ENGINEERING GEOLOGY; ASSESING THE ROLE OF SOIL IN

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Engineering geology is an interdisciplinary field in which pertinent studies in

geology and other geosciences areas are applied toward the solution of problems
involved in engineering works and resources uses (Sitar et al, 1983).

The Association of Engineering and Environmental Geologists (AEG;

www.aegweb.org) define engineering geology as "The application of geologic
data, techniques, and principles to the study of naturally occurring rock and soil
materials or subsurface fluids. The purpose is to assure that geologic factors
affecting the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of
engineering structures and the development of groundwater resources are
recognized, adequately interpreted, and presented for use in engineering practice.

"Engineering Geology is the science devoted to the investigation, study and

solution of the engineering and environmental problems which may arise as the
result of the interaction between geology and the works and activities of man as
well as to the prediction and of the development of measures for prevention or
remediation of geological hazards. Ignorance of geology (or a poor assessment of
geology), and of geologic hazards (floods, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc.) cannot be
tolerated in civil and environmental engineering projects. Failure to characterize
the geological site and geological setting has too often resulted in needless
structural damage, environmental disasters, or loss of life. In almost all cases,
proper consultation with engineering geologists or geological engineers could have
prevented such problems. Its should be aware that an adequate geological site
1
evaluation and exploration program is vital to a project and represents only a small
percent of its overall cost. It should be thought of as an investment in a product
with a useful life rather than as a means for generating short-term profits. An
adequate geological site evaluation and exploration program is one of the best
insurance for safeguarding against unforeseen failure and catastrophic losses due to
tangible material loss and to liability and litigation.

1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Soil is an important resource covering the land surface. Man depends on soil
for agriculture, construction and even as a habitat for various organisms (Mwangi,
2007). People benefit from soil particularly sand and gravel but interfere and
disturb the resource through excessive exploitation to fulfill their needs. There is
worldwide concern about the environment which prompted the researcher to carry
out this study on the environment. It seems there is excessive mining of soil
components for construction in both rural and urban development. Gravel is mixed
with river sand in filling and compacting foundations, river sand is a component of
concrete in making slab while pit sand is required for plastering buildings. River
sand is used in most mixtures because it is a strong resource which strengthens
even pit sand in plastering and makes durable bricks (Morwaeng, 2013).

Sand is a valuable resource and main input in the construction industry in many
parts of the world (Eiskine and Green, 2000, Gob, et al, 2005). Mining excavation
involves the removal of sand from their natural configuration. Sand mining occurs
both on small and large-scale in major parts of Nigeria. It has been observed that
with an estimated 16 million housing deficit (Ezekiel 2010; lsah, 2011) and
infrastructural development in Nigeria, there will continue to be the great demand
for sand and other construction materials (Omolu and Ajakaiye, 1988). Sand

2
mining is a practice that is used to extract sand, mainly through an open pit. Sand
is also mined from beaches, inland dunes and dredged from ocean beds and river
beds.

Sand is often used in manufacturing as an abrasive, for example, and it is used to

make concrete. It is also used in cold regions to put on the roads by municipal
trucks to help during heavy rainfall and extreme weather conditions, usually mixed
with salt or another mixture to lower the freezing temperature of the road surface
(have the precipitations freeze at a lower temperature). Sand dredged from the
mouths of rivers can also be used to replace eroded coastline (Kadi, et al., 2012).

The increasing rate of urbanization across the globe has brought with it several
challenges ranging from physical, economic, social, to environmental among other
issues (Cohen, 2006; Chelala, 2010: Kadi, et al., 2012). To cater for the rapid
urbanization, several sites are now being exploited for the excavation of sand.
Traditionally, sites for sand mining are rivers and beaches; however, sand is mined
from river months, banks and even at inland sand deposits.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study is to assess the role of soil in the field of engineering
geology. In order to achieve the above stated aim, the following specific objectives
were considered;

i. To identify the various soil quality sites along Gwandu to Birnin Kebbi
formation.
ii. To evaluate and propose measures to be improved in these areas by planners
and decision makers.
iii. To investigate the effects of soil excavation on coastal areas where
excavation is done in Gwandu Region, in Kebbi State.
3
iv. To proffer solutions to the sustainability of the environment in Gwandu
where soil is going on in the area studied.
v. Examine the problems associated with soil and land usage in the study area.

