach to systems.12 Signals and systems 1] Even (Symmetric)/Odd (antisymmetric) Signals ~7 i A real-valued continuous-time signal f(¢) can be classified as an even signal if it satisfies the following relation (Fig. 1.13(a)]. { f() = fen @ If f() satisfies the following relation, then such signal is said to be an odd signal (Fig. 1.13()]. FM =- fen (i) A, =m -74 74 2 t “A (b) Odd (anti-symmetric) signal Fig. 1.13 Even and Odd Continuous-time Signals Any arbitrary signal can be ex : Pressed as the sum of its even and odd components, i.e. FO) = KD + y(t) (iii) where LQ) = 340 + fd] (iv) and f= 310 - s-m )Introduction to Signals and Systems 13 In the similar fashion an arbitrary discrete-time signal f(n) can be expressed as F(n) = fn) + for) (vi) where fn) = dur + f(-mh; Fig. 1.14(@) (vil) and fol) = FLO) ~ Fem: Fig, L146) (ii) | _» (a) Even (Symmetric) discrete signal : “ be (0) Od (anti-symmetric) discrete signal Fig. 1.14 Even and Odd Discrete-time Signals 7.3 | CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS ae Systems can be classified into the following six forms. 1. Lumped and Distributed Parameter Systems A system is a collection of individual elements connected in a particular configuration. It is said to be a lumped parameter system, if a disturbance initiating at any point in the system propagates instantaneously to every point in the system. This assumption is valid if the largest physical dimension of the fll as compared to the wave length of the highest significant is can be modelled system is smi frequency present in the signal. Lumped parameter system: by ordinary differential equations. A distributed parameter system takes a finite amount of time for a distur- bance at one point to be propagated to another point. It means that we havewv os ” 16 Signals and Systems In case of the capacitor output is expressed as ; ; ew= 4f mar @ It is immediately seen that the output depends on all past inputs (integral of- i(1) from t= — © to ¢, So this is a dynamic system. \35,/Uittear and Nonlinear Systems A system is linear if it Satisfi ies the following two conditions, Consider a system with in iput_r(t) and output y(), ie. nO) > yo (1) @ Homogeneity 1f the Eq, (1.1) is scaled by a factor @, the input r(¢) in Output is scaled by the say me factor, i.e. nO = ar() > NO = ay(ry (1.2) This property of a system is known as homogeneity. ystem is given two iny Output is the sum of individual puts simultaneously, the Outputs caused by the separately. Let application of each input 10 > yo (1.3) 3 nO > y(n If — TOE + ry then 2O= WD + ym a4) arity A system that satisfies both homo; i i ; ne it tion iS said to be linear, By Combining the two eee y es aoe ss following manner. . Press Ir O= an) + B rey then 7O = OND + B yey as) Thus ; Pressed above, we can apply 0 be explained later), whi, ‘ich leads to linear systemIntroduction to Signals and Systems 17 A linear system posseses additional property of decomposition, which is now defined. Decomposition In a linear system the response to any input can be decomposed into two additive parts, i.e. Linear system response to an input =) zero-state response + zero-excitation response (1.6) Example ¥.6/Consider a system, described by a first-order differential equation with constant coefficients. 20 sym = rH @ where y(t) = output r(t) = input For inputs r,(t) and r,(t), we can write 4 . Me yan, @ & : qt hen a By doing so we can avoid writing function t repeatedly. Multiplying Eq. (ii) by scalar @ and Eq. (iii) by scalar B and then adding them, we get d : gent By) + an + By = an + Bre (iv) Therefore Qn, + Bry => ay, + By The system thus satisfies both the conditions of linearity and is hence linear. Let us now check whether the response of this system can be decomposed or not? Let zero-state (zero initial condition) response be y, and zero-input response be Yo. Then from Eq. (i) % + y,= 7}. ze10 initial condition w % + yp = 0; zero input ) a18 Signals and Systems Adding, Eq. (v) and Eq. (vi) we have EOr+ 0+ OF+ WET cr) which means that the system response is Y= It N (viii) As per Eq (viii) the system response has been decomposed as expected. Note: The response of a linear system can be decomposed. However, any system whose response can be decomposed need not be linear unless the two decomposed components individually satisfy the conditions of linearity, Example 1:7 Consider the system described by the following differential equation 29 ory =ro Check its linearity. Solution Proceeding as in Example 1.6 7 at Mean @ wy, - atMan w Multiplying Eq, (i) and (i) by scalars a and B respectively and then adding and reorganizing them, we have Stay, + By) + Hay, + By) = ar, + Br, This shows that Or, + Br, SP ay, + By, Therefore, the system is linear and obeys the superposition law. Example Le Consider yet another system described by the following differential_equation. 