Highway and Railroad Engineering (Hwyraileng) Module #1

Highway and Railroad Engineering
(HWYRAILENG)
MODULE #1
Transportation Engineering
Holy Angel University
School of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering
Route #1
Transportation
Introduction This chapter tackles the importance of transportation in the

perspective of Civil Engineering. It also gives emphasis on the role
Civil Engineers in Traffic Engineering
Content This chapter focuses on

➢ Different modes of transportation
➢ Characteristics of road transport
➢ Scope of highway and traffic engineering
Objectives After this chapter, the student should be able to

➢ Learn the importance of highway and traffic
engineering
➢ Learn the scope of highway and traffic
engineering
Related These are supplemental content necessary for this chapter

➢ Highway Capacity Manual 2010
Readings ➢ DPWH Highway Safety Design Standards
References Nikolaides A. (2015). Highway Engineering - Pavements, Materials and Control

of Quality
Findley D. (2016). Highway Engineering - Planning, Design and Operations
Kadiyali L.R. (2016). Transportation Engineering
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Route 1 – Transportation
Learning Activities
Shown here is the path to be taken Note: Each part of the route can
in order to reach the next route. only be accessed once the previous
Finishing all the routes while one is accomplished.
acquiring satisfactory ratings for
each checkpoint ensures that you
will pass this course.
Link 1
Route #1
CP-1
Link 2
CP-2
Link 3
Route #3
Formative Assessments Submission Dates Type/Format
-Link 1 As specified by instructor Online/PDF
Summative Assessments Prerequisite/s Type (subject to change as per instructor)
-Checkpoint 1 Route 1 MCQ
-Checkpoint 2 Links 1-3 Individualized Exam
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Introduction to Transportation
“For walk where we will, we tread upon some story”

Marcus Tullius Cicero
Transportation is a system of moving goods and/or people from one place to another.
It serves as the circulation system that drives the economy of a various places just like how. The blood
vessels of a human body keep the different organs functioning properly by delivering oxygen-filled
blood to each and every one.
History of Transportation
In the ancient times, the main mode of transportation of humans is walking. The average human
walks at a speed of 1 – 1.4 m/s depending on factors such as age and fitness level. This means that it
would take days for humans to travel from one place to another in the same distance as one would
cover nowadays in mere minutes using vehicles.
As the human brain develops around 4000 BC to 3000 BC, they have learned to use animals
such as camels, donkeys and horses for travelling or carrying their packs. In 3500 BC, the first wheel
was invented in Mesopotamia (Modern Day Iraq) which was initially made out of wood. For aquatic
transportation, boat-like transports were seen afloat the Nile and the Mediterranean, which were
supposedly created by the ancient Egyptians; the earliest ones were done burning logs and carving out
the burned areas to generate a canoe-like structure.
In 3100 BC, the Egyptians advanced the creation of boats by incorporating sails thus inventing
the first vehicle power by an energy source i.e. wind energy. Meanwhile across Europe, the Romans
built roads connecting different parts of its empire, catering to the needs of its troops that were
continuously expanding its territory. This was one of the main reasons why the Roman Empire was
successful in conquering the vast majority of Europe.
During the Renaissance Era, goods have been transported through the use of a pack horse,
Which were in turn transported around coasts using ships. This era also started the utilization of
messengers which became widely known as the “royal mail” in Great Britain.
In 1663, The first turnpike roads open. Turnpikes are privately owned and maintained but you
have to pay to use them. Their name comes from an old word for a gate, pike. In towns the wealthy
are carried by sedan chairs.
In 1783, The hot air balloon and the hydrogen balloon are invented, introducing alternative
sources of energy used to power transportation devices.
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The early 19th century introduced the use of steam to power turbines thus paving the way for the
steam engine which has many applications for both land and aquatic transportation. The first
passenger railway was developed in 1825 which then ushers the great age of railway construction.
In the late 19th century, a smaller version of the railway was invented, it has a lesser capacity but with
this sacrifice in utility, a higher speed output was obtained. This invention is what we now call a “car”.
The invention of the car marked the development of highway transportation thus making
innovations to the roman built roads; making them more suitable and wheel friendly. The latest
modernizations to these inventions are now focused on the micro aspects such as speed, safety,
efficiency, energy consumption and a lot more. Novelties to the original design of the romans were
also introduced as science and technology progressed further fueled by the unending curiosity and
dreams of humankind.
Different Modes of Transportation

Following the main definition of transportation as the movement of goods and people from one
place to another, the modes of transportation can be classified into six different categories namely,
road, maritime, air, rail, intermodal and pipeline. These can also be grouped from three modes namely,
land, air and water or aquatic transportation. Land Transportation will be the focus of this module since
it is the primary lesson related to highway engineering.
1. Land Transportation
Land Transportation as the name suggests, focuses on the transfer of goods and people from
one place to another by travelling through land. Utilizing the different inventions that were developed
throughout history by mankind’s curiosity, humanity has been able to travel at much faster speeds
compared to the earliest forms such as travelling by foot. In the ancient times, people walking from one
place to another takes weeks if not months to finish. Comparing that to the modern times, today,
people are able to go to the other side of the world in a matter of hours.
a. Road/Highway
Majority of land transportation is focused on roads and highways, this is due to the tendency of
people to purchase their own vehicles for the purpose of comfort and mobility.
b. Railway
Railways are one of the first modes of mass transportation, being able to move huge amounts of
goods and passengers in just one trip. This makes it one of the best land transportation modes
available. This in turn sacrifices the mobility of railways, only being available were there are tracks.
c. Pipeline
Pipelines are specifically used to transfer goods that are constantly supplied from one area to
another. Examples of these are oil and water which are extracted from a certain source, e.g. Oil wells,
pumps, etc. then transferred to various facilities such as power plants.
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2. Air Transportation
a. Airplanes (Horizontal Takeoff & Landing or HOTOL)
b. Helicopters, Balloons (Vertical Take-Off and Landing or VTOL)
c. Rockets (Space Transportation)
3. Water / Aquatic Transportation
a. Ships and freights
b. Submarines
c. Pipeline
4. Multi-modal Transportation
Characteristics of Road Transport

It is an accepted fact that of all the modes the transportation, road transport is the nearest to
the people. The passenger and the goods have to be first transported by road before reaching a
railway station or a port or an airport. The road network alone could serve the remotest villages of
a large mass of land such as Luzon for example.
The Characteristics of Road Transport

1. Roads are used various types of road vehicles, like passenger cars, buses, trucks two and three
wheeled automobiles, pedal cycles and animal drawn vehicles. But railway tracks are used only by
rail locomotives and wagons, water ways are used by only ships and boats
2. Road transport requires a relatively small investment for the government. Motor vehicles are
much cheaper than carriers like rail locomotives and wagons, water and air carriers. and air
carriers. Construction and maintenance of roads is also cheaper than that of railway track, docks,
harbors and airports.
3. Road transport completely offer a freedom to road users to transfer the vehicles from one lane
to another and to from one road to another according to the need and convenience. This
flexibility of changes in location, direction, speed and timings of travel is not available to other
modes of transport.
4. In particular for short distance travel, road transport saves time. Trains stop at junctions and main
stations for comparatively longer time.
5. Speed of movement is directly related with severity of accident. The road Safety decreases with
increase dispersion in speed. Road Transport is subjected to high degree of accidents due to
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flexibility of movements offered to the user. Derailment of railway locomotives and air planes and
air crashes are not uncommon. They are in fact more disastrous.
6. Road transport is the only means of transport offer itself to the whole community.
Importance of Roads:
1. Roads play a very important role in the transportation of goods and passengers for short and
medium distances.
2. It is comparatively easy and cheap to construct and maintain roads.
3. Road transport system establishes easy contact between farms, fields, factories and markets
and provides door to door service.
4. Roads can negotiate high gradients and sharp turns which railways cannot do. As such, roads
can be constructed in hilly areas also.
5. Roads act as great feeders to railways. Without good and sufficient roads, railways cannot
collect sufficient produce to make their operation possible.
6. Road transport is more flexible than the railway transport. Buses and trucks may be stopped
anywhere and at any time on the road for loading and unloading passengers and goods
whereas trains stop only at particular stations.
7. Perishable commodities like vegetables, fruits and milk are transported more easily and
quickly by roads than by railways.
Due to above-mentioned advantages, the road transport has become very popular and its
share is constantly increasing.
Classification of Roads:
Based on EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 180 entitled “ESTABLISHING THE CLASSIFICATION OF