1.4 LOCATION AND EXTENT

The area (Gwandu) near the capital city of the State of Birnin Kebbi, NW Nigeria.
The area of study is about 440 m × 420 m and encloses an Escarpment
Feature/Structure on a sedimentary rock generally referred to as the Gwandu
Formation. The Gwandu Formation (though not described in the paper) consists of
continental lacustrine sediments and is the youngest Palaeogene Formation present
in the Sokoto sector of the larger Iullemmeden Basin. The study measured; along
some selected profiles across this escarpment feature using theodolites, theodolites
will be used to measure the horizontal and vertical angles between the selected
points. Surveyors combine the angle data with distances from a chain or tape
measure, and it allows them to triangulate the location of any point using
trigonometry, the area has a longitudinal of 12.4988285 and a latitudinal
4.6427650.

1.5 ACCESSIBILITY

Gwandu town is characterized by recent sedimentary formation outcrops and

heterogeneous deposits. These sedimentary features define shallow aquifers. The
sediment properties and hydrogeological conditions make the site favorable for
seismic wave amplification. As a result the soil is prone to liquefaction and
increased damage. Gwandu town is a complex geological structure. During the
geological history of the area, sedimentary events have influenced deposit
characteristics, as well as morphology of the site. Sedimentation of thick detritus
materials in Sokoto to Gwandu land mass. Slope stability is one of the most severe

4
problems affecting urban planning in the study area. As mentioned in previous
studies, there have been numerous landslides indicating using google map from
Sokoto to Gwandu. In Gwandu town (Figure 1), flooding is an environmental
problem which restricts and influences urban development. The occurrence of
flooding depends upon the intensity of rainfall. In this study the stream network is
mapped to identify the area endangered by floods. In the study area, soil is
heterogeneous and has engineering properties that vary markedly with location and
causes damage to urban buildings. Preliminary planning for the geotechnical
investigations at the study site is required to outline the technical and managerial
tasks and to plan the detailed scope of the study. This involves data collection,

urban geological investigation and geotechnical study (in situ and in the
laboratory).

5
Fig 1.1 identifying and assessing the area sites from Sokoto Basin to Gwandu

Sources: (Google map, 8th, August, 2021).

1.6 RELIEF AND DRIANAGES

The map of the temporary and the permanent drainage system is derived from
scanning the topographic maps at the scale of 888222 that cover the study area
using Google Map. This map shows a network of permanent streams and the large
plains. The study of water table level in Gwandu shows that it has an important
depth near the surrounding relief, where streams are passed through the sides of the
town, commonly known as Fadama. In the plains, the depth of the water is low and
but the width is very large, an estimated size of 23,000kW by 67,000Km from
North West. It is confused with the natural topographic elevation even in areas
near lakes. For the aquifer with water table depth between 2 m and 4 m the risk for
management and secure urbanization is high. the ”geological” map and the
topographic layer, it shows that the structures constituting the high reliefs are made
of water and Granites stone alternations. These regions where the water is too
shallow are mapped as areas with major risk for future planning projects. The long-
term evaluation of the seismic activity of the region is interesting in estimating the
risk for the safe urban extension. The object of the seismic hazard is to assess the
level of soil and effects using Engineering Geology of the land, this can be doen by
knowing the level and assessing the amount of water supplied from Sokoto Basin.

1.7 VEGETATION

The area is intensively cultivated to array of crops such as onion, tomato, cowpea
and millet. The length of growing period is 90-150 days. Soil vegetation features
related to biotic (plant and animal) activity such as burrows, mounds, root
channels, and worm castings will be used as determing engineering geology of

6
soil, the vegetation in the axis of Sokoto to Gwandu soil is mostly likely to be Rice
plantation, Neem trees which contribute to soil profile development because each
of these processes change the porosity of the soil. The burrowing of animals, much
like old root channels, creates large pores for rapid movement of water, gases, and
solutes through the soil. The structure of some surface horizons is formed entirely
by animal activity (earthworms, ants, termites, and other organisms). Earthworms
are capable of consuming their own body weight in food daily (Minnich 1977).
They are also responsible for the ‘sinking’ of objects through the soil profile over
time (Darwin 1897). Charles Darwin devoted his last book, “The Formation of
Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms” to the process of bioturbation, the
process in which plants and animals facilitate the mixing, or rearrangement, of the
soil profile.