22 + yt) = r() Check its linearity.Introduction to Signals and Systems 19 Solution Proceeding as in Example 1.7 yt . ar tyrant @ yt a tyra nr (i) Multiplying Eq, (i) and (ji) by scalars a and f respectively and then adding them, we get (, + By, %) + (ay, + B= ar + Bry «iy Linearity requires that y > ay, and y —> By, and in that case the result of iii) should have been ( , 0+ fy, 9B oe) (ay, + By) = ar + Bry ww) But Eq. (iii) is different from Eq. (iv) hence the system in question is nonlinear. 6. Stable and Unstable Systems It is seen above that the response of a linear system can be subdivided into two parts. The system stability for these two parts is defined below. @ Zero-input Response If a system is brought to any particular initial condition (or state) and its response decays continuously to zero state, the system is said to be stable of a particular kind called asymptotically stable. On the other hand if the response grows without any limit it is an unstable system. A gravity driven pendulum always returns to its vertical (down) state (which is zero state or equilibrium state), therefore, it is a stable system. Though the response is oscillatory, it continuously decays to zero state. Consider now a vertical pendulum (Fig. 1.41) in vertical (top) state. It is theoretically in equilibrium state. But slightest position away from this causes it to move sideways downwards with a limit (til it hits the horizontal ground). ‘The simple system is unstable but the limit is imposed by the practical reality. Gi) Zero-state Response If a system is excited with bounded input Wr] $< % an ‘output is also bounded, it is said to be bounded-input bounded- 1BO) A Linear time “Invariant (LTI) system, which is BIBO stable, is also asymptotically stable and vice versa, but this is not true for nonlinear systems. Ce20° Signals and Systems The definitions and ‘conclusions defined above also apply to discrete-time LTI systems. : A practical system will be of use only if it is stable. A unstable system must stabilized by feedback and compensation techniques. System stability will be discussed in detail in Chapters 2 and 3 and then Chapter 6 will be fully devoted to this topic, where algebraic criteria for Stability of LTI systems will be expounded. be 1.4| SYSTEMS MODELLING For analysis and design of systems, it model of the system. For this it is rec interconnection of the basic elements. governing their interconnections a suit As approximations and idealizations of the system, model is only accur: is essential to build a representative quired to identify the system as an Using the elemental laws and the laws ‘able model of the system can be built. are needed to identify the elemental form ‘ate to that extent. To what accuracy the model should be built is an engineering decision. Large complex systems may need to be divided into subsystems whose models are then identified Therefore, simulation and prototype testi Put together or results of system analysis are put to any practical use. Different types of models are described as follows, Mathematical Models As per the system model discussed above, which are then the model of the system, Thi the previous examples, When only the terminal pro we can write a set of equations is has been illustrated in most of perties of a system are Tequired, the input-output description of the system in the form of difference ot differential equations linking the input and output variables would suffice. In the transform domain the transfer function is a convenient and powerful input-output model. ‘Whenever the internal as well as terminal behaviour of a system is required, the state-variable description of the system provides a suitable model. Of Course, in the case of networks the loop/nodal method of analysis also provides us with the internal behaviour of the system (current/voltage of each branch of the network), Following are the two mathematical models of continuous-time LTI systems. Differential equation models Let us consider a simple mechanical system comprising three basic elements, mass, spring and damper (viscous friction) as shown in Fig, 1.16. From the laws of the elements and their interconnection, we can write ay M——+ ae + Ky= F(t) d @ it_- & i 4 Introduction to Signals and Systems 21 [> x) > A B (Viscous friction) Fig. 1.16 This second-order linear differential equation describes the input [F()] and output [y(#] relationship. The system is linear time-invariant as M and B are * independent of time. A linear system, in general, could be described by an n'® order differential equation given below. dy dy dat, a” yay * 40 = bm “Ze ant dr — = em (7) If a’s and b’s are functions of independent variable, time 1, the system is time-variant. If a’s and b’s are constants, it is a linear time-invarient (LTT) continuous-time system. The order of the system is A defined as the highest order of the derivative of the © @—————" output