Technical Note

Soil Response during Globally Drained and Undrained

Freeze–Thaw Cycles under Deviatoric Loading
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Sang Yeob Kim 1; Junghee Park 2; Wonjun Cha 3; Jong-Sub Lee 4;

and J. Carlos Santamarina, A.M.ASCE 5

Abstract: Sediments experience shear and volumetric strains during freeze–thaw cycles. Measurements during globally drained and
undrained cycles under constant deviatoric stresses show that the asymptotic shear and volumetric response vary with sediment type and
drainage conditions. In particular, the sediment response is intimately related to the ice pore habit that results from effective stress and the ice
capillary pressure σz0 =Δuiw . Pore-invasive ice formation in coarse-grained soils may trigger some contraction during the first freeze–thaw
cycle, even in sands denser than the critical state. Grain-displacive ice growth in fine-grained soils causes cryogenic consolidation of the
surrounding sediment; subsequent melting of the segregated ice lenses yields a high increase in pore water pressure during undrained thawing,
a pronounced volume contraction under drained conditions, and preferential shear deformation along melting ice lenses in either case. Both
dilative sand and normally consolidated (NC) clay specimens subjected to deviatoric loading exhibit unceasing vertical strain accumulation
(i.e., ratcheting) during freeze–thaw cycles; the void ratio evolves toward asymptotic values in all cases. The freezing rate relative to the
pressure diffusion rate Π ¼ DT =Cv regulates drainage conditions during freeze–thaw cycles; globally drained freezing and thawing are
anticipated in coarse-grained sediments. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002464. © 2020 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Drained and undrained conditions; Freeze–thaw cycles; Grain-displacive; Pore-invasive; Ratcheting; Terminal
void ratio.

Introduction
Freeze–thaw cycles associated with seasonal temperature oscilla-
tions affect a relatively thick so-called active sediment layer in
cold regions, such as North America, Northern Asia, and Europe
(Bonnaventure and Lamoureux 2013). The thickness of the active
layer depends on the duration of the subzero period, water content,
and overlying organic layer (Anisimov et al. 1997; Smith and
Burgess 2000; Huggett 2011). For example, the thickness of sea-
sonally active layers can exceed 10 m in rocks and several meters in
soils in Arctic regions (Smith and Burgess 2000; Verpaelst et al.
2017). Climate change and global warming affect the geographic
distribution of sediments affected by active layers.
Freeze–thaw cycles in active layers cause particle rearrangement
and alter the soil void ratio, hydraulic conductivity, compression
index, and shear strength (Konrad 1989a; Chamberlain et al. 1990;
1
Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Civil, Environmental and Architectural
Engineering, Korea Univ., 145, Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841,
Republic of Korea. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2964-2598
2
Research Scientist, Earth Science and Engineering, King Abdullah
Univ. of Science and Technology, Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
(corresponding author). ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7033-4653.
Email: junghee.park@kaust.edu.sa
3
Ph.D. Student, Earth Science and Engineering, King Abdullah Univ. of
Science and Technology, Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia.
4
Professor, School of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineer-
ing, Korea Univ., 145, Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Republic of
Korea.
5
Professor, Earth Science and Engineering, King Abdullah Univ. of
Science and Technology, Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on October 10, 2019; approved on
October 19, 2020; published online on December 12, 2020. Discussion per-
iod open until May 12, 2021; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This technical note is part of the Journal of Geotech-
nical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241.
Wong and Haug 1991; Hewitt and Daniel 1997; Kraus et al. 1997;
Ono and Mitachi 1997; Viklander and Eigenbrod 2000; Albrecht
and Benson 2001; Qi et al. 2006; Güllü and Khudir 2014; Roustaei
et al. 2015; Liu et al. 2016). At the macro scale, freeze–thaw cycles
cause infrastructure damage, ground deformation, and landslides
(Eigenbrod 1996; Wang et al. 2007, 2015; Subramanian et al.
2017). Therefore, geotechnical designs must consider the effect of
freeze–thaw cycles on the long-term performance, serviceability,
and safety of geosystems affected by active layers (Podgorney and
Bennett 2006; Rowe et al. 2006).
Previous studies tracked the evolution of the void ratio during
freeze–thaw cycles under zero-lateral strain conditions and ex-
plored strength parameters after freeze–thaw cycles (Eigenbrod
1996; Viklander 1998). Similarly, freeze–thaw cycle studies under
triaxial boundary conditions investigated changes in shear strength
with the number of freeze–thaw cycles and the effects of freezing
rate on vertical deformation under isotropic confinement [see
Hazirbaba et al. (2011) and Hazirbaba (2019) for drained conditions
and Alkire (1981) and Steiner (2016) for undrained conditions].
Soils subjected to repetitive loads of all kinds evolve toward
asymptotic conditions; these asymptotic states facilitate data analy-
sis and engineering design; for example, see Wichtmann et al.
(2005), Suiker et al. (2005), Pasten et al. (2014), Li et al. (2019),
and Park and Santamarina (2020) on repetitive mechanical loads.
Previous studies on freeze–thaw cycles did not identify asymptotic
trends in volumetric and shear response. Furthermore, asymptotic
states must depend on ice nucleation and growth patterns that relate
to soil fabric, grain-size distribution, fines fraction, and the state of
effective stress (Taber 1929; Konrad and Morgenstern 1982; Rieke
et al. 1982; Konrad 1989a, b, 1999, 2005; Viggiani et al. 2015;
Lei and Santamarina 2018).
The objective of this study is to examine both the deviatoric
and volumetric responses of soils during freeze–thaw cycles
under globally drained and undrained triaxial loading conditions.