Nigeria is blessed with a

unique vegetation cover with
about 580 tree species which may
grow up to about 12.5m at
maturity level [9]. Nigeria on
the other hand is one of the

7
highest country with
deforestation problem and the
highest in
African continent; where about
55.8% of its natural forest
was destroyed between 2000
and 2005 [10]. Katsina state is
very diverse in terms of its forest
cover with Neem tree being
dominant specie; it also blessed
with many species of plants
for various uses ranging from
fuel wood, ethno medicine,
food and many more. This
richness of natural resources has

8
led to many interruptions of the
natural ecosystem by humans
leading to high rates of
deforestation
Nigeria is blessed with a
unique vegetation cover with
about 580 tree species which may
grow up to about 12.5m at
maturity level [9]. Nigeria on
the other hand is one of the
highest country with
deforestation problem and the
highest in
African continent; where about
55.8% of its natural forest

9
was destroyed between 2000
and 2005 [10]. Katsina state is
very diverse in terms of its forest
cover with Neem tree being
dominant specie; it also blessed
with many species of plants
for various uses ranging from
fuel wood, ethno medicine,
food and many more. This
richness of natural resources has
led to many interruptions of the
natural ecosystem by humans
leading to high rates of
deforestation
Nigeria is blessed with a
unique vegetation cover with
10
about 580 tree species which may
grow up to about 12.5m at
maturity level [9]. Nigeria on
the other hand is one of the
highest country with
deforestation problem and the
highest in
African continent; where about
55.8% of its natural forest
was destroyed between 2000
and 2005 [10]. Katsina state is
very diverse in terms of its forest
cover with Neem tree being
dominant specie; it also blessed
with many species of plants

11
for various uses ranging from
fuel wood, ethno medicine,
food and many more. This
richness of natural resources has
led to many interruptions of the
natural ecosystem by humans
leading to high rates of
deforestation
Nigeria is blessed with a
unique vegetation cover with
about 580 tree species which may
grow up to about 12.5m at
maturity level [9]. Nigeria on
the other hand is one of the

12
highest country with
deforestation problem and the
highest in
African continent; where about
55.8% of its natural forest
was destroyed between 2000
and 2005 [10]. Katsina state is
very diverse in terms of its forest
cover with Neem tree being
dominant specie; it also blessed
with many species of plants
for various uses ranging from
fuel wood, ethno medicine,
food and many more. This
richness of natural resources has

13
led to many interruptions of the
natural ecosystem by humans
leading to high rates of
deforestation
Nigeria is blessed with a
unique vegetation cover with
about 580 tree species which may
grow up to about 12.5m at
maturity level [9]. Nigeria on
the other hand is one of the
highest country with
deforestation problem and the
highest in
African continent; where about
55.8% of its natural forest

14
was destroyed between 2000
and 2005 [10]. Katsina state is
very diverse in terms of its forest
cover with Neem tree being
dominant specie; it also blessed
with many species of plants
for various uses ranging from
fuel wood, ethno medicine,
food and many more. This
richness of natural resources has
led to many interruptions of the
natural ecosystem by humans
leading to high rates of
deforestation
Nigeria is blessed with a
unique vegetation cover with
15
about 580 tree species which may
grow up to about 12.5m at
maturity level [9]. Nigeria on
the other hand is one of the
highest country with
deforestation problem and the
highest in
African continent; where about
55.8% of its natural forest
was destroyed between 2000
and 2005 [10]. Katsina state is
very diverse in terms of its forest
cover with Neem tree being
dominant specie; it also blessed
with many species of plants