y(t) necessary to characterize the system. State-variable model Consider the _ simple example of a capacitor shown in Fig. 1.17 excited from a current source i(f) and the system (capacitor) response is its voltage e(t). We can Fig. 1.17 write the differential equation of the system as de(t) 7 a" ° msc After integration, we get e() = EfLimers 4f i(tyat (ta) + c org wo ‘The initial value of capacitor voltage e(t)) contains the history of the current that has flown through it from — © to fp. From another view point the capacitor voltage at fo and in fact at any time 1 is the state of the system (in this case just a capacitor). le22 Signals and Systems Let us then define the state of the system as x= e(t) (iii) From Eq, (i), we can write Zio Eq, (iv) is a first-order differential equation. The input i(0) is usually written as r= i) Then, Eq. (iv) takes the following form. 1 ar v: c (v) A formal definition of the state of @ system is as follows. The state of a dynamical system is a minimal set of variables such that their knowledge at t = tg together with the knowledge of inputs for t > to completely determines the behaviour of @ system for t > ty. This definition is not restrictive and applies for linear time-varying and also nonlinear, systems. It could easily be extended to discrete-time systems. In a higher-order system the minimal set of state variables equals the order of the system and the first-order state equations are as many as the order of the system. Tet us reconsider the mechanical system (Fig. 1.16), the following differential eq which is described by uation, @ C moO , B29 . KD= FY (vi) Dot notation is used here after. We define the two (same as system order) states as Sy may (vii) In terms of first-order differential equations Sx (viii) Ar =F = - (BIM)} ~ (KiMyy + (UM)F(y or 4y = - (BIM)xy ~ (KiM)x, + (UM) F(t) (ix) These two equations can be written in matrix form as a0 ft in)” |-xim- -sim||x,| * 0 tA @&)Introduction to Signals and Systems 23 or in form of compressed notation as x =Ax+(K/Mr (xi) where x =2 x 1 vector A =2 x 2 matrix In general in an n" order system with multiple inputs, a formulation similar to Eq, (xi) can be obtained by suitably defining the state variables. State-variable formulation (model) is easier to solve computationally than a differential equation model and hence it is popular. This topic will be dealt in Chapter 5. Linearization In case the state equations are nonlinear, they can be linearized about an operating point (at which the system is in stable equilibrium state) for small- signal applications. This is carried out by Taylor series expansion of the state equations at the operating point and then by retaining only the first-order terms, The procedure will be illustrated by the following example. Consider a simple pendulum of mass M and string length £ as shown in Fig. 1.18. Fig. 1.18 Balancing force at right angles to the string is Mg sin @- M16 =0 6 + Ql) sin@=0 @24 Signals and Systems It is a nonlinear (transcendental) equation. To write it in state-variable form, let us define the state variables as x= = 0 Gi) In terms of state variables Eq. (i) is written as dy + (gil) sinx, = 0 or y= — (g/f) sin x, ii) From Eq. (ii), we write a, (iv) In vector- matrix form, Eqs (iv) and (iii) are written as ale % [:] [ Leen axl 2 This is a nonlinear state-variable model. The stable operating point is given by hah = 0 As per Eq.(v), which occurs at the following value x)= x,=0 Linearizing (by retaining first term in Taylor series expansion) about the operating point (0, 0) we can express Eq. (v) as Ai] 0+ Ax, Ax, | ~ [0- cosy, -oAx, Since the stable point is (0,0), in place of (Ax,, Ax) we can write (x,, x) with the understanding that (x,, x2) are small-signal excursions around (0,0). Then [:] 7 lore al [| ® The general form of nonlinear state-variable equations for a second-order system are given below. 4] _ [Ai Gin) (*] Feel w Let the equilibrium point about which linearization is to be carried out be Cio %20) Where 4 = 0, %, = 0Introduction to Signals and Systems 25 This also means that iGo: 20) = foo» X20) = 0 Retaining first terms in Taylor series expansion and using (x,, x) in place of (Ax, Ax), we can write [:]-+ [2] where oo Following are the two mathematical models of discrete-time LTI systems Difference equation models Let us consider a bank saving plan which pays a per cent interest rate per month. If -y(0) = Initial deposit money of a person y(k — 1) = Balance at the end of (k - 1) the month r(k) = Deposit or withdrawal during kth month (for T = one month) The money balance equation at the end of Ath month is then y(k) = yk - 1) + a0 yk - 1) + r® @ In Eq, (i) r(e) will be positive for deposit and negative for withdrawal. Rearranging Eq. (i), we get y(k) = (1 + @/100) yk - 1) + r(k) or) = Byk- 1) + r(k)y B= (1 + @/100) Gi) ‘This equation can be rewritten as y(k + 