ROADS”
“For the purpose of classifying and establishing the limits of public roads and fixing the
responsibility for the proper maintenance of the roads built or to be built, and upon the
recommendation of the National Transportation Board created by Executive Order No. 45, dated July
6, 1936, I, Elpidio Quirino, President of the Philippines, do hereby establish the following classification of
roads:”
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I. NATIONAL ROADS
All roads now classified as Insular roads; main traffic routes connecting provincial capitals with
important commercial centers, national airports, national seaports, and national parks and roads of
military importance, which may be so designated by the President, upon favorable recommendation of
the Secretary of Public Works and Communications. National Roads shall have a right-of-way of not
less than twenty (20) meters, provided that a right-of-way of at least sixty (60) meters shall be reserved
for roads constructed through unpatented public land and at least one hundred twenty (120) meters
reserved through naturally forested areas of aesthetic or scientific value.
II. PROVINCIAL ROADS
All roads connecting one municipality with another municipality the terminal to be the public
plazas; all roads extending from a municipality, or from a provincial or national road to a public wharf
or railway station and any other road which may be so designated by the Secretary of Public Works
and Communications upon the request of the Provincial Board concerned and upon favorable
recommendation of the Director of Public Works. Provincial roads shall have a right-of-way of not less
than fifteen (15) meters, provided that a right-of-way of at least sixty (60) meters shall be reserved for
roads constructed through unpatented public land.
III. MUNICIPAL AND CITY ROADS
All highways not included in the above classifications. Municipal and City roads shall have a right-of-
way of not less than ten (10) meters; provided that the principal streets of townsites located on public
lands shall have a width of sixty (60) meters and all other streets a width of not less than fifteen (15)
meters.
This type of classification was further developed into a number of methods.
Here are some of the classifications based on different criteria
a. Design type – based on major geometric features, helpful for highway location and design
procedure (e.g. expressways, conventional streets, highways)
b. Route Numbering – can characterize traffic operations and purpose they serve within the
network
c. Administrative classification – levels of government responsibility and financing highway
facilities (national or local government)
d. Functional classification – character of provided service of highway. Shown below is the
hierarchy of roads based on functionality.
a. Expressway
b. Arterial
c. Collector
d. Local Street
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Road Transport
Advantages:
1. Less Capital Outlay:
Road transport required much less capital Investment as compared to other modes of transport such
as railways and air transport. The cost of constructing, operating and maintaining roads is cheaper than
that of the railways. Roads are generally constructed by the government and local authorities and only
a small revenue is charged for the use of roads.
2. Door to Door Service:
The outstanding advantage of road transport is that it provides door to door or warehouse to
warehouse service. This reduces cartage, loading and unloading expenses.
3. Service in Rural Areas:
Road transport is most suited for carrying goods and people to and from rural areas which are not
served by rail, water or air transport. Exchange of goods, between large towns and small villages is
made possible only through road transport.
4. Flexible Service:
Road transport has a great advantage over other modes of transport for its flexible service, its routes
and timings can be adjusted and changed to individual requirements without much inconvenience.
5. Suitable for Short Distance:
It is more economic and quicker for carrying goods and people over short distances. Delays in transit
of goods on account of intermediate loading and handling are avoided. Goods can be loaded direct
into a road vehicle and transported straight to their place of destination.
6. Lesser Risk of Damage in Transit:
As the intermediate loading and handling is avoided, there is lesser risk of damage, breakage etc. of
the goods in transit. Thus, road transport is most suited for transporting delicate goods like chinaware
and glassware, which are likely to be damaged in the process of loading and unloading.
7. Saving in Packing Cost:
As compared to other modes of transport, the process of packing in motor transport is less
complicated. Goods transported by motor transport require less packing or no packing in several cases.
8. Rapid Speed:
If the goods are to be sent immediately or quickly, motor transport is more suited than the railways or
water transport. Water transport is very slow. Also, much time is wasted in booking the goods and
taking delivery of the goods in case of railway and water transport.
9. Less Cost:
Road transport not only requires less initial capital investment, the cost of operation and maintenance
is also comparatively less. Even if the rate charged by motor transport is a little higher than that by the
railways, the actual effective cost of transporting goods by motor transport is less. The actual cost is less
because the motor transport saves in packing costs and the expenses of intermediate loading,
unloading and handling charges.
10. Private Owned Vehicles:
Another advantage of road transport is that big businessmen can afford to have their own motor
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vehicles and initiate their own road services to market their products without causing any delay.
11. Feeder to other Modes of Transport:
The movement of goods begins and ultimately ends by making use of roads. Road and motor
transport act as a feeder to the other modes of transport such as railways, ships and airways.
Disadvantages:
In spite of various merits, road/motor has some serious limitations:
1. Seasonal Nature:
Motor transport is not as reliable as rail transport. During rainy or flood season, roads become unfit
and unsafe for use.
2. Accidents and Breakdowns:
There are more chances of accidents and breakdowns in case of motor transport. Thus, motor
transport is not as safe as rail transport.
3. Unsuitable for Long Distance and Bulky Traffic:
This mode of transport is unsuitable and costly for transporting cheap and bulky goods over long
distances.
4. Slow Speed:
The speed of motor transport is comparatively slow and limited.
5. Lack of Organization:
The road transport is comparatively less organized. More often, it is irregular and undependable. The
rates charged for transportation are also unstable and unequal.
Scope of highway and traffic engineering

Roads are generally constructed on small embankments, slightly above the general ground
level, in order to avoid the difficult drainage and maintenance problems.
Such roads are therefore termed as “highway” and the science and technology dealing with
roads are generally called highway engineering.
Highway engineering deals with various phases like,

- Development
- Planning
- Alignment
- Highway material
- Traffic control
- Highway geometric design and location
- Pavement design
- Construction and maintenance
- Economic considerations
- Financial and administration
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TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION
- Traffic engineering is that branch of engineering which deals with the improvement of traffic
performance on road network and terminals through systematic traffic studies, scientific analysis
and engineering applications.
- Traffic engineering includes planning and geometric design on one hand and regulation and
control on the other.
- Traffic Engineering therefore deals with the application of scientific principles, tools, techniques
and findings for safe, rapid, economical and efficient movement of people and goods.
The road traffic is composed of different categories of vehicular traffic and pedestrian traffic.
Each category of vehicular traffic has two components, the human element as the driver and the
machine as the vehicle.
Advanced study and training facilities have been made available at several universities and
institutions notably in the USA.
Traffic engineering has now been recognized as an essential tool in the improvement of traffic
operations in all cities of the country.
The traffic in the Philippines and many developing countries of the world is heterogeneous in nature.
- The available road space is occupied by different classes of vehicles with widely varying
characteristics.
- The vehicles that share the same roadway space include (a) motorized vehicles such as cars,
buses, trucks, light commercial vehicles, motorized two- wheelers, auto-rickshaws, etc. and (b)
non-motorized vehicles like pedal cycles, cycle rickshaws, hand carts, bullock and horse drawn
vehicles.
- Many of the urban roads are congested during peak hours, causing delay, accidents and
reduced travel speeds of vehicles.
- The problem becomes more complicated as the road space is shared by pedestrians also on
several roads.
- In the Philippines, unfortunately, at the planning and design stages, the pedestrians are not
considered as an element in road traffic; the pedestrian is often considered as an intruder in the
traffic stream by the drivers of motorized traffic.
- As a result, the pedestrians constitute a significant proportion of fatal accident victims in the
country.
o Widely varying speeds between different classes of vehicles cause accidents and their
severity.
o Over 1,25,000 people died in road accidents in India during the year 2009 alone.
o One of the reasons for the poor traffic management in many cities of the developing
countries is the acute shortage of qualified and competent traffic engineering
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professionals to take care of the ever-increasing traffic problems.
o The growing economy and poor or absence of rapid and reliable public transportation
facilities encourage rapid increase in private vehicle ownership and thereby causing
acute congestion, delay to traffic and increased accidents on urban areas
DEFINITION
- The Institute of Traffic Engineers, USA has defined traffic engineering as: "Traffic engineering is
that phase of engineering which deals with planning and geometric design of streets, highways,
abutting lands and with traffic operation there-on, as their use is related to the safe, convenient
and economic transportation of persons and goods".
- Professor Ress Blunden of California University has proposed a modified definition, "Traffic
engineering is the science of measuring traffic and travel, the-study of the basic laws relating to
traffic flow and generation and application of this knowledge to the professional practice of
planning, designing and operating traffic systems to achieve safe and efficient movement of
persons and goods".
SCOPE OF TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