16
for various uses ranging from
fuel wood, ethno medicine,
food and many more. This
richness of natural resources has
led to many interruptions of the
natural ecosystem by humans
leading to high rates of
deforestation
Nigeria is blessed with a
unique vegetation cover with
about 580 tree species which may
grow up to about 12.5m at
maturity level [9]. Nigeria on
the other hand is one of the

17
highest country with
deforestation problem and the
highest in
African continent; where about
55.8% of its natural forest
was destroyed between 2000
and 2005 [10]. Katsina state is
very diverse in terms of its forest
cover with Neem tree being
dominant specie; it also blessed
with many species of plants
for various uses ranging from
fuel wood, ethno medicine,
food and many more. This
richness of natural resources has

18
led to many interruptions of the
natural ecosystem by humans
leading to high rates of
deforestation
The areas is blessed with over 3000 Neem trees, which may grow up to about
12.5m height maturity level, the areas is blessed with different vegetation species
on the land, and may increased the life span and quality of the land (Ghaleeb,
2020).

1.8 CLIMATE

The climate of Sokoto State-Gwandu is wet and dry; generally hot semi-arid
tropics in Coppen classification of AW type (Sombroek and Zonneveld, 1971). It is
characterized by long dry season from October through May/June and a short but
intensive wet season from May/June through September. The temperature
fluctuates within a range from 16 0C during cold nights to over 40 0C during the
hot days. The relative humidity during dry season is about 15-20% and reaches up
to 70-75% during the rainy season. Most of the arable land consists of well drained
upland with flat or slightly undulating topography which supports one growing
season under rainfall conditions.

In early soil profile development, parent material gives way to the major physical
and chemical properties of a soil. As the soil becomes more developed (through
horizon formation and increased soil structure over time), its characteristics depend
more heavily on the climatic conditions to which it is exposed. Climate plays a

19
significant role in the formation of soil and any number of climate-related
occurrences (e.g., precipitation and temperature) may influence soil development.

The climates condition for the study will be analyzed; taking the samples of
the weather throughout the experiment, the study area of weather is an important
factor not only in agricultural and economic studies but also in the field of civil
engineering. Indeed, monitoring and evaluation of climate parameters such as
precipitation, temperature, evapotranspiration, sunshine and humidity can reduce
the effect of some natural phenomena. The groundwater level fluctuation and soil
quality is also to be carefully studied and reviewed for the risk assessment.

1.9 SETTLEMENT AND LAND USE

The Sokoto-Gwandu basin is located in the north western part of Nigeria, which
comprises of two towns (i.e Ganga and Shagari) and has population of more than
10 million according to 2006 census. This makes the soil, peoples, rivers and
streams within the basin to be very important source of fresh water to the people
living in those states. Numerous trans-human herds of cattle owned by Fulani graze
extensively in both the fallow farmland and uncultivated areas. Shifting cultivation
was common in upland areas, but with increasing population and urbanization, it is
no more practiced. At locations where surface water and land is easily accessible,
settlements have been established which are associated with permanent cultivation,
along the Fadama (floodplain), both during and after the rainy season.

Geologically the area is underlain by Tertiary Sedimentary rocks of the Gwandu

formation. The formation consists of semi- consolidated fine to coarse grained
sand with clay-shale, clayed grits, sandstones and clay

20
Table 1.2: Land Use and Land Cover of Sokoto-Gwandu Basin LAND USE IN

SOKOTO (2016).

21
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GEAOLOGICAL AND STRAITIGRAPHY OF SOKOTO BASIN

Detailed geological mapping was carried by a team of geologists from the Aleiro
University of Science and technology, Aleiro, Kebbi State under the leadership of
Prof. ………………. and the reports published in the department after a successful
analysis. This information was complemented by the work of Ibrahim, Al-Qasim,
Hanafi and 6 other.

Sokoto Basin is the Nigerian sector of the larger Iullemmeden Basin. The
Iullemmeden Basin itself is a broader sedimentary basin covering apart from
northwestern Nigeria, most parts of Niger, Benin, Mali, Algeria and Libya with the
major depocentres situated in Niger. The Sokoto sector is an out-baying marginal
basin with reducing sediment thickness and stratigraphic age from the thickest and
oldest in Niger while younging towards Nigeria.