1) = By) + rk + 1) (iv) ‘The banking system response y(k) given in Eq. (iv) is first-order difference equation and the balance for k 2 1 may be taken for the initial deposit money y(0) and the input sequence signal (...r(), r(1), r(2),.). ‘The concepts of linearity (homogeneity + superposition) apply equally for linear discrete-time systems. We shall illustrate this through Example 1.9. Example 1.9 consider a discrete-time described by the following difference equation yh) = Zr + k=) @26° Signals and Systems For inputs r,(k) and r,(k), we can write the following equations by using Eq. (i) : y1(®) = fr + rk-) (i) ya(k) = dn + ry (k-1) (ii Let the following input be applied to the system. Gr; (k) + Bry (k) The corresponding output as obtained from Eq. (i) is y= Flan + Br, G+ far k—1) + Bry kD] = [don (k) + 0%, (k= offs Br, (k) + Br (k -»] ay, (k) + Byp (k) (iv) So this discrete-time system is linear. In general, discrete-time system could be described by an nth order difference equation given below. YE M+ Gy k++. + aye +1) + aay) = Oy rk +m) + + yr +N + by HH (1.8) In Eq. (1.8), for an LTT non-anticipatory system a;'s and b;’s are constant and &, m, n are integers with m 0 )= o a att =0 oe A unit step occuring at t= Af sketched in Fig. 1.19(b) is expressed in the following manner. | u(t- At)= { tae (1.10) O;1< Ar It is drawn in Fig. 1.19(b). Unit pulse (width At) It is sketched in Fig. 1.19(c) and is mathematically defined atIntroduction to Signals and Systems 29 0<-An2 Py(t) = 1,- At + Ari ‘We can write a pulse in terms of step functions as Py ft) = u(t + At?) - u(t— At/2) ‘A delayed unit pulse occurring at time t= T sketched in Fig. 1.19(d) is expressed in the following manner. 0;1<(T = Atl2) PAdt — T) = 41;(T-At2)<+<(T + B12) (1.12) 0;¢>(T + At/2) ut) ut=At): 1 7 0) (a) Unit step (b) Delayed unit step Paslt) Bie O| At 7 (Ata | : u(t Ati2) (c) Unit pulse and its unit step components T= a2 T T+ Ave (d) Delayed pulse Fig. 1.1930 Signals and Systems ‘nit impulse (6 - function) Consider a pulse occuring at ¢ = 0 of height V/A gnd duration A as shown in Fig. 1.20(a). As we let A -> 0 the pulse area remains 1 unit, and it occurs at ¢ = 0. Such a function is known as impulse or 6 - function and is mathematically expressed in the following form 6()=0, 1 #0 (1.13a) fsoasi (1.13b) Pictorial representation of an impulse is sketched in Fig. 1.20(b) ()oatn f . a F a N | ; => 0 oO 7 (a) (o) Fig. 1.20 Unit Impulse Properties of unit impulse, Following are the properties of unit impulse, 1. fro 5) dt = F0) (1.14) J £0 5-4) d= $049; shiting property (1.15) 2. d(at) = mee (1.16) Consider We have from Eq. (1.13b) foo dr=1 Let t > at, dt a dt Then, we can write the Eq. (1.13b) asand In the combined form we can write Eqs. (1.16a and 1.16b) as we, therefore, get which implies 3. f@ 5 - ) = Introduction to Signals and Systems 31 a J 5(a) a; a > 0 a J Stax dia<0 lal f 8(@p ar la] J 5can dt= Joe a 5(at)= we f(t) 5 = t) 4. 5(0) = u(t) = derivative of unit step Consider J roM® a= 0 volt - Tso =f@)-. | “goat a = fle) - sof = fle) - Fl) + FO) =f) This is the property (1.(i)) of 6(#). Hence the result. 5. 6-1) = 5() Jeo dt=1 (1.16a) (1.16b) (1.16¢) (1.17) (1.18) (1.19)a 32 Signals and Systems Let 1 -t, dt - de - Jaco dt= Jaco dr=1 Hence the result. Example 1.10 Sketch the following pulse Py, (2t + 6), At = 1s Solution Rewriting the given pulse expression, we get Pa (2(t + 3), At = Is We find that the pulse occurs at t = -3 and because of multiplier 2, gets compressed in time by a factor of 2. Its width, therefore, is Atl2 = 0.5s The pulse is sketched in Fig. 1.21. 05s 1 Nie L ! = 2 at of Xs) > Fig. 1.21 Sine Wave (Sinusoidal) Function A sinusoidal function sketched in Fig, 1.22 (a) is expressed as x0 = A sin (2) (1.200) =A sin (2nft) (1.206) =A sin (@ 1) (1.206) where T = period of wave (in sec) f = WT = frequency in HzIntroduction to Signals and Systems 33 (one period) (a) Sine wave x Asin (wt- 8) Asin (at+ 8) (lagging) (b) Lagging and leading sine waves: Fig. 1.22 @ = Inf = frequency in rad/s cot = angle in rad A sine wave belongs to the general class of periodic signals which meet the following condition. x(t) = x(t + nT), n= integer (1.21) This means that the signal repeats after every To period. ‘The largest value of Ty is called the fundamental period, which we shall refer to as the period. See Example 1.14. ‘A sine wave delayed or advanced in time (measured in terms of angle) is expressed as x(f) = A sin (@t + 6) (1.22) where @ = phase angle Time phase angle = (8)jeading phase angle) and ‘~’ means delay ¢, ted in Fig. 1.22 (b). vn property of a sinusoid that its derivative and jp e same frequency but different amplitude-and pha ‘us consider the following sinusoidal function (t) COS (pt + 8) aie: amplitude A and phase angle 0, against a frequ (a) and (b) he ind phase representation is called frequency spet . 