- Thus, the basic objective of traffic engineering is to achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of
traffic, with least number of traffic accidents.
- The study of traffic engineering may be divided into seven major areas, viz.:
(a) Traffic characteristics
(b) Traffic studies and analysis
(c) Planning area analysis
(d) Geometric design
(e) Traffic operation, regulation and control
(f) Road safety aspects
(g) Administration and management
- The traffic characteristics are quite complex with various types of road users on the roads moving
with different motives.
- The human psychology is to be given particular attention.
- The study of vehicular characteristics is an essential part.
- Apart from these, the various studies to be carried out on the actual traffic include speed, volume,
capacity, travel patterns, origin and destination, traffic flow characteristics, parking and accident
studies.
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Route #2
Highway Development and Planning
This chapter challenges the students to grasp the importance of
Introducon Highway development and planning which serves as their

foundation as they thread along the path of becoming Civil
engineers who are fully aware of the transportation system.

e Importance, classification of roads
"e Road patterns, Planning Surveys
e Highway alignment and surveys
Objectives After this chapter, the student should be able to
 Learn the importance of highway development

and planning
Related  Learn the scope of highway development and

planning
Readings These are supplemental content necessary for this chapter

Highway Capacity Manual 2010
DPWH Highway Safety Design Standards
Nikolaides A. (2015). Highway Engineering - Pavements, Materials and Control
References of Quality
Kadivali L.R. (2016). Transportation Enaineerina
route 2 — H lc hway Develo oment anc
Introduction to Highway Planning
"If you fail to plan, you are planning to fail"

Benjamin Franklin
Planning is a prerequisite for any engineering activity or project; this is particularly true fi
development of a highway network or system in a country.
HIGHWAY PLANNING
Objectives of Highway Planning
Planning is considered as a pre-requisite before attempting any development

program in the present era. This is particularly true for any engineering project, as planning is
the basic requirement for any new project or an expansion program. Thus, there is a need for
planned development of the road network and the links. Highway planning is of great importance
when the funds available are limited whereas the total requirement is much higher.
In developing countries like the Philippines, it is important to utilize the available funds in the best
possible manner by resorting to best planning principles.
(i) Planning a highway network for safe, efficient and fast movement of people and goods.
(ii) Keeping the overall cost of construction and maintenance of the roads in the network to a
minimum.
(iii) Planning for future development and anticipated traffic needs for a specific design period.
(iv) Phasing road development programs from considerations of utility and importance as also
of financial resources.
(v) Evolving a financing system compatible with the cost and benefits.
To fulfill these objectives, the following principles have to be borne in mind:
(i) The proposed road links should be a part of the planned road network for the state/nation.
(ii) The importance of the road shall be based on the traffic demand, and hence its type should fall
under the standard classification.
(iii) The maintenance needs of the roads should receive prompt attention by setting aside funds for this
purpose.
(iv) Statutory provisions for traffic regulation should be in place.
Page 1 ;In
to 2 — Hichway Develo oment anc Planninc
Classification of Roads
The classification of roads depends on the criterion considered.
They may be all-weather roads if they can be used during all seasons of a year; fair-weather roads, if
traffic is interrupted during monsoon at course ways where water overflows for a few hours. Based on
the type of carriageway or the road pavement, it may be a paved road with at least a water-bound
macadam layer; or it may be an unpaved road. Earth roads and gravel roads fall in this category.
Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, the roads may be classified as "surfaced roads"
and "un-surfaced roads". Road pavements with any type of bituminous surface or cement concrete are
called surfaced roads. The roads which are not provided with a bituminous or cement concrete
surfacing are called un-surfaced roads.
According to the DPWH
Road classification is as follows:
1. National Primary
a. Directly connects Major Cities (at least around 100,000 people)
Cities within Metropolitan Areas are not covered by the criteria
2. National Secondary
a. Directly connects Cities to National Primary Roads, except in Metropolitan Area
b. Directly connects Major Ports and Ferry Terminals to National Primary Road
c. Directly connects Major Airports to National Primary Road
d. Directly connects Tourist Service Centers to National Primary Roads or other-
e. Directly connects Cities (not included in the category of Major Cities)
1. Directly connects Provincial Capitals within the same Region
g. Directly connects to Major National Government Infrastructure to National Primary
h. Roads or Other National Secondary Roads
3. National Tertiary
a. Other existing roads under DP\AIN which perform a local function
4. Provincial Roads (Local Roads)

a. Connect Cities and Municipalities without traversing National Roads
b. Connect National Roads to Barangays through rural areas
c. Connect to Major Provincial Government Infrastructure
5. Municipal and City Roads (Local Roads)

a. Roads within the Poblacion
b.Roads that connect to Provincial and National Roads
c. Roads that provide Inter-Barangay connections to Major Municipal and
e. City Infrastructure without traversing Provincial Roads
6. Barangay Roads (Local Roads)

Other Public Roads (officially turned over) within the Barangay and not
covered in the above definitions.
7. Expresswa ys
Highways with limited access, normally with interchanges; may include
facilities for levying tolls for passage in an open or closed system.
8. Bypasses
are roads or highways that avoid a built-up area, town or city proper to let through traffic flow without
interference from local traffic reduce congestion and improve road safety where a toll for passage is
levied in an open or closed system.
Road Patterns
The various road Patterns may be classified as follows:

(a) Rect angular or bloc k patt ern
(b) Hexagonal pattern
(c) Radial or star and block pattern
(d) Radial or star and circular pattern
(e) Radial or st ar and grid pattern
The above types of road patterns have been shown in below
Each of these patterns has its own advantages and limitations. There can be a number
of other geometric patterns also. The choice of the pattern very much depends on the locality,
the layout of different towns, villages, industrial and production centers and on the choice of
the planning engineers.
Inc
ighway Develo ament and Plan
kill 11 I
__________________________________________
BUILT UPAREA
_ 11 Il If_ 1 M A I N RO AD
_______
- -11 I CENTRAL
Rectangular or
Block Pattern
IL IT I LD BUSINESS
AREA
=1 II 11111 __ I CROSS
ROADS
Star and Grid

Pattern
CENTRAL
BUSINESS
A R E A \ 1 V
PATTERN
Radial or Star
and Block
BUILT UP
AREAS Pattern
Hexagonal
Pattern
4
to 2 — Hichway Develo oment anc Planninc
PLANNING SURVEYS AND INTERPRETATION
Planning Surveys
Highway Planning Studies:

Highway planning involves the assessment of the length of road required for a given area, which may
be a city, district, state or a country; further, it includes the preparation of a master plan for the area
taking into consideration future needs, and phasing the programme in annual or five-year plans, based
on the priorities and utility.
For assessing the required road length for the area, field studies are to be carried out to collect the
necessary data.
These are:
(i) Economic Studies:
Details of the existing facilities, their utility, distribution of the existing population in the area, population
growth trends, existing products in the agricultural and industrial sectors, future trends of development
in these sectors, existing communication and education facilities, and the per capita income are to be
collected.
(ii) Road Use Studies:
Details of the existing road facilities, traffic volume in vehicles per day, traffic flow patterns, classes of
traffic such as passenger cars, busses and trucks, loads carried, average speeds, anticipated future
trends of traffic growth, and other traffic-related studies are to be conducted.
(iii) Engineering Studies:
These include study of the topography, soil, road life and special problems, if any, relating to
construction, drainage and maintenance.
(iv) Financial Studies:
Various financial aspects such as the sources of funding, estimated revenue from taxes on vehicles, toll
tax, and indirect benefits of raising the living standards of the people due to the proposed road
network are considered.
A systematic study of all these data will help the planner in the preparation of a Master Plan to serve
the needs of the area for a specified design period of say, 20 to 25 years.
These studies also help in fixing priorities of various routes or sectors based on their utility per unit
length. Based on the priorities and the maximum utility per unit length, the entire development plan for
the design period will be phased in 5-year intervals, depending upon the availability of financial
resources. This is known as phasing of the Master Plan for road development.
For calculating the optimum road length, a system called saturation system or maximum utility system
is used.
This system is based on the principle of qualifying the utility of a proposed road network based on the
villages and towns of different populations it serves, as also the weight of agricultural or industrial
products it carries.
Page S 0'13
For example, consider the 'utility units' attached to villages with certain population ranges as given
b e l o w :
Population Utility unit
Less than 500 0.10
501-1.000 0.25
1.001-2,000 0.50
2,001-5.000 1.00
5001-10,000 1.50
Greater than 10,000 2.50
The total utility units for all the villages served by a proposed road may be called, based on this.
Similarly, the utility unit for 1000 tons of agricultural products may be taken as 1.00, and that for 100
tons of industrial product as 10.00. If the break-up is not known, a suitable average value may be taken
as the utility unit for the entire productivity.
The total utility units may be got by summing up the values from both these criteria and divided by the
length of the roads, to obtain the total utility per unit length.
Thus, the value for different options under investigation may be compared and the best option with
the highest total utility units chosen.
This option is supposed to be utilized to the maximum extent by traffic in all stretches of the road,
reaching saturation.
This system has been used extensively in the U.S.A.
The disadvantage of this system is the element of arbitrariness of the utility coefficients assigned to the
various factors; but with sound judgment and professional skill and experience, balanced weightages
may be arrived at for choosing the best option.
Highway Alignment
The laying out of the center line of a proposed highway on the ground is called its 'alignment'. A new
road should be aligned carefully since any change in alignment may not be possible or may be
expensive at a later stage, owing to increased land acquisition costs and roadside structures
constructed after the road has taken shape.
Requirements of an Ideal Alignment:
1. Directness:
The aligned route between end points should be as direct as possible and result in the minimum
possible length under the circumstances.
2. Ease of Construction, Maintenance and Operation:
The alignment should be such that it is easy to construct, maintain and operate the highway. The
curves and gradients should be easy.
3. Safety:
Safety for the road-users should be the primary consideration; the stability of natural slopes and man-
made slopes for embankments and cuttings should be ensured to prevent possible accidents.
4.Economy:
The overall cost of construction and maintenance of the road, as also the operation cost of the vehicles
should be as low as possible.
5.Special Considerations:
Depending upon the purpose of the highway and the characteristics of the terrain, special
considerations may be needed as in the case of hill roads or ghat roads.
Horizontal Alignment:
This is the alignment of the roadway in the horizontal plane; although it is ideal to have a straight route
between end points, it is practically impossible owing to several constraints. A change in direction
necessitates the use of horizontal curves for smooth flow of traffic.
Vertical Alignment:
Although it is ideal to have a roadway at the same elevation throughout, this is almost impractical and
gradients or slopes along the length become mandatory. A change in gradient calls for curves in the
vertical plane; vertical curves should be designed and constructed for smooth flow of traffic based on
several criteria.
The alignment may be smoothened as shown below:
Horizontal curves for smoothening change of direction

(Horizontal alignment plan view)
Vertical curves for smoothening change of longitudinal gradients

(Vertical alignment-cross-sectional view)
Factors Controlling Alignment:

The selection of alignment of a proposed new highway route will be based on a careful consideration
of the following factors:
1. Obligatory Points:
These are the points through which the alignment has to necessarily pass for maximum utilisation of
the road (shown below). While aligning a new highway route between two end points, it would be
necessary to make it pass through places of importance. This may be based on the population that can
be served, or places of business or industrial importance.
-$1:Je c.f
Route 2 Highway Development and Planni
— g
Proposed alignment
A, El: End points

P, 0, R: Obligatory points
2. Topographical Features:
Topographical features like a lake or a hillock may require the alignment to be taken around them. In
the case of a big hill the option of constructing a tunnel through it for maintaining a straight alignment
can be considered. The relative costs of these options have to be studied to finalize the alignment.
100
(a) Lake
(b) Hillock
Figure below shows a change in alignment around an obstruction caused by a lake and a hillock.
3. Geometric Design Aspects:
Factors such as radius of curve, longitudinal gradients, sight distances, road intersections, design speed,
lateral friction, and super-elevation govern the alignment to a considerable degree; radii of horizontal
curves and longitudinal gradients should facilitate easy maneuvering of vehicles.
4. Cross-Drainage Needs:
The alignment should be such that bridges are located at right angles to the direction of flow of the
stream or river (Shown Below).
route 2 — Hichway Develo oment anc Planninc
Road
/Road
5. Deviations Dictated by Circumstances:

Although a straight horizontal road is the best option, it is highly monotonous for a driver; so, to divert
attention on a straight road and break the monotony, a slight bend or curve may be created at least
once in a kilometer or two to make the driver alert. Obstructions such as places of worship (such as
established temples and churches), monuments of historical interest, public buildings such as hospitals
and educational institutions and utility services like water supply and sewerage lines and overhead
transmission lines may necessarily have to be bypassed.
This may dictate deviation in the alignment of the roadway, leaving sufficient margin for these
hindrances. Sometimes, the alignment may have to be changed to bypass expensive private property
or agricultural or industrial area.
6. Proximity to Materials and Labor:
Proximity to the sources of materials for roadmaking and the availability of cheap labor may be a
criterion for fixing the alignment.
7. Economic Considerations:
Before an alignment is chosen, two or three alternative routes may have to be investigated and their
overall cost — initial outlay and maintenance cost over a design period — compared. The route with the
best economy is then selected.
8. Political Considerations:
Sometimes, political considerations may dictate the choice of alignment, setting aside even economic
considerations. Of course, the other important criteria have to be necessarily borne in mind.
Highway Project Preparation:
A highway project may be an entirely new route, or it may involve re-alignment and re-design of an
existing road such as for upgrading its geometric design standards.
The work of a new highway project involves:
(a) Selection of the alignment.
(b) Geometric design.
(c) Testing and selection of the materials for the subgrade and the pavement.
(e) Pavement construction including surfacing.
(f) Rolling and compaction and curing, if necessary.
(g) Quality control during construction.
(h) Performance of review and appraisal under traffic.
Realignment of an Existing Road:
An existing road may have to be realigned under a variety of circumstances:
(i)Redesign and improvement of geometric design aspects owing to increased traffic needs.
(ii) Raising the level of a road subjected to flooding.
(iii) Reconstruction of weak culverts and bridges to take care of increased traffic needs.
(iv) Construction of over-bridges and under-bridges at road intersections and level crossing.
(v) Construction of a bypass near a busy town.
Project Report:
Any project should be submitted to the competent authority along with a report.
The report should contain the following:
i. Name of the project
ii. Authority for execution
iii. Necessity
iv. Summary of alignment details
v. Summary of geometric design aspects
vi. Traffic details including anticipated future needs for a chosen design period
vii. Details of important drainage and cross-drainage works
viii. Specifications for the materials
ix. Details of quantities required
x. Rate analysis
xi. Detailed and abstract estimated
xii. Total cost and duration of the project
xiii. Material sourcing, labor and equipment
xiv. Construction scheduling (using project analysis tools such as CPM and PERT)
xv. Temporary facilities like diversion roads, work-sheds, water supply and power
xvi. Signals and traffic signs
xvii. L i gh ti ng
xviii. Roadside arboriculture
Engineering Surveys:
Highway alignment and location are facilitated by a systematic step-by-step procedure of conducting
'engineering surveys.
These surveys include: 1. Study of Topographic Maps 2. Reconnaissance Survey 3. Preliminary Survey 4.
Location Survey 5. Soil Survey 6. Construction Survey.
1. Study of Topographic Maps:
Topographic maps are available from the Survey of India; these are contour maps with 15 to 30 m
contour intervals and show important topographic features like rivers, valleys, ridges, and hills. By a
careful study of these maps, it is possible to align highways bearing in mind the obligatory points.
Depending upon the elevations of the terminal points, and considering the ruling gradients and other
Page 11) 0'13