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 The experimental design includes X-ray computed tomography
(CT) scans to identify inherent differences between pore-invasive
ice formation in sands versus grain-displacive ice lens formation in
clays. The article presents the experimental program and results
first. The subsequent analyses focus on the asymptotic trends ob-
served in shear and volumetric responses.
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Experimental Study
The two soils selected for this study have distinct mean pore sizes.
The KAUST 20=30 sand is a subrounded silica sand that represents
common sand deposits worldwide. It was sourced from Jeddah,
Saudi Arabia. It has a roundness (R) of 0.60, specific gravity (Gs )
of 2.65 [ASTM D854 (ASTM 2010)], maximum void ratio (emax )
of 0.76 [ASTM D4253 (ASTM 2006a)], and a minimum void ratio
(emin ) of 0.53 [ASTM D4254 (ASTM 2006b)]. The RP2 kaolinite
has a liquid limit (LL) of 76, specific gravity (Gs ) of 2.60, and clas-
sifies as F(F) with intermediate plasticity and intermediate electri-
cal sensitivity as proposed in the Revised Soil Classification
System (RSCS) [clay produced by air flotation, Gordon, Georgia;
classification system: Jang and Santamarina (2016) and Park and
Santamarina (2017)].
This study tests reconstituted sand and clay specimens in a tri-
axial cell (Fig. 1) (ASTM D7181 and ASTM D4767). The basic
components of the modified triaxial device include the reaction
frame with an axial loading pneumatic piston to maintain a constant
deviatoric load during freeze–thaw cycles, a load cell in series
with the axial shaft, and the triaxial cell (Trautwein, TXD 30).
The instrumentation involves a LVDT for vertical deformation
measurements, pressure transducers to record cell pressure and
excess pore water pressure under undrained conditions (OMEGA
Pneumatic
cylinder
Pressure panel (1)
LC
LVDT
Computer
Insulation
AF
Copper coil tube
Data logger
TC
Pressure
transducer
Circulator Pressure panel (2)
Fig. 1. (Color) Triaxial loading system for freeze–thaw cycles. It
includes peripheral devices to monitor shear deformation, volume
change, and pore water pressure. There is a 20-mm gap between
the copper tubing and the specimens. LC = load cell; AF = antifreeze;
and TC = thermocouple.
© ASCE
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2021, 147(2): 06020030
PX309-100G5V), and a pipette on the pressure panel to track
volume changes under drained conditions. The triaxial cell is
filled with antifreeze (Super Coolant 500), and a copper tube coil
(outer diameter ¼ 6.35 mm, inner diameter ¼ 3.8 mm, length ¼
5,000 mm) wraps around the specimen leaving a 20-mm gap
(Fig. 1). An external pump circulates temperature-controlled
antifreeze through the copper coil tube (C35P Pheonix II, Thermo
Fisher Scientific, Waltham, Massachusetts). Styrofoam insulates
the entire cell to facilitate temperature control.
Previous frozen soil studies in triaxial cells have often used ther-
mocouples attached to membranes to monitor sediment tempera-
ture (Alkire 1981; Hazirbaba et al. 2011; Wang et al. 2015;
Hazirbaba 2019). In this study, a thermocouple is buried at the
center of remolded soil specimens to obtain accurate soil temper-
ature data (OMEGA, T-type 5TC-TT-T-30-72, precision ¼ 0.1°C
and accuracy ¼ 0.5°C; see sketch in Fig. 1 for thermocouple in-
stallation). The freeze–thaw cycles in this study are temperature-
controlled and use the temperature measured by the thermocouple
inside specimens for feedback (Fig. 1). Deionized water fully
saturates the specimens, all drainage lines, and the transducer
cavity.
The experimental study includes a total of eight remolded soil
specimens subjected to freeze–thaw cycles under deviatoric loading
conditions. Preparation of the four sand specimens uses pluviation
into a water-filled latex membrane (stretched in a split mold) fol-
lowed by wet tamping to reach the target initial relative density
Dr ≈ 50%. [Note: Pluviation in water produces high saturation
(Chaney and Mulilis 1978)]. On the other hand, preparation of the
four clay specimens starts with kaolinite pastes mixed with deaired
water at a water content ω ≈ 1.1·LL and stabilized for 24 h; the
pastes are poured into a stretched latex membrane. All specimens
have diameter D ≈ 50 mm and height H ≈ 100 mm at the begin-
ning of the tests. The initial confining effective stress imposed on
both clay and sand specimens is p 0 ¼ 14 kPa. Then deaired water
circulates through the specimens with a bottom-to-top pressure gra-
dient of 3.5 kPa for 24 h. The final B-value exceeds B ¼ 0.95 in
all tests.
All specimens experience the same three-stage loading history:
(1) isotropic consolidation to an effective confining stress po0 ¼
100 kPa, (2) drained deviatoric loading applied at 4 kPa=min,
and (3) freeze–thaw cycles (T freeze ¼ −3°C and T thaw ¼ 14°C).
Table 1 summarizes test conditions for the eight specimens. The
deviatoric loads q ¼ 20 kPa and q ¼ 25 kPa applied to sand speci-
men results in stress obliquities q=po0 ¼ 0.20 and 0.25. Kaolin
specimens experience high excess pore water pressure during thaw-
ing, and tests are limited to stress obliquities q=po0 ¼ 0.05 and 0.20.
Experimental Results
This section presents detailed experimental results for sand and kao-
linite specimens to identify critical aspects of temperature, deforma-
tion, and pore water pressure response during freeze–thaw cycles.
The next section reports the analyses of the complete data set ac-
cording to drainage conditions. Note that freezing triggers fluid flow
and eventually shuts off drainage pathways both in the laboratory
and in the field, thereby opening or closing drainage valves controls
global drainage conditions but does not necessarily determine inter-
nal local flow [Wang et al. 2017; see related implications in Kim and
Santamarina (2008)]. Consequently, this study describes specimen
drainage conditions during freeze–thaw cycles as either (1) globally
drained (drainage valves remain open throughout the freeze–thaw
cycles); or (2) globally undrained (drainage valves remain closed
during freeze–thaw cycles).
06020030-2 J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.
 Table 1. Test conditions for sand and clay specimens
Test conditions for freeze–thaw cycles
Initial state
Soil parameters: Dr for Mean effective Deviatoric Maximum number Drainage conditions
type No. sand, ein for clay stress po0 (kPa) stress q (kPa) of cycles (freeze–thaw cycle)
Sand 1 54.8 100 20 2 Drained
2 49.6 100 25 10 Drained
3 49.1 100 20 5 Undrained
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4 52.6 100 25 5 Undrained