3 Corresponding to a single sine wave, has has positive frequency. 4 be expressed as sum of two exponentialIntroduction to Signals and Systems 35 Fig. 1.24 Two-sided Spectral Representation of A cos (Wet + 8p) An important property of an exponential function like that of a sinusoid is that its derivative and integral is also an exponential with power of ¢ (base of natural logarithm) preserved, while its amplitude undergoes a change. ‘The plot of a decaying exponential is drawn in Fig. 1.25. Atr= % the value of x(t) becomes x() =A €! = 0.3684 = 36.8% of its value at ¢ = 0, ie. A Fig. 1.25 The Decaying Exponential ‘This value of time, 7, is called the time constant of the exponential. At t = 57. x(5t) = A &* = 6.74 x 107A (negligible) Tt means that the exponential practically decays in five time constants. If we evaluate the derivative of the exponential at ¢ = 0, we get sail =-- Ar "=O t36 Signals and Systems At this linear rate of decay the exponential value reduces to zero in following time t= AMA/t) = 1, the time constant This is another way of viewing the time constant of an exponential. 1.6| ENERGY AND POWER SIGNALS Suppose wet) is_a_voltage across a resistor producing current i(t). Then instantaneous power per ohm is Py = OO = #0 (1.26) Integrating over the i = 0 to + o, total energy and average power on per ohm basis are defined respectively as the following limits. r E=Lim Je (dt J (1.27) and P= Limk [? Lim 57 fi (da Ww (1.28) For an arbitrary signal FS, which may in_general be complex, total energy normalized to per unit resistance is defined in the following equation. 7 E=Lim [[ptof at (1.29) fr The average power normalized to per unit resistance is equation. defined in the following : a 1 “Hinge |isof a a0) Based on the definitions of Eqs. (1.29) ang signal are defined. ) and (1,30), 0 Then as per definition (1.27) 1 E = Lim [ae at ran} x 20) Therefore f,(f) is an energy signal. Let A) = Aly 50 = A u(t) It is easy to see that this signal has E = «. Let us calculate its power. P= Lim jane u(y) dt xv a Example 1.12 \Q6nsider a sine wave x(t) = A cos (Wot + %) ‘As the wave exists for infinite time its E = ce, Let us now find its normalized power, P atin | cos? (apt + Og) dt = Lim 3 2 ib S cos’ ? (age +80) |e The second integral term will work out to be zero. Thus Energy and Power Spectral Densities ‘The energy and power expressions of Eqs. (1.29) and (1.30) can be rewritten in the following forms respectively.38° Signals and Systems E ee) fo (134 and p= J s(@ do (139) where G(q) = energy spectral density (for energy signal); and S(q) = power spectral density (for power signal) A sinusoidal signal has two-sided spectrum as in Fig. 1.26 with a toy power of A7/2. Half of this power i.e. A’/4 associated with its power densi spectrum is plotted in Fig. 1.26. It can be expressed mathematically as S(o) = (474) [6(@- a) + 5(@+ @)] (139) Following is the total power (integrated). 2 42 peaxt =A (139 Sa), 2, 0 5 Fig. 1.26 Concept of energy and power density will acquire a wider meaning ¥® signals having continuum of frequencies, These aspects will be elaborat Chapter 2. 7 |_FREQUENCY RESPONSE In a linear system, excl ted ‘ith @ sinusoidal jIntroduction to Signals and Systems 39 (R, L, C), it is easier to deal with analysis in terms of phasors. Consider the following sinusoidal voltage. v() = y2V cos (wr + 8) It can be expressed as vo =Re | y2Vele™ | As Re-operation is linear, it can be performed on the end result, if needed. Also since the signal everywhere in the system (say a circuit) is sinusoidal, we need not carry e/ term all the time. It also can be brought in, if time form of the response term is required. So we deal with voltage as a phasor expressed as V = \2ve” In terms of magnitude and phase angle, it can by expressed as V = VZ@; polar form In this kind of treatment (phasor treatment), differential/integral law elements transform to frequency form as ROR 1 C> aE L—- joL ‘These can be treated as complex entities, which obey the KVL and KCL laws when connected in a circuit. The phasor method forms the subject matter of junior level circuit theory course. Here we are going to consider the variation of input signal frequency over the complete range of (0 to +) and examine the behaviour in magnitude and phase angle of the output signal. For simplicity we shall consider simple iter circuits composed of electrical components. Frequency response is often expressed as ratio of input/output, which is known as network function, A(jo). lel Network For the RC parallel network of Fig. 1.27 rape (4+ joc) is (1.35) = 1+ j@RC40 Signals and Systems Tetzorl © v pA = WoC Fig. 1.27 In polar form this can written as vy IR Yew [i+toro?]" = V(@) Za(@) where v(@) IR [1+ @rcy?]" @(@) = -tan-! wRC V(q) and a(«) are plotted in Fig. 1.28 as functions of frequency. Fig. 1.28 Frequency Response of RC Parallel Network (1.36) (1.37a) (1.37b)Introduction to Signals and Systems 41 It is seen from these plots that at frequency ei > RE ye R a = 0.07 IR; a = — 45° (1.38) ‘According to Eq. (1.38) the voltage (response) at @, is reduced to 0.707 (= 1/2) of its value at @ = 0. In other words, the power dissipated in the network (V/R) is reduced to half of the value at @ = 0. At this frequency, the corresponding phase angle being — 45°. It is also observed that this frequency is the same as the natural frequency (J/time constant) of the network. This is indicative of the link between frequency domain and time domain. This frequency is also known as the halfpower angular frequency. ‘At frequencies higher than @,, the network attenuates the voltage sharply. The region of frequencies up to @, is known as the pass band and beyond it is called stop band (region of high attenuation). The range of frequencies (0 to @) js called the bandwidth of the network. RL Series Network Consider the RL series network of Fig. 1.29. The network acts as a voltage divider. T R 7 V= v.20" jot Vi, Fig. 1.29 Thus % _ wo) = ik Vv - H(ja) = R+joL (1.39) where I Ho) = (1.402) [1+(oury] @(@) = 90° — tan! & (1.40b)42. Signals and Systems H(q@) and a(q) are plotted in Fig. 1.30. Fig. 1.30 Frequency Response of RL Series Network It is easily seen that Teverse of the RC Parallel network, In Chapter 8 we shall consider th izi 4 more effective, ic. to have sh «methods of realizing these filters S any) where the pass band lie of the output at times i a to discrete-time form by taking When dealing with continy “or Of mathematical sampling: lOUS-time | Quantizer >| Encoder L > Continuous-time Discrete-time Discrete-time Digital continuous-amplitude continuous discrete- output (analog) input signal amplitude signal amplitude signal signal Fig. 1.31 Analog-to-digital Converter Sampling An analog signal r(¢) shown in Fig. 1.32(a) is sampled by means of a switch shown in Fig. 1.32(b). The switch closes at regular intervals kT for time t. This is equivalent to multiplying the signal with a pulse train shown in Fig. 1.32(c). The sampled signal can then be written in mathematical form as given in Eq. 1.41. w(t) Samples of r5() 0 i aT aT 3ST 7 (a) Samples of a waveform ar ‘Switch close at t= kT rt) K fit) vt.’ Sampling device (0) Sampler pityh 1 L L L 0 T ar ar aT 3ST (©) Sampling function “ Fig. 1.32 The Sampling Operation44 Signals and Systems 75) = 1 Yype@~ RT) ata) = Sre- Kr, = #7) ay) a In the sampling form of Eq. (1.41a) correct representation of r(t) at = is maintained for a period t around kT as shown in Fig. 1.32. In the second! form called flat topped, r(f) value is held constant at r(kT) in the duration t= kT to t= T+ 2 ‘As tis made shorter, the pulse can be approximated as impulse of stren, tie. P(t) > t8(1) (14 This means that the pulse train becomes an impulse train and we have impulse sampler. Equation (1.41b) then takes the following form. 7) = t Dir(kT) 5(¢- kT) (a ae This is equivalent to extracting the sample of r(r) at kT in form of impuls where T is the sampling period. It may be noted that if sampling period = T, then sampling frequency f, = 1/T a and ©, = 2nf, = 2n/T aaa We shall deal only with the sample values r(¢ - kT), real numbers ff mathematical operations. Impulses will be used for reconstructing the signal analog form in whichever part of the system it is needed. This aspect will considered in filtering (Chapter 7). Let us check the linearity and time-invariance of the sampling operati Eq, (1.41 (a)) rewritten below. 140 = 40) Yip, kT) k Consider the function to be sampled as weighted sum of two function ary(t) + Br,(t) Substituting Eq. (ii) in Eq. (i), we get the following equation. 1) = [ary + Bro) Dp, - kT)Introduction to Signals and Systems 45 ar) Yip. e- kT) + Bri) Yip, kD) Kane = ry) + r,(t) Therefore, the sampling operation is linear. Consider now the function to be sampled when shifted by +. Equation (i) then takes the following form. riw)= rex &) Dpre-Kr) (iv) — ——————s Not affected by input function shift It then follows that ri #1, 8) w) Hence the operation is time-invariant. Quantization and Encoding ‘The output of the sampler in Fig. 1.31 is a sample continuous-amplitude signal. This is converted to a digital signal by the blocks named quantizer and encoder. The equivalent digital signal needs to be of a finite bit length as it has to be stored in a finite length register. So it must be quantized by function or rounded off into a set of quantized level given by qe? where b = register bit length other than sign bit. This means that continuous-amplitude (infinite precision) signal must be represented by the nearest quantized level (of finite precision). Depending on the register length this introduces an error, which the next system must tolerate and produce an unimpaired output performance. Quantization and encoding are illustrated in Table 1.1, for b Table 1.1 Quantization level number Encoded outputIntroduction to Signals and Systems 47 block and appears at the output, operated on (multiplied) by the block transfer function. Thus y= gr, Summation circles of Fig. 1.33(b) are obvious, When a signal is taken off from a point in block diagram it does not modify (disturb) the signal present there as is evident in Fig. 1.33(c). When two blocks are in tandem as in Fig. 1.33(d) and as the block diagrams apply for linear systems, the input signal gets multiplied by both the transfer functions, ic. y= gyg27. The order of multiplication is immaterial (linearity consequence). Most commonly occurring feedback block diagram is drawn in Fig.1.34. Simple algebraic manipulation yields the overall transfer function as c._G_, : F = Ty qr! negative feedback case (1.45) r e a c bd H Fig. 1.34 Positive sign is the consequence of negatively fedback signal b. In case of positive feedback this sign will become negative. Thus 6. Ga 7 1-cH’ positive feedback case (1.46) Signal-flow Graphs Instead of drawing a block, a directed line can be drawn with multiplicative gain (transfer function) written on it. The ends of these lines are the two nodes representing the signal at the nodes as shown in Fig. 1.35. Thus Hy = yy X 412 xy 7 Fig. 1.35 Nodal signal is the sum of all incoming signals and any signal sample taken from a node does not affect the nodal signal. While finding the overall gain (or transfer function) between any two nodes of a signal flow graph, one needs to determine all direct paths from input node to output node and their gain. There are no closed loops in any direct path.48 Signals and Systems Also required are the loop gains where loop is a path ending on itself, qq) organized approach to the overall gain determination is given below. Mason's gain Formula The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of a signal-flow graph is given by the net gain between the input and output nodes and is known as the overall gain of the system, Mason's gain formula for determination of the overall system gain is given below. y T=t¥ nA, = Amt (1.47) where T = gain between Xow and Xx Xu = output node variable Xq = input node variable N = total number of forward paths P, = path gain of kth forward path " 4 = 1 ~ (sum of loop gains of all individual loops) + (sum of gain Products of all possible combinations of two non-touching loops) ~ (sum of gain products of all possible combinations of three non- touching loops) +... =1- Det De-D ae (1.48) mn 7 s Pr, = gain product of the mth loops A, = the value of A for that part of the graph not touching the Mth forward path. Possible combination of r non-touching The signal flow grap! h for the feedback block diagram of Fig, 1.34 is given in Fig. 1.36. 7 Fig, 1.36 Applying Mason's gain formula we have s single path from input to output + there is no part of Braph not touching the forward pathIntroduction to Signals and Systems 49 = 1+ GH; single loop with gain (- GH) Then c a Ce ae GH This is already obtained through the block diagram method. | Example 1.13 Evaluate the following integrals 5 (a) Jo + cost) 5 (t— 10) dt &) J @-2? 5-2 a ©) j cos 2nt 5 (t—2) dt al oe" 8 (t - 10) dr Solution 5 @ Jo + cost) 5 (t — 10) dr A = JG + cos 10 5 (t- 10) de = (5 + cos 10); as the impulse occurs at ¢ = 10 () fo-2F 50-2 d= Jo-a'sa-na=0 (©) | o0s 21 6-2) dr= [[cos ané (- 2) dt = os 4 = 150 Signals and Systems (@) fee” 5 (¢ - 10) ar = femmes (t 10) dr= e™ 100 Example 1.14 Sketch the following pulse signals (a) pile - 2/3) (b) pAl@ - 1/2] + pos (t - Solution (a) py (@ - 29/3) Pulse width = 1s ‘Amplitude = 1 Time of occurrence = 2s Pulse width is enlarged to =3 x 1 = 3s The pulse is sketched in Fig. 1.37(a). Amplitude 4 <——— 3 ——__>| 1 L L 1 1 0 1 2 3 4 coat, (a) ‘Amplitude A kK 2 — 1 4 aeIntroduction to Signals and Systems 51 (b) pile - 1/21 + Pos (t - 1) This signal is sketched in Fig. 1.32(b). Example 1.15 Consider a sinusoidal signal sin @pf; period Ty = 2x/a It is sampled with period T,. Find the condition to be satisfied by J and T, for the sampled signal to be periodic. For a sequence f(k) periodicity is defined as FH = fk + N)= fk + WN) = -- = fk + nN) where N and n are integers. The signal’s fundamental period is then N samples for n = 1 Solution Substituting t = kT in the sinusoidal function sin @gf sin @kT @ For the discrete signal to be periodic sin @pkT = sin @) (k + NT) sin (@ kT + @oNT) = sin @pkT cos @yNT + cos @kT sin @NT (ii) The equality in Eq. (ii) is only possible, if Gi) " cos @)NT = 1 and sin @NT = 0 or = OT Ln i ONT = 2nn ot SOP = E @v) The discrete signal would be periodic, if and only if wgT/2m is a rational number (n and N are integers). In other words sin @p&T is periodic, if and only if n= OoNT = an integer w) Consider some illustrations. 1. sin 2; @ =2, T= 1 oF = 2; not a rational number = This sequence will not repeat itself. Lo52. Signals and Systems 2. sin O.1ak; @ = 0.1m, T= 1 2nn _ 2nn oe Mi= GaP > Gam = 20m periodic = 20 samples per period for n = 1 3, sin 0.3%k; Om, T = 1 _ 2mn _ 2nn _ 20n 2" OT” 03% 3 Nz = 20 samples per period for n = 3 Remark: In cases (2) and (3) above, samples/period are the same but the rate of change is 3-times in illustration 3 as compared to illustration 2. Sampled frequency does not have the same meaning as in continuous-time case. The reader should plot sampled sine waves given in illustration 2 and 3 and observe the difference. Example 1.16/ Find the integral of unit step function. Solution r= fiu@ar fia =nht>0d 0 =tu(t) This signal is called a ramp and is sketched in Fig. 1.38. Xp a0, 1 Integral ——=> G oO 7 Unit step Ramp = integral unit step Fig. 1.38 Example 1.17 (a) Sketch two nonsinusoidal periodic signals. (b) State the condition for the sum of two sine waves to be periodic. (c) Ulustrate the answer of part (b) with two examples.Introduction to Signals and Systems 53 Solution xh (a) Fundamental period = To, frequency = 1/Ty G *7)) WV (b) Fundamental period = To, frequency = 1/Tp Fig. 1.39 A triangular and a rectified sine wave are sketched in Fig. 1.39 (a) and (b) respectively as examples of periodic signals. (b) For the sum of two or more sinusoidal signals to be periodic, the ratio of theiyfériods or frequencies should be a rational number, i.e. it should ratio of two integers. (/GyYsin 1008 + sin 300at sin 100z¢ -> 1007 = 2r f, or fy = 50 Hz, T, = Uf, = 005 s sin 300nt > 300m = 2nf; fy = 150 Hz, T, = 1/150 s Sylfy = 150/50 = 3 Therefore, the sum signal is periodic. Fundamental period Ty= Ti = 0.05 s or fy= 50 Hz. In one period there is one wave of first term and54 Signals and Systems three waves of the second term. (ii) 2 sin 120m + 5 sin 317 sin 1200 whe * = 60Hz, 7, = 1/60 s sin 317¢ ah=4 32, he 2s _ 31d Ah= = gp = 0.841; Since 0.841 is not a rational number, the sum is not periodic, Example Given the following signals cos 3at + 3 sin 6mt 2. 2 sin 2r + 3 cos mt 3. ut) 4. e u(t) (a) Identify the periodic signals and their fundamental periods (b) Identify power signals and calculate their average power (c) Identify energy signals and calculate their energies Solution (a) 1, 2 cos 3at + 3 sin6ar =3h. f= SE = 32 He fy= BE =3 ie flfi=3 +32 =2 ‘As 2 is a rational number hence it is a periodic signal Fundamental period = 1/(3/2) = 2/3 s All other signals are aperiodic, or . 1, e¥ u(t) E= L (e*)? uw? (ar =f en! ap loIntroduction to Signals and Systems 55 1 — = 0.1W 0+ OL It is an energy signal 2. é u(t) E=o = Lim [edt = 0 Pe Fimge [evar It is neither an energy nor power signal. (c) 1. 2 cos 3mr + 3 sin 6xt It is a power signal. Two-sided power spectral lines and their powers are as given under. + 37; power at each line = (2)°/4 = 1 W + 67; power at each line = (3)°/4 = 9/4 = 2.25 W Total average power =2 x 1+2 x 2.25 = 6.5 W 2. 2 sin2t + 3 cos at It is a power signal. Total average power = (2)°/2 + (3)/2 =2+45=65 W Example 1.19 Formulate state variable model for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.40. Fig. 1.40 Solution State variables are identified as % = voltage across C % = current through L56 Signals and Systems The KVL equations for the capacitor and inductance loops give RCky + 4 = Li, + Ry = Vy Reorganizing in state variable form iy = -(UR\Q x, + (URC) y, By = - (RyID) x + (UL) vy In vector-matrix form we can write Eq. (iii) and (iv) in the following &) FORO 9 Jaro) wl7L 0 CRy|* lay | Y= v= 4 - Lin Output equation Substituting the value of, from Eq. (iv) in Eq. (vi) y=xy— LE(RYADx, + (UL)y)) But Ry vy yet ral] + 00-1) *] 2, ¥2. Example 1.20 Write the differential equation governing the movet inverted pendulum mounted on a cart as shown in Fig. 1.41. Convet equations to the state variable form. or Fig. 1.41,Introduction to Signals and Systems 57 Solution As the pendulum tends to fall in any one direction, the cart is moved in the same direction so as to reduce angle @ of the pendulum from its vertical position. The vertical position of the pendulum is an unstable equilibrium position. The cart movement assures that the angle 6 is small. As a result cos @ = 1 and sin 0 = 6. Differential equations governing the motion of the pendulum are written by balancing forces along horizontal directign and balancing moments about the hinge of the pendulum. These are Mj + mlO - Ff) =0; cos O=1 @ and méy + mi26 — mégO = 0; sin@ ~ 6 Gi) Both Eq. (i) and (ii) are of second order and so would require two state variables. These are identified as below. yer, 0=%5 Jam O=% ii) These are physical variables. Writing Eq, (i) and (ji) in terms of the state variables defined in Eq. (ii) and organizing them in vector-matrix form, we get Eq. (iv). &) for 0 Oo)f% 0 | _]o 0 -melm 0) Ja!) YM | ey ay gl) jo 0 0 I} |xs 0 x,| [oo gt O}lx] [-wme Example 1.21 For the circuit of Fig. 1.42 write the describing differential equation in input-output form. Fig. 1.42