factors, two or three alternative routes may be chosen.
2. Reconnaissance Survey:
The objective of reconnaissance survey is to physically examine the possible alignments observed
during the study of topographical maps. This is generally carried out using simple surveying
instruments such as prismatic compass, Abney level, hand level or tangent clinometer.
Details of certain features not available from the map study are collected during the reconnaissance
survey.
Some of the details that may be gathered are:
(i) Approximate gradients, radii of horizontal curves necessary.
(H) Obstructions such as permanent structures not shown in the maps.
(Hi) Ponds, lakes, valleys, bridges, hillocks, and similar topographical features with relevant details.
(iv) Information relating to cross-drainage structures such as culverts, causeways and bridges required
along each of the possible routes.
(v) Geological features and information on soil types along the route.
(vi) Stability of slopes in the case of hilly terrain.
(vii) Sources of construction materials — borrow areas for earth materials and quarries for stones and
broken stone.
(viii) Climatic factors, hydrological information, water-table levels, water sources and maximum flood
levels in the case of streams and rivers.
(ix) Availability of labour, power and water supply along the route.
3. Preliminary Survey:
The objectives of a preliminary survey are:
(i) To compare the proposed routes chosen during reconnaissance for a good alignment.
(H) To carry out accurate field work for detailed surveys on the chosen alternative routes
(iii) To estimate the quantities of the earth work and other materials to facilitate the preparation of
detailed and abstract estimates of the project cost.
(iv) To choose the best alignment from all angles.
Detailed Survey:
The various kinds of detailed survey carried out are:
Traverse Survey:
Open traverse are run with the help of a theodolite and tapes, the lengths of each of the lines and the
deflection angles wherever a change in direction is required are measured accurately.
Levelling:
Longitudinal section along the proposed route and cross-sections at intervals of 30 m to 100 m along
the route are to be taken, depending upon the nature of terrain — plain or rolling.
Contouring is also done in the vicinity of the route by using either tachometry or precise levelling.
Benchmarks are connected to GTS bench-marks.
Additional Details:
Drainage, cross-drainage works, hydrological data, soil data and details of existing features like
buildings, lakes, rivers, power lines and geological landmarks are collected more accurately than during
reconnaissance.
Page 11 of 13
Instruments used for the conventional method of surveying include the theodolite, chain, tapes,
levelling instrument, prismatic compass, plane table and clinometers.
Where the area is large, modern methods involving the use of aerial photogrammetry, remote sensing
and photointerpretation techniques, geographic positioning system (GPS), geographic information
system (GIS), and total stations may be gainfully employed for modelling and precise determination of
the topographic features.
Environmental Impact:
With a view to assess the effects of highway projects on the environment and the surrounding areas,
environmental impact assessment (EIA) has been made mandatory by the government.
Environmental impact analysis deals with positive and negative effects of the project and presents cost-
effective preventive measures against any possible damage due to soil erosion, submergence due to
floods, loss of vegetation, forest cover and wild life ecological balance.
Economic justification needs economic analysis including cost-benefit studies with reference to IRC
specification-IRC: SP: 30.
Based on these studies, the final location of the selected route is made on paper, before being
translated on to the ground in the next stage of location survey.
4. Location Survey:
This involves the location of the final alignment on the ground and includes pegging the centre-line;
establishing bench marks, and determining levels at the pegged stations and at critical points of
change in slope.
Pegging the Centre Line:
-
The centre-line of the final route is marked by establishing pegs on the ground. All angles are
accurately measured using a transit theodolite. The recommended spacing of the pegs depends on the
nature of the terrain. It is 50 m for plain terrain and 20 m for hilly terrain. The pegs should be fixed in
relation to at least three reference marks, so that they may be re-established in case they are disturbed.
Cross-Sections:
Cross-sections are taken at 50-100 m intervals on plain terrain, 50 m intervals on rolling terrain and 20
m intervals on hilly terrain.
Precise Levelling:
Precise levelling has to be performed and suitable benchmarks, temporary and permanent, have to be
established.
The following dates are obtained for the implementation of the project:
(i) Right of way available along the route.
(H) Land acquisition costs.
(iii) Date required for geometric design aspects.
(iv) Data for pavement design.
(v) Cost calculation.
(vi) Construction materials, equipment, and labor.
5. Soil Survey:
The nature and extent of the soils available in and around the chosen route have to be ascertained.
The purpose of soil survey is to identify and classify soil for use in the design and construction of the
Page 12 0‘ 13
road.
Information is gathered on the presence of unstable strata or marshy areas, subsoil water level, and
demarcation of possible borrow areas along the road in accordance with IRC recommendations.
6. Construction Survey:
This consists of removing all under-growths such as shrubbery, thickets, tree stumps and rubbish along
the route, setting out the center-line and the right of way by affixing pegs at appropriate intervals,
cutting a narrow V- shaped cut called 'Lockspit' in between the pegs along the route and making the
necessary preparations for implementation of the project.
The final center-line and profile can be selected using the Digital Terrain Model (DTM).
Engineering Drawings and Implementation of a Highway Project:
Details of engineering drawings necessary for the implementation of a highway project are set out by
IRC in its specification IS: SP: 19-2001.
The salient features of these drawings are given below:
Locality Map:
The location of the area, its existing roads and the alignment of the proposed road along with the
important places it would connect are shown in the locality map. The recommended scale for this
map is 1:25000.
Site or Index Map:

This shows the general topography of the area. The scale recommended for the map is 1:50000.
Land Acquisition Plans and Schedules:
All relevant information relating to the details such as buildings, adjacent properties, agricultural and
other land-use details with the probable land acquisitions costs and schedules are put forth in the land
acquisition plans. The scale of these plans can vary from 1:2000 to 1:8000.
Plan and Longitudinal Section:
This should consist of 1 km length of alignment for a single sheet with all relevant details. The
recommended scales are 1:2500 (horizontal scale) and 1:250 (vertical scale) for plain and rolling terrain.
Cross Sections:
Cross sections should be given at 50 m intervals indicating cuts and fills, for estimation of earthwork.
The recommended scale is 1:00.
Cross-Drainage Structures:
These provide standard designs of causeways, culverts, small bridges and major bridges that are to be
included along the proposed route. The recommended scale is 1:50.
Road Intersections:
These are details of intersections of the proposed road with the existing roads and road signs. The
recommended scale is 1:500.
Drawings of Roadside Amenities, Retaining Structures and Sign Boards:
Relevant information regarding roadside amenities and retaining structures should be shown at
appropriate places along the proposed route. A suitable scale should be chosen to show the required
details clearly.
Page 13 o'13
Route #3
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
This chapter inspires the students to learn the design criteria for
- highway and railways. The criteria included in this chapter is
lntroduc ion applicable to all classes of highways from freeways to two-lane
roads.

DGCS
Design Preparation Process
Various Factors Affecting Design Process
After this chapter, the student should be able to

ObjecLives 'fr. Apply design practices to highway design
➢ Identify various project design criteria
Related These are supplemental content necessary for this chapter

Highway Capacity Manual 2010
Reacings DPWH Highway Safety Design Standards

fr DPWH D GCS
➢ Roadway Design Manual
Nikolaides A. (2015). Highway Engineering - Pavements, Materials and Control
References of Quality
Kadivali L.R. (2016). Transportation Enciineerina
Route 3 Design Criteria for High
—
Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards

"Quality means doing it right when no one is looking."
Henry Ford
Overview
The Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards (DGCS) has been prepared to update me previous
guidelines published in 1984. The DGCS presents a significant revision to the previous guidelines,
introducing industry's best practice in design for public infrastructure adaptable to local requirements
such as climatological, geological, geotechnical and seismological conditions
Purpose
The purpose of the DGCS is to provide unity and uniformity of design in the preparation of design for
all classes of infrastructure projects undertaken by the DPWH in accordance with following overriding
requirements:
Ensure the safety of all infrastructure users and third parties.
 Protect property and the public welfare.
Provide an adequate level of service for all infrastructure to meet the design requirements.
 Provide design structures for appropriate loads and load combinations.
 Provide infrastructure that is functional and aesthetic and require an optimum level of
maintenance appropriate to an optimum whole life costs and maximizing asset value.
Provide guidelines for using new technology that improves the performance of DPWH
infrastructure.
Optimize the use of indigenous materials, labor and other resources.
Legal Responsibilities
Engineers are professional persons who operate under and within the limits set under their registration
which is managed through the Professional Registration Commission.
For example, the Board of Civil Engineers registers civil engineers upon passing of a board examination. The
practice of civil engineering is defined as covering services in the form of consultation, design, preparation of
plans, specifications, estimates, erection, installation and supervision of the construction of streets, bridges,
highways, railroads, airports and hangars, port works, canals, river and shore improvements, lighthouses,
and dry docks; buildings, fixed structures for irrigation, flood protection, drainage, water supply and
sewerage works; demolition of permanent structures; and tunnels. The enumeration of any work in this
section shall not be construed as excluding any other work requiring civil engineering knowledge and
application. The Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers (PICE) is the accredited professional organization
for civil engineers recognized by the Board. Civil engineer members of PICE are required to operate
under the PICE Code of Ethics that impose the
Route 3 — Design Crit: ria for Highways and Railways
following requirements on members, Although the following principles are applicable only for Civil
Engineers, they can be applicable to all other professions as well.
All professionals undertaking planning, investigations and design of public infrastructure shall comply
with their registration and the Code of Ethics of their accredited professional organization.
Engineers and other professionals are responsible for their actions and can face sanctions if they act
outside the scope of their registration or code of ethics.
Engineers and other professionals shall not unilaterally act outside their experience and expertise.
Where engineers and other professionals determine that they are required to undertake design outside
their experience and expertise, they should advise their superiors, should seek advice and/or mentoring
from engineers or professionals with the necessary experience and expertise, and should ensure that
their work is reviewed by an engineer or professional with the necessary experience and expertise.
Design is prepared at the Bureau of Design (BOD) of Central Office, Planning and Design Divisions of
Regional Offices, Planning and Design Sections of District Engineering Offices and by external
consultants engaged by DPWH.
The District Engineering Offices and the Regional Offices prepare designs up to the delegated level of
authority for them based on the estimated cost of the project. The design of projects above their
delegation level are generally sent for the approval of the higher-level office (e.g.: from District
Engineering Offices to Regional Offices and from Regional Offices to BOD).
When the work load is excessive and there are no resources available internally, then some design work
is outsourced to external consultants after going through a procurement process to engage them.
Designs completed by external consultants are usually sent to BOD for review and recommending
approval.
UPMO manages large projects including all foreign funded projects and some locally funded projects.
The design work for UPMO managed projects is usually outsourced to external consultants. Those
designs are reviewed and recommended for approval by the BOD to higher authority before
procurement commences.
The design preparation process is defined in the DPWH Design Procedures Manual.
New Infrastructure
This section applies to the design of new infrastructure or the complete replacement of existing
infrastructure. The design infrastructure will generally involve:
IP- Assessing the design requirements by conducting a site reconnaissance, preparing a preliminary
geohazard assessment and preparing the design criteria.
Conducting surveys to collect all data required for design.
Conducting preliminary design to confirm the layout of the project.
Conducting detailed design to prepare the final drawings, technical requirements and cost
estimates for the project.
Upgrading, Repairs and Retrofitting of Existing Infrastructure
This section applies to the design of upgrading, repairs or retrofitting of existing infrastructure. The
general design requirements depend on the estimated cost of the project. However, the process will be
the same as for new infrastructure but include the following additional requirements in the preliminary
Route 3 — Design Criteria for Highways
design stage:
 Assessment of the available documentation, design and condition of the existing infrastructure to
confirm that the existing infrastructure is suitable for upgrading, and
Consideration of complete replacement of the existing infrastructure as one of the options
considered.
Repairs and retrofitting of existing infrastructure include all periodic maintenance to infrastructure to
repair damage resulting from traffic, scour, earthquake and other causes. It does not cover routine
maintenance or emergency repairs to enable infrastructure to be maintained or restored to service.
The design process shall be the same as for new infrastructure except that the design of the repairs or
retrofitting shall normally be undertaken based on the original design drawings, if available, but specific
repair drawings should be prepared to show the preparation of the areas to be repaired or retrofitted
and the scope of the work.
In all cases, a detailed inspection of the damaged infrastructure and the original design drawings shall
be undertaken to establish the cause(s) of any damage, to ascertain if the original design was
inadequate, and to recommend design changes in the new work to reduce the risk of similar future
damage. This inspection and outcomes shall be documented in an inspection report.
Any systematic design deficiencies in the DGCS that lead to the wide occurrence of the same or similar
defects shall be identified and an analysis of the deficiencies shall be undertaken to put forward
changes to the DGCS to reduce the occurrence of such issues.
Design Review
The design review is conducted by different offices depending on their level of authority.
 If the estimated cost of the project is within the delegated limit, then the design review is
completed within the office where the design was prepared.
 If the estimated cost of the project is over the delegated limit of the office where the design was
prepared, then the design is sent to the next higher-level office that has the delegation to review.
Detailed Design Stage Review

Design review of all detailed design for all infrastructure projects shall be completed by engineers
independent of the design engineers. These design reviews are distinct from design reviews
undertaken within the design team. For work undertaken in-house by the DPWH, the design review
should be undertaken by another DPWH office or by an external consultant. The purpose of the design
review is to confirm that the design:
Complies with the requirements of the DPWH DGCS.
 Has considered all requirements and site constraints.
Has been optimized for the site conditions and constraints.
 Is acceptable and ready to be issued for construction.
The scope of the design review should vary depending on the magnitude of the project. Where a
project has significant technical issues, the appropriate design experts (for example, geotechnical
engineer) may be included in the review to confirm that the technical issues are adequately addressed
in the design.
Route 3 Design Criteria for Highways
—
Application of the Guide

The DPWH DGCS sets out the minimum standard for the design of infrastructure. The optimum design
of infrastructure requires the designer to consider the range of engineering solutions possible to
determine the design that best provides the required level of service without adverse impact on the
local community and at a minimum cost.
Context Sensitive Solutions

Context sensitive solutions (CSS) should be considered and adopted for all infrastructure projects that
have large potential impacts on communities and environments to ensure that the infrastructure is
appropriate to minimize any adverse impacts while meeting the objectives of the project.
CSS is a collaborative, interdisciplinary approach that involves all stakeholders to develop infrastructure
that fits its physical setting and preserves scenic, aesthetic, historic and environmental resources, while
maintaining safety and mobility. CSS is an approach that considers the total context within which an
infrastructure project will exist. CSS principles include the employment of early, continuous and
meaningful involvement of the public and all stakeholders throughout the project development
process.
CSS requires opportunities to be provided for involvement of the public and participating agencies in
the development of project objectives and the range of alternatives shall be selected to support the
intent of the CSS principles. The implementation of a CSS approach to navigating the project
development process will ensure the best possible outcome to the environmental review process.
Qualities of a project that demonstrate excellence in infrastructure design include:
 The project satisfies the purpose and needs as agreed to by a full range of stakeholders. This
agreement is forged in the earliest phase of the project and amended as warranted as the project
develops.
 The project is a safe facility for both the user and the community.
 The project is in harmony with the community, and it preserves environmental, scenic, aesthetic,
historic, and natural resource values of the area, i.e., exhibits context sensitive design.
 The project exceeds the expectations of both designers and stakeholders and achieves a level of
excellence in people's minds.
 The project involves efficient and effective use of the resources (time, budget, community) of all
involved parties.
 The project is designed and built with minimal disruption to the community.
 The project is seen as having added lasting value to the community.
The characteristics of the CSS process that will contribute to excellence include:
IP- Communication with all stakeholders is open, honest, prompt, and continuous.
 A multidisciplinary team is established early, with disciplines based on the needs of the specific
project, and with the inclusion of the public, including women.
A full range of stakeholders is involved with transportation officials in the scoping phase. The
purposes of the project are clearly defined, and consensus on the scope is forged before proceeding.
I
Route 3 — Desi Criteria for Highways and Railways
 The project development process is tailored to meet the circumstances. This process should
examine multiple alternatives that will result in a consensus of approach methods.
 A commitment to the process from top agency officials and local leaders is secured.
The public involvement process, which includes informal meetings, is tailored to the
project.
 The landscape, the community, and valued resources are understood before engineering
design is started.
 A full range of tools for communication about project alternatives is used (e.g. visualization).
Risk
All engineering design activity involves risk and there is a balance between the costs of construction of
infrastructure and the safety of the infrastructure users. In general, guidelines, design codes and
standards are the principal tools in the management of risk as these documents provide surety that
infrastructure designed in accordance with these documents have a high probability of satisfactory
service and minimization of the risk to infrastructure users.
Nevertheless, designers of infrastructure are required to manage the risk in design, to ensure the
correct application of the guidelines, codes and standards.
Risk management is the implementation of a deliberate strategy to identify hazards, assess the risks
they pose and the elimination or control of those risks to acceptable levels.
A hazard is something that has the potential to cause harm.
Risk is an expression of the extent of adverse impact that might arise from the occurrence of a
particular hazard.
Risk assessment is an evaluation of the level of risk, based on the level of adverse impact, following the
occurrence of a hazard and the likelihood of that interaction occurring.
To assess a hazard, three decisions need to be made:
1. W hat is the hazard?
2. What is its likelihood of occurring?
3. What is its potential severity?
Assessing the risk of a hazard can be achieved using the risk matrix included in Table 2-1. The risk
increases as the likelihood and consequences of a hazard increase.
Table 2-1 Qualitative Risk Analysis Matrix Level of Risk
Consequences
Likelihood
Insignificant Minor Moderate Major Catastrophic
Almost certain M H H
Likely M H
H
M M M
Possible H
M rfn
Unlikely H
L M
Rare M M
L L
0
Route 3 — Desi Criteria for Highways and Railways
Projects assessed as being at extreme risk (E) shall require a detailed action plan to demonstrate
how the hazards will be addressed in the design.
Projects assessed as being at high-risk (H) shall include the attention of senior management to ensure
that the risks have been considered in the design.
Projects assessed as being at moderate risk (M) require increased management responsibility to ensure
that appropriate designs are prepared.
Projects assessed as being at low risk (L) may be managed using routine procedures.
The project risk needs to be determined for each project as the extent of work required to be
undertaken for each project design will depend on the project risk. More demanding projects or
projects where the potential costs and impact of failure are high require more oversight and
assessment during the design process.
The assessment of project risk should consider the complexity, importance, safety and cost of the
project. Typical criteria that may be used in the assessment are listed in Table 2-2.
Table 2-2 Risk Assessment for Design
Project Risk Low Medium High Extreme
Total team size <5 5 to 9 10 to 14 >15
Work groups 1 to 2 3 to 4 5 to 6 >7
involved
Required New Learning Familiar Expert
competencies
Complexity The design is The design has The design is Very complex
well defined and identified problems demanding but not multi-discipline
no problems are and issues outside the project with
expected capability of the significant
design team interfaces
Safety risk due to No issues Minor injuries Major injuries Loss of life
project failure
Public Profile Unit Director Secretary President
Cost <PHP 20 million PHP 20 — 50 PHP 50 —100 >PHP 100
million million million
For example, standard single-span bridges may be considered as medium-risk design projects, but
multi-span bridges may be considered as high-risk design projects.
The design requirements for extreme-risk projects require appropriate high-level approaches or design
procedures are beyond the scope of the DGCS, but the requirements of the DGCS still apply. Design
for Emergency Response.
—
Design for Emergency Response