The Sokoto Basin is predominantly a gently undulating plain with an average

elevation varying from 250 to 400 metres above sea-level. This plain is
occasionally interrupted by low mesas. A low escarpment, known as the “Dange
Scarp” is the most prominent feature in the basin and it is closely related to the
geology.

The sediments of the Iullemmeden Basin were accumulated during four main
phases of deposition. Overlying the Pre-Cambrian Basement unconformably, the
Illo and Gundumi Formations, made up of grits and clays, constitute the Pre-
Maastrichtian. “Continental Intercalaire” of West Africa. They are overlain
unconformably by the Maastrichtian Rima Group, consisting of mudstones and

22
friable sandstones (Taloka and Wurno Formations), separated by the fossiliferous,
calcareous and shaley Dukamaje Formation. The Dange and Gamba Formations
(mainly shales) separated by the calcareous Kalambaina Formation constitute the
Paleocene Sokoto Group. The overlying continental Gwandu Formation forms the
Eocene Continental Terminal. These sediments dip gently and thicken gradually
towards the northwest, with maximum thicknesses attainable toward the border
with Niger Republic. The detailed stratigraphic succession in the Sokoto Basin is
as shown in Figure 2.1. The “Continental Intercalaire” is important in Africa. The
Karoo Series of South Africa can be correlated with the upper beds of the lower
portion of the “Continental Intercalaire”. The “Continental Intercalaire”
corresponds to the upper part of the Nubian Sandstone, which, in the Arabo-
Nubian shield, begins at the base of the Palaeozoic. The Iullemmeden Basin, as
well as many other parts of North and South Africa, experienced extensive periods
of continental sedimentation with the accumulation of fluvio-lacustrine sediments
in pre-Cenomanian times. The northern limits of the continental deposition
coincides with the Algeria- Moroccan Sahara and extends eastward into Egypt and
the Sudan. The southern limits extend as far as South Africa.

2.1.1 SOKOTO BASIN

The Sokoto Basin is the south-eastern portion of the larger Iullemmeden Basin.
The Iullemmeden Basin covers northwestern Nigeria, most parts of Niger
Republic, Benin Republic, Mali, Algeria and Libya. The Sokoto Basin covers
mainly Zamfara, Sokoto and Kebbi States of Nigerian. The possible occurrence of
oil and gas in commercial quantities in the basin has been a subject of controversy.
This is because very scanty prospectivity data are available. Commercial deposits
of oil and gas have been discovered and are being produced from contiguous
structurally and stratigraphically related rifted basins of Niger Republic, Chad

23
Republic, Sudan, Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya. Geological mapping, geochemical
analysis and aeromagnetic geophysical investigation were carried out to
preliminarily assess the hydrocarbon prospectivity of the Sokoto Basin. The
geological mapping and interpretation of the geological map indicate that the basin
deepens towards the border with Niger Republic. Geochemical analysis shows that
90% of the samples examined have equal or more than the minimum limit of TOC
value (0.5wt%) required to initiate hydrocarbon generation from source rocks. The
source rocks are generally sub-mature through marginally mature to mature within
the main oil window. Juxtaposition of the hydrogen indices (HI) against the Tmax
(thermal maturity) shows that at greater depths of more than 1,000m, the source
rocks would have entered the main oil window to generate mainly gas and some
oil. Geophysical data processing and interpretation allows for the delineation of
eight better-ranked prospective areas, namely: the Yerimawa-Sabon-Birni-Isah
trough, the Wurno-Rabah trench, the Sokoto-Bodinga-Tambulwa trench, the
Tureta-Bakura ditches, the Lema-Tambo sinks, the Koko-Giro sinks, the Gada
holes and the Kiwon Allah-Sokwoi-Illela pits. Acquisition of 2D/3D seismic data
over the delineated areas will assist to de-risk wild-cats.

24
Fig 2.1 Generalized geological map of Nigerian sector indicating Sokoto Basin

25
Fig 2.2 Sokoto Basin, Gwandu Formation, Danga Formation, Wurno formation,
Dukamaje Formation, Gundumi Formation.

26