Clay 5 1.307 100 5 10 Drained
6 1.337 100 20 10 Drained
7 1.374 100 5 3 Undrained
8 1.303 100 20 2 Undrained
Note: Dr = relative density; and ein = void ratio after sample preparations.

Globally Undrained Cycles
Sand. Fig. 2 displays temperature T, vertical deformation δ z , and
pore water pressure uw signatures gathered for the sand specimen.
The first part of the time series shows the specimen response during
a conventional consolidated-drained, axial-compression triaxial test
at room temperature. Zone (1) corresponds to the end of isotropic
consolidation to an effective confining stress po0 ¼ 100 kPa at
T ¼ þ19°C. Zone (2) captures the specimen response during
drained deviatoric loading to q ¼ 25 kPa.
The second part shows the first three consecutive freeze–
thaw cycles under globally undrained conditions (initial void ratio
eo ¼ 0.604 at cycle number i ¼ 0). Water contraction during early
cooling causes a decrease in pore water pressure and the sand
specimen shortens as the temperature drops from þ19°C to a super-
cooled −2°C [(Zone (3)]. After ice nucleation, the exothermic

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (3) (4) (5) (6) (3) (4) (5) (6)
25
20
Temperature T [oC]

15
10
5
0
-5
-10

q= 25 kPa

Drained Undrained
20
Pore pressure uw [kPa]

10

-10

-20
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Time [min]

Fig. 2. (Color) Sand specimen—undrained freeze–thaw cycles. Time-dependent temperature, vertical deformation, and pore pressure: (1) isotropic
confinement (po0 ¼ 100 kPa, q ¼ 0); (2) deviatoric loading under drained conditions (p 0 ¼ 125 kPa, q ¼ 25 kPa); (3) undrained cooling; (4) water-
to-ice phase change; (5) thawing: ice-to-water transformation; and (6) heating to T ¼ 19°C. Shaded screen on top of pressure data indicates data
uncertainty due to potential freezing of drainage lines.

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 water-to-ice transformation brings the supercooled temperature
back to the freezing point T ¼ 0°C and the temperature remains
constant while the bulk pore water freezes [Zone (4)-①]; cooling
to T ¼ −3°C continues thereafter [Zone (4)-②]. Freezing produces
volume expansion and the LVDT registers the vertical displace-
ment. The negative pore water pressure appears to vanish during
ice formation and expansion; however, water freezing along perco-
lating pathways limits reliable pore water pressure measurements in
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Once again, the test starts as a conventional consolidated-
drained, axial-compression triaxial test conducted at room temper-
ature. The first part of the time series in Fig. 3 corresponds to the
end of isotropic consolidation to an effective confining stress po0 ¼
100 kPa [Zone (1)]. The deviatoric loading to q ¼ 5 kPa under
drained conditions causes a significant shortening of the specimen
[Zone (2)].
Thereafter, freeze–thaw cycles begin under globally undrained

this zone, thus, the shaded screen placed on pressure data (Note: as
highlighted above, this inherent experimental limitation affects all
laboratory and field studies).
Heating starts immediately after the end of freezing [Zone
(5)-①]. The ice-to-water phase transformation occurs at constant
temperature [Zone (5)-②], and, the transient pressure peak response
is uncertain as noted above. Thawing causes a pronounced down-
ward deformation, and the pore water pressure returns to negative
values due to the sand dilative tendency under deviatoric loading
[end of Zone (5)-②]. Water expands as heating approaches T ¼
19°C; the pore water pressure increases yet remains negative as
the specimen tends to dilate [Zone (6)].
Clay. Fig. 3 plots the temperature–deformation–pore water pres-
sure, T–δ z –uw , response for the kaolinite specimen. The following
observations address the remarkable differences between the sand
and clay responses.
conditions (initial void ratio eo ¼ 1.15). During the cooling phase
from T ¼ 20°C to supercooling at T ¼ −2°C, the pore pressure de-
creases and the specimen shortens. Water-to-ice transformation
starts at the beginning of Zone (4), and there is a sharp temperature
recovery from the supercooled temperature T ¼ −2°C to T ≈ 0°C.
Thereafter, the temperature gradually decreases as the phase
transformation progresses and reaches T ¼ −3°C at the end of
Zone (4)-②. Once again, the shaded area is a reminder of uncertain
pore pressure measurements in this zone. Complementary tomo-
graphic images show segregated ice lens formation and clay com-
paction by cryogenic suction, which explains the initial vertical
contraction (images presented later in this manuscript).
Heating in Zone (5)-① causes gradual thawing. Only the end
of thawing takes place at a relatively constant temperature [Zone
(5)-②] and is accompanied by a pronounced increase in pore water
pressure, a drop in effective stress p 0 and a marked downward

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (3) (4) (5) (6) (3) (4) (5) (6)
25
20
Temperature T [oC]

15
10
5
0
-5
-10
2
q=5 kPa
[mm]

0
z

-2
Deformation

-4

-6

-8
Drained Undrained
100
Pore pressure uw [kPa]

75

50

25

-25

-50
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Time [min]

Fig. 3. (Color) Clay specimen—undrained freeze–thaw cycles. Time-dependent temperature, vertical deformation, and pore pressure. (1) Isotropic
confinement (po0 ¼ 100 kPa, q ¼ 0); (2) deviatoric loading under drained conditions (p 0 ¼ 105 kPa, q ¼ 5 kPa); (3) undrained cooling; (4) water-to-
ice phase transformation; (5) heating and ice-to-water transformation; and (6) heating to T ¼ 14°C. Shaded screen on top of pressure data indicates
data uncertainty due to potential freezing of drainage lines.

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 displacement under the constant deviatoric stress. These observa-
tions suggest the melting of segregated ice lenses during this period
[Zone (5)-②]. Continuous heating to T ¼ 14°C in Zone (6) results
in an additional increase in pore water pressure and a decrease in
effective confining stress due to water expansion. Consequently, the
downward displacement of the clay specimen continues in this
zone. Note that the pore water pressure rapidly approaches the con-
fining stress at the end of the third heating cycle.
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vertical strain continues accumulating in all cycles (q–εz and e–p 0
quadrants).
Kaolinite. Fig. 5 presents the load-deformation response for
two normally consolidated (NC) clay specimens that are isotropi-
cally confined to po0 ¼ 100 kPa; the void ratio decreases during
isotropic consolidation in both specimens. Then they are loaded
to different deviatoric stresses q ¼ 5 kPa (εz ≈ 0.015) and q ¼
20 kPa (εz ≈ 0.035). The two specimens experience pronounced

General observation. Figs. 2 and 3 show the first three com-
plete freeze–thaw cycles. There is a striking similarity and self-
consistency between successive cycles in each case.
Globally Drained Cycles: Vertical and Volumetric
Strains
This section summarizes the observed response when sand and clay
specimens are subjected to freeze–thaw cycles under globally
drained conditions.
Sand. Fig. 4 displays the load-deformation response for two
sand specimens initially loaded to the same isotropic confinement
po0 ¼ 100 kPa, followed by deviatoric loading to q ¼ 20 kPa and
25 kPa, respectively. The vertical strain εz is the ratio between the
cumulative vertical displacement and the initial specimen height
(Note: εz is approximately 0.01 after the initial deviatoric load.)
Both specimens are denser than the critical state at the end of static
loading (Fig. 4: e–p 0 quadrant), yet the two dilative specimens con-
tract during the first freeze–thaw cycle (e–p 0 quadrant); eventually,
both sand specimens gradually dilate during successive cycles. The
compaction during the first freeze–thaw cycle; the rate of compac-
tion decreases with subsequent cycles (see p 0 –e quadrant). The
volumetric strain εvol ¼ Δe=ð1 þ eo Þ ≤ 0.05 after the first 10
cycles is less significant than the vertical strain accumulation: εz ≈
0.1 for q ¼ 5 kPa and εz ≈ 0.27 for q ¼ 20 kPa.
Discussion
This section analyzes all experimental results starting with defor-
mations. There are two distinct asymptotic trends in the evolution
of soils subjected to repetitive loads (Alonso-Marroquin and
Herrmann 2004; Werkmeister et al. 2005; Pasten et al. 2014; Cai
et al. 2018). First, the volumetric response evolves toward an
asymptotic void ratio or terminal density in each case (Narsilio and
Santamarina 2008; Park and Santamarina 2019). Second, the shear
strain accumulation can either vanish as the number of cycles in-
creases (so-called shakedown, typically at low stress obliquity) or
continue accumulating unceasingly (ratcheting, typically at high
stress obliquity). Triaxial data provide vertical deformation (or
vertical strain εz ) and volume change (or volumetric strain εvol ).

80 80
q [kPa]

60

40
[10] [9][6] [5] [4] [3] [2] [1] [0]
[0]
q/p'o= 0.25

[8] [7]
20 q/p'o= 0.20
[2] [1] 1
1
Vertical Strain z 150
p' [kPa]

0.015 0.010 0.005 0

0.000 50 100 150
0.56

[2]
0.58 [2]

[1]
[1]

[0]
0.60 [0]
[7] [6]
[0] [1]
[4] [0]
[3] [2]
[10] [9] [8]
[5]
[2]
[1] 0.62 [10]
Void Ratio

0.64
Note: ecs=0.845-0.074 log(p')
0.66

Fig. 4. (Color) Sand specimens subjected to drained freeze–thaw cycles—end-of-thaw conditions. Number in square brackets [#]: freeze–thaw cycle
number. Mean effective stress p 0 ¼ ðσ1 0 þ σ3 0 Þ=2; deviatoric stress q ¼ ðσ1 0 þ σ3 0 Þ=2; and ϕcs ¼ sin-1 ðtan αÞ. Filled red circle and blue triangle
show conditions at end of first freezing event.

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 80

q [kPa]
60

40
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[10] [8][6] [4][3] [2] [1] [0]

20 20 q/p'o= 0.20
[10] [6] [4] [2] [1] [0]
[9] [7] [5] 1

Vertical Strain z 0.05 q/p'o= 0.05 100 1 150

p' [kPa]
0
0.6
0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0
0.00 50 100 150
0.7
[10] [10]
[9]
[8] [10]
0.8 [10] [7]
[7]
[6] [5]
[6] [4]
[5] [6] [4]
[4]
[4]
0.9 [3]
[3] [2] [2]
[2] [2]
[1] [1]
[1] [1] 1.0
[0] [0]
[0] [0]
1.1
Void Ratio 1.2

1.4

Fig. 5. (Color) Normally consolidated clay specimens subjected to drained freeze–thaw cycles—end-of-thawing conditions. Number in square
brackets [#]: freeze–thaw cycle number. Mean effective stress p 0 ¼ ðσ1 0 þ σ3 0 Þ=2; deviatoric stress q ¼ ðσ1 0 þ σ3 0 Þ=2; and ϕcs ¼ sin-1 ðtan αÞ. Filled
red circle and blue triangle show conditions at end of first freezing event.

0.25 0.25

0.20 0.20
z

z
Vertical strain

Vertical strain

0.15 0.15

0.10 0.10

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2 4 6 8 10
(a) Number of freeze-thaw cycles (b) Number of freeze-thaw cycles

Fig. 6. (Color) Shear response in terms of vertical strain accumulation at end of thawing as function of number of freeze–thaw cycles: (a) undrained
freeze–thaw cycles (first 5 cycles); and (b) drained freeze–thaw cycles (first 10 cycles). Isotropic confinement is po0 ¼ 100 kPa for all cases. Filled red
and blue circles and triangles show conditions at end of first freezing event.

The vertical strain εz and the volumetric strain εvol make it possible Vertical Deformation
to estimate the shear strain γ ¼ ð3εz − εvol Þ=2 under triaxial boun- Globally undrained condition. Fig. 6(a) presents the evolution of
dary conditions; therefore, the triaxial test results reported earlier the vertical strain εz with the number of freeze–thaw cycles under
facilitate making inferences about both shear and volumetric globally undrained conditions. Contractive clayey sediments and
asymptotes. For clarity, this discussion emphasizes the measure specimens subjected to a higher initial obliquity q=po0 display more
parameters. vertical strain accumulation during freeze–thaw cycles. The first

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 thawing cycle is particularly critical on the vertical deformation of
clayey sediments subjected to deviatoric loading because of the
localization of shear displacement along the melting ice lenses.
[Note: Micro CT images reveal the formation of shear bands in
the presence of ice lenses (Steiner 2016)]. In general, all specimens
exhibit so-called ratcheting and the vertical strain accumulation
evolves toward a linear trend with the number of cycles.
Globally drained condition. Fig. 6(b) shows the vertical strain εz
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plotted against the number of freeze–thaw cycles under globally
drained boundary conditions. Results are consistent with those ob-
tained under globally undrained conditions; in particular, there is a
significant vertical strain in clay specimens during the first thawing.
Note that clayey sediments may form thicker ice lenses under glob-
ally drained conditions owing to the continuous water supply re-
quired for crystal growth. By contrast, free-draining boundaries
do not necessarily indicate that drainage takes place during early
thawing. Therefore, high internal local pore pressures may develop
during thawing when ice is grain-displacive and forms segregated
lenses in clayey sediments.
Volumetric Response
Globally undrained conditions: pore water pressure. The fluid
pressure measured in globally undrained tests reflects the sediment
volumetric tendency. Fig. 7(a) presents the evolution of pore water
pressure at the end of thawing against the number of freeze–thaw
cycles. Excess pore water pressure develops in both NC clay spec-
imens; clearly, the melting of grain-displacive ice lenses leads to
high excess pore water pressure. On the other hand, the dilative
tendency in sand specimens denser than the critical state hinders
the buildup of excess pore pressure (Note: the specimen at q=po0 ¼
0.25 is slightly denser than the sand specimen at q=po0 ¼ 0.20).
Globally drained conditions: void ratio evolution. The evolu-
tion of the void ratio during globally drained freeze–thaw cycles
depends on the initial packing density [compaction prevails for
loosely packed soils while expansion dominates for densely packed
soils; see data in Eigenbrod (1996) and Viklander (1998)], and the
applied load [a high load decreases frost-heave during freezing and
promotes contraction during thawing; see Lee et al. (2010) and
Wang et al. (2015)].
100
Clay (q/p'o =0.05)
Clay (q/p'o =0.20)
75
Pore water pressure uw [kPa]
50
25
0
Sand (q/p'o =0.25)
-25
-50
0 1 2 3 4 5
(a) Number of freeze-thaw cycles
Fig. 7. (Color) Volumetric tendency during repetitive freeze–thaw cycles. (a) Pore water pressure at end of thawing in undrained freeze–thaw cycles
(first five cycles); and (b) void ratio at end of thawing in drained cycles. Isotropic confinement is po0 ¼ 100 kPa for all cases. Filled red and blue
circles and triangles show conditions at end of first freezing event.
© ASCE 06020030-7
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2021, 147(2): 06020030
Fig. 7(b) shows changes in the void ratio at the end of thawing
for clay and sand specimens under globally drained conditions
against the number of freeze–thaw cycles. The void ratio evolves
toward asymptotic values as the number of freeze–thaw cycles in-
creases for both clay and sand specimens. Dilative sand specimens
tend to become looser (after the initial contraction during the first
cycle), while the NC-clay specimens become denser. Apparently,
clays require a larger number of freeze–thaw cycles than sands to
reach their terminal void ratio. The range of obliquity values q=po0
tested in this study has a diminishing effect on the void ratio as
compared to soil type and the number of freeze–thaw cycles.
Temperature Response
The temperature signatures are quite distinct during sand and kao-
linite freezing. Both experience supercooling before phase transfor-
mation; supercooling results from continued cooling during the
induction time prior to nucleation (Dai et al. 2014). Thereafter,
phase transformation takes place at constant temperature in sands
where ice growth is pore-invasive [Fig. 2, Zone (4)-①]. However,
the temperature continues decreasing while the kaolinite specimen
freezes [Zone (4)-① in Fig. 3]. Grain-displacive ice growth and seg-
regated ice lenses cause cryogenic suction, clay consolidation, and
smaller pore sizes. Water in small pores freezes at a lower temper-
ature, T pore < T bulk , i.e., freezing point depression (Kozlowski
2009). The Gibbs–Thomson equation relates the freezing point de-
pression ΔT pore to the pore radius r:
2γ iw T bulk cos θiw
ΔT pore ¼ ð1Þ
ρw ΔHf r
where the water density is ρw ¼ 1,000 kg=m3 ; θiw is the contact
angle that the ice–water interface forms on the mineral surface;
the specific latent heat of water is ΔH f ¼ 334 kJ=kg; and the sur-
face tension between ice and water is γ iw ¼ 26.7 mJ=m2 . For ex-
ample, the freezing point depression for a clayey sediment with
pore radius r ¼ 0.1 μm is ΔT pore ≈ −0.4°C. Cryogenic suction,
consolidation, and freezing point depression combine with ion
exclusion during ice formation and rate of cooling (i.e., nonequi-
librium conditions) to produce the gradual phase transition at
0.5
Freezing
Sand (q/p'o =0.20)
0.6
0.7
Void ratio e
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
Freezing
1.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(b) Number of freeze-thaw cycles
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.
 decreasing temperature T pore observed in fine-grained soils com-
pared to a quasi-constant phase transition for the bulk water in
coarse-grained soils [see Zone (4) in Figs. 2 and 3].
The temperature signatures reflect local conditions at the
thermocouple position, rather than global thermal equilibrium. Yet,
measured temperature signatures are very similar for thermocou-
ples placed at the middle and bottom of the specimen. (Note that
the thermocouple millimeter scale is much larger than the microm-
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eter scale mean pore size in kaolinite).
Ice Pore Habit: Fabric Changes
The sediments tested in this study were selected to explore the
effects of distinct ice pore habits on the sediment response to
freeze–thaw cycles. X-ray micro CT images in Fig. 8 confirm
pore-invasive ice formation in the sand specimen and grain-
displacive ice lenses in the kaolinite specimen. Ice pore habit re-
flects the competing effects of capillarity Δuiw and effective stress
σ 0 . The capillary pressure in ice Δuiw ¼ uice − uwater ≈ γ iw =2r de-
pends on the ice–water interfacial tension γ iw and the pore radius r;
in turn, the pore radius r is determined by the sediment grain size
distribution and the packing density or void ratio e. Pore-invasive
ice growth prevails when σz0 =Δuiw > 1.0 [Fig. 8(a)]; this is the case
with coarse-grained sediments even at low overburden effective
stress σz0 . By contrast, the ice-phase experiences high capillary
pressure Δuiw ¼ uice − uwater in the small pores of fine-grained
sediments, and grain-displacive ice growth forms segregated nod-
ules and lenses even at depths as great as σz0 =Δuiw < 1.0 [Fig. 8(b);
T = 20 °C T = -1 °C
(a)
T = 20 °C T = -1 °C
(b)
Fig. 8. X-ray CT images for sand and clay specimens before and after freezing. (a) KAUST 20=30 sand; and (b) kaolinite paste mixed at water content
near liquid limit ω ≈ 1.1·LL. Light color corresponds to soil minerals, dark color to ice. Cell diameter is 32 mm.
© ASCE 06020030-8
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2021, 147(2): 06020030
see work by Konrad and Morgenstern (1982); similar trends for
hydrate formation are reported in Dai et al. (2012)].
Soil fabric changes during freezing and thawing are closely
related to ice pore habit, cryogenic-induced compaction, and the
relative rates between temperature diffusion and pressure diffusion,
i.e., drainage. Fig. 9 presents a conceptual interpretation of ice pore
habit and associated fabric changes during a freeze–thaw cycle.
Pore-invasive ice growth in coarse-grained sediments preserves
the overall fabric, and there is a slight volume expansion during
freezing; though minor, this perturbation prompts some fabric rear-
rangement upon thawing as observed in experimental results. On
the other hand, grain-displacive ice lens formation in fine-grained
sediments combines with cryogenic suction to consolidate the clay
mass during freezing. (Note: The global volume expands due to
water-ice expansion even under globally undrained conditions.)
Then clayey specimens experience significant volume contraction
during globally drained thawing as most of the water in segregated
lenses drains out.
Field Conditions: Diffusion Rates and Drainage
This study focused on element tests under triaxial boundary con-
ditions. The analysis of boundary value problems in the field will
require proper numerical modeling and upscaling. Drainage condi-
tions during freezing and thawing in nature depend on the rate
of pressure diffusion relative to the rate of heat transport. The di-
mensionless ratio Π ¼ DT= Cv between the thermal diffusion coef-
ficient DT and the coefficients of consolidation Cv predicts drained
T = -5 °C
T = -5 °C
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.
 freezing thawing
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Water-saturated sand Volume expansion Volume contraction*

(a)

freezing thawing

Water saturated NC clay Volume expansion Volume contraction

(b)

Fig. 9. (Color) Ice pore habit and fabric changes during freeze–thaw cycle. (a) Pore-invasive; and (b) grain-displacive (fine-grained soils). Sketches
show water-saturated soil fabrics before freezing, after freezing, and after thawing. Densely packed sands may become looser.

freezing and thawing when Π < 1 and potentially undrained con-
ditions when a high thermal gradient is imposed on sediments with
Π > 1. For references, typical Π values are Π ¼ 1.3 to 4.0 × 10−5
for sands, Π ¼ 0.01 to 0.80 for silts, and Π ¼ 2.7 to 4.5 for clays
[computed using parameters in Leonards and Girault (1961), Lowe
et al. (1964), and Andersland and Ladanyi (2013)]. This analysis
implies that globally drained freeze–thaw cycles can be expected in
clean sands and silts; however, even sands may experience globally
undrained freeze–thaw conditions if interbedded between fine-
grained layers in stratified sediments.
Both dilative sand and NC clay specimens subjected to de-
viatoric loading exhibit unceasing vertical strain accumulation
(i.e., ratcheting) during both globally drained and undrained
freeze–thaw cycles. The void ratio in both sands and clays evolves
toward asymptotic values with the number of cycles. Clays re-
quire a larger number of freeze–thaw cycles to reach the terminal
void ratio.
The freezing rate relative to the pressure diffusion rate Π ¼
DT =Cv regulates drainage conditions during freeze–thaw cycles.
Globally drained freezing and thawing are anticipated in coarse-
grained sediments.

Conclusions
This study characterized fine- and coarse-grained soil responses
during globally drained and undrained freeze–thaw cycles under
constant deviatoric stresses. The asymptotic shear and volumetric
responses vary with sediment type and drainage conditions.
The in situ effective stress σz0 and the capillary pressure Δuiw
determine ice formation and pore habit. The capillary pressure
is inversely proportional to the pore size. Consequently, one can
expect pore-invasive ice formation in coarse-grained soils when
σz0 =Δuiw > 1.0 and grain-displacive ice lens formation in fine-
grained soils when σz0 =Δuiw < 1.0. These distinct pore habits de-
fine the shear and volumetric soil response to freeze–thaw cycles.
Grain-displacive ice growth causes cryogenic suction and con-
solidates the surrounding sediment. Subsequent melting of the seg-
regated ice lenses yields a high increase in pore water pressure
(globally undrained thawing), pronounced volume contraction
under globally drained conditions, and preferential shear deforma-
tion along melting ice lenses.
Pore-invasive ice formation in coarse-grained sediments may
trigger some contraction during the first freeze–thaw cycle even
in sands denser than the critical state. The applied deviatoric load
prompts loose specimens to contract and dense specimens to dilate
upon thawing.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study ap-
pear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by the KAUST endowment. Additional
funding was provided by the Basic Science Research Program
through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded
by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning (NRF-
2020R1A2B5B03001470). Gabrielle E. Abelskamp edited the
manuscript.
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