The Philippines is frequently subject to disasters resulting from the Geohazards inherent in the
Philippine location and climate. These disasters normally result from flooding, tsunamis, earthquakes
and landslides. These events can result in major damage to public infrastructure including roads and
bridges, flood control structures and buildings.
The emergency response depends on the nature of the disaster. The response to disasters resulting
from earthquakes and tsunami are directed to restoration of damage after the events. Some disasters,
for example those caused by flooding or volcanic eruptions, may require evaluation and
implementation of emergency work during the disaster, to repair or raise dykes, to limit damage that
may follow if preventive action is not done, or to provide evacuation routes.
Damage to roads and bridges results in traffic congestion, severs access routes and delays the arrival of
emergency response teams and supplies. It can also sever services to communities including telephone
services, water supplies, etc. Damage to roads and bridges can result in the complete isolation of
communities.
Damage to buildings also delays the emergency response as the buildings are not available for use for
their support roles or temporary accommodation.
The DPWH has an essential function of rapidly restoring DPWH infrastructure following disasters to
enable assistance to be provided to the victims of the disasters, to enable the damage to communities
to be assessed, to permit implementation of remedial works and enable the regular activities to be
assumed.
Often a disaster leads to a reactive response, particularly when limited or no warning of an emergency
is provided. The DPWH can also consider the likely impact of a disaster and plan a proactive response
when sufficient warning of the disaster is provided.
Much emergency response work may have to be undertaken during the course of disasters in the case
of flooding or while aftershocks are occurring in the case of an earthquake. DPWH should always
undertake emergency response work while ensuring the safety of DHWH staff, workers and third
parties.
The DPWH response to disaster management has three phases:
 Evaluation
 Temporary repairs
 Permanent repairs These phases are

described in the following sections.
Evaluation
Evaluation of the requirements of any emergency response is critical to:
 Recognize the scale of the disaster.
 Determine the type of temporary repairs.

 Determine the type of permanent repairs.
 Ensure that appropriate and adequate resources are mobilized to commence the work,
especially if equipment or materials have to be brought from outside the area.
 Ensure that time and money is not wasted by misguided work.
 Set the priorities for temporary repairs.
Evaluation of the damage from a disaster would commence:

 Immediately after the disaster for earthquake and similar disasters,
 As soon as the potential threat is recognized, or
As soon as engineering staff can be mobilized from the DPWH offices.
DPWH should maintain emergency response plans with contact details for engineering staff in each
Regional and District Engineering Office to enable staff to be mobilized quickly and aware of their
functions and responsibilities.
The evaluation is critical to determine the extent of damage to public infrastructure, and to identify
those parts of the public infrastructure that are unusable and are hindering access into the disaster
areas.
The general procedure would be:
 Conduct rapid inspections by road, helicopter or boat to determine the general extent of
damage to infrastructure, record lists of observed damage.
 Conduct quick inspection of standing structures such as bridges to confirm if they are in a fit
condition to carry traffic.
IP- Conduct quick inspection of buildings to determine if they have suffered damage, if they can be
utilized albeit with damage, or if temporary repairs would enable their use. This may require the use of
tarpaulins, for example, where rooks have been blown off by typhoons.
Conduct quick inspection of failed structures to determine option for temporary replacement, for
example use of Bailey bridges.
 Conduct quick inspection of other listed infrastructure to type and scale of necessary temporary
works; for example, estimate the volume to restore a slumped section of road.
11.- Assess which infrastructure can be quickly returned to service or which have to be returned to
service. Prioritize the temporary repairs considering availability of usable alternative routes, most
important routes, and needs of emergency response routes.
 Design emergency repair works (matchbox design). Temporary designs would normally be rule-
of-thumb by the DPWH engineers on-the-ground to enable work to commence. This could be
followed-up later with design DPWH staff to confirm the work underway and to in corporate
appropriate modifications if necessary.
The Engineers in the Regional and District Engineering offices where a disaster occurs should be
familiar with the local infrastructure to enable the evaluation to be quickly undertaken.
Temporary Repairs
Temporary repairs would normally be commenced at critical sites by the affected District Engineering
and Regional Offices as soon as possible after the required work at those sites had been assessed, and
equipment and materials obtained. Temporary work would commence before the evaluation has been
completed across the affected area. The DPWH would work with other Government disaster response
teams and would coordinate their actions to ensure that the most urgent requirements are given
priority.
Temporary works would normally utilize the resources immediately available to the DPWH in the
Regional and District Engineering Offices.
Emergency repair works include:
 Deployment of Bailey bridges to replace collapsed spans of bridges.

 Propping of damaged columns and components of bridges.
 Earthworks to bridge approaches to enable vehicle access.
Earthworks to restore damaged or closed roads.
 Repairs to other infrastructure as required.
The emergency works may be phased, for example the initial repair to a critical bridge may be a simple
earthwork to enable emergency response vehicles to cross the bridge at low speed with follow-up
earthworks later to enable the use of all traffic lanes and/or higher speeds.
The only issue that may delay the temporary repairs would be the allocation of funds which would be
obtained through the emergency services.
The temporary measures are only intended to remain until permanent repairs to or replacement of
damaged infrastructure can be implemented. Where necessary, temporary repairs would be closely
monitored to detect any further deterioration of damaged infrastructure. Damaged structures may
have hidden damage that is accelerated by normal working conditions and ongoing deterioration may
increase the risk to the infrastructure users and third parties. Some damaged infrastructure may require
ongoing work to maintain public safety.
Temporary repairs would be undertaken on an ad hoc basis using emergency response funding.
Permanent Repairs
Permanent repairs would be implemented after the disaster to restore or replace damaged
infrastructure. All temporary repairs would be reconstructed to return the infrastructure to the design
condition. All permanent repairs would be undertaken in full compliance with the DGCS.
Minor and major damage to infrastructure and the need to replace damaged infrastructure should be
identified.
All permanent repairs shall be undertaken in full compliance with the DGCS.
Priority in undertaking permanent repairs should be given to damaged infrastructure that is essential to
the local communities and to infrastructure that has experienced significant damage.
Safety
Safety is a key parameter for the design of infrastructure to minimize the risk to health and safety of all
persons involved throughout the life of infrastructure, including design, construction, operation,
maintenance and eventual removal.
Safe Design
Safe design means the integration of control measures early in the design process to eliminate or, if
this is not reasonably practicable, minimize risks to health and safety throughout the life of the
infrastructure being designed.
The safe design of infrastructure will always be part of a wider set of design objectives, including
practicability, aesthetics, cost and functionality. These sometimes-competing objectives need to be
balanced in a manner that does not compromise the health and safety of those who work on or use
the infrastructure over its life.
Safe design begins at the concept development phase of a structure when making decisions about:
 The design and its intended purpose.
9 ()-
 Materials to be used.
Possible methods of construction, maintenance, operation, demolition or dismantling and
disposal.
 Comprehensive engineering surveys and site investigations.
 Subsurface investigation.
 Geohazard assessment.
Relevant Republic Acts, Laws and Department Issues.
Safe design also applies during design development and detailed design to ensure that all necessary
safety features are included in the design, in accordance with the requirement of the DPWH DGCS.
Safety of Personnel and the Public
The safety of personnel involved in the design, construction and maintenance should be considered.
This specifically applies to the safety of design personnel visiting project sites for inspections.
It is mandated by the constitution under Executive Order No. 307 establishing the Occupational Safety
and Health Center (OSHC) - Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) and Presidential Decree
(P.D.) 626 to 'protect every workingman against the dangers of injury, sickness or death through safe
and healthful working conditions, thereby assuring the conservation of valuable manpower resources
and the prevention of loss or damage to lives and properties, consistent with national development
goals and with the State's commitment for the total development of every worker as a complete
human being.'
Rule 1080 of the provision contains the Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and Devices in which the
following PPE's may be necessary:
 Rule 1082 Eye and Face Protection
 Rule 1083 Respiratory Protection
Rule 1084 Head Protection
 Rule 1085 Hand and Arm Protection

Rule 1086 Safety Belts. Life Lines and Safety Net
 Rule 1087 Use of Safety Shoes
Working Environment
Hazardous workplaces are where:
1.- The nature of work exposes the workers to dangerous environmental elements, contaminants or
work conditions including ionizing radiation, chemicals, fire, flammable substances, noxious
components and the like.
IP- The workers are engaged in construction work, logging, firefighting, mining, quarrying, blasting,
stevedoring, dock work, deep-sea fishing and mechanized farming.
 The workers are engaged in the manufacture or handling of explosives and other pyrotechnic
products. Only licensed workers should handle explosives in coordination with approving agency. IP-
The workers use or are exposed to power driven or explosive powder actuated tools.
 The workers are exposed to biologic agents such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoans,
nematodes, and other parasites.

Relevant references are:
Rule 1410: Construction Safety for detailed safety requirements for construction.
Relevant documents of OSHC—DOLE and other relevant seminars for a comprehensive
discussion of safety requirements.
Particular Requirements for Site Investigation

The requirements for site investigations are discussed in DGCS Volume 2.
All work on live highways shall be undertaken in accordance with the DPWH Road Safety Design
Manuals to ensure the safety of road users, third parties and of the personnel undertaking any site
investigations.
Prior to undertaking any invasive investigation on a site, the likelihood of the presence of services shall
be assessed and where services are suspected the utility companies shall be contacted to identify the
locations of services.
In the event that excavations or exploratory holes encounter contamination or human remains, work
shall be stopped, and expert input obtained to decide on procedures for continuing the investigation.
Environment
Designers must consider environmental factors in the design of infrastructure to ensure that the
adverse impacts on environment are minimized by adopting suitable and appropriate design
standards. Environmental considerations must be identified, assessed and mitigation measures
provided at early stages of design to avoid major changes and costly variations in the future.
This Chapter only provides a brief description of environmental considerations in relation to
infrastructure design as a general guide only. For more information on systematic Environment Impact
Assessments and other environmental studies and assessments, the readers should refer to other
documents specialized in this field. Some of the documents that the readers may refer to are provided
in the sections below.
Laws, Policies and Procedural Requirements on Environmental Preservation

In Philippines, the laws in relation to environmental preservation start at the highest level of
government. Under the Presidential Decree No. 1151 ('Philippine Environmental Policy') Section 3, 'the
Government recognizes the right of the people to a healthy environment. It shall be the duty and
responsibility of each individual to contribute to the preservation and enhancement of the Philippine
environment.'
In addition, the designers must take the following laws directives in to account in infrastructure design:
 Presidential Decree PD 1156 (1977), requires Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) preparation
for projects affecting environmental quality.
PD 1586 (1978) defines the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) and its scope for Environmental
Critical Projects and Environmental Critical Areas. Projects are scrutinized through Environmental
Impact Assessment, which is an important tool in all aspects of project cycle.
 The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Department Administrative
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Order No. 30 Series of 2003 (revised August 2007) describes various documentary requirements for
environmental certificates. The certificates are Environmental Compliance Certificate ECC and / or
Certificate of Non-Coverage (CNC), where issuance depends on the significance of the social and
environmental impacts due to project activities.
EIA helps to determine the impacts of the proposed project and to formulate countermeasures to
prevent, minimize, mitigate, or compensate the adverse impacts caused by the project. Environmental
consequences should be recognized early in the project cycle to account for the project selection,
siting, planning, and design integration of environmental assessment in the early stage of planning is
essential to:
 Address environmental issues in a timely and cost-effective fashion.
Incorporate alternatives to the proposed project.
 Assess and provide counter measures at an early stage in design to avoid changes and
environmental problems. Deforestation associated with infrastructure projects should consider the risk
of flooding due to changes in landscaping and water resources in the area.
Avoid costs and delays in the implementation due to unanticipated environmental
problems.
Further details on the preparation of Environment Impact Assessment may be obtained from the
Revised Procedure Manual for DENR Administrative Order No. 30-03 (DAO 03-30) titled 'Implementing
Rules and Regulations of Presidential Decree No. 1586, Establishing the Philippine Environmental
Impact Statement System', Environmental Impact Assessment and Management Division (EIAMD),
August 2007 (2nd Printing: January 2008).
A list of current Department Orders, Special Orders, Department Memorandum Circulars and
Unnumbered Memos is available on the DPWH intranet.
Environmental Considerations in Infrastructure Design

Infrastructure projects may impact on the physical and social environment in various different ways. The
designer must be aware of the impact on the environment and incorporate measures to minimize
adverse impacts. Some of the factors on the physical and social environment that the designers should
consider are:
 Impacts on natural habitats of flora and fauna.
 Impacts on movement habits and population dynamics of different species.
 Impacts on water resources around the area including both surface water and ground water
resources.
 Impact of risk of flood and consequences of flood affecting the environment.
 Impacts on water consumption by human populations as well as animal populations.
 Impacts due to changes in landscape.
 Impacts due to deforestation associated with infrastructure work.
 Impacts due to air pollution and noise pollution.
Impacts on areas of historic or cultural significance.
 Impacts from energy use during construction and operation of machinery and equipment,
transportation, lighting and other electricity use.
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 Impacts due to possible contamination with construction materials and/or construction waste.
 Impacts on the local community, local and non-local economy and the built and natural
environment.
Social Environment Consideration in infrastructure Design

Infrastructure projects have the potential to impact the social environment both directly and indirectly.
These impacts may be localized or affect the entire economy of the country, depending on the project.
These impacts may be either positive or negative. It is important during project planning to ensure the
positive impacts are maximized and the negative ones are minimized or eliminated where possible. The
designers should consider the following social factors, as a minimum:
 Improvements in travel time
IP- Improvements in safety issues
 Introduction of safety issues (e.g. new presence of car strike potential due to a new highway)
 Reduction in vehicle operating costs
 Improved accessibility
 Employment
 Social inclusion/exclusion (e.g. highways bypassing communities, roads connecting previously
excluded communities)
Changes to the economy
 Impact on Indigenous People Communities and their culture
 Impacts on human health (e.g. as a result of changes to air quality, noise, waste)
 Impacts on land value
 Cumulative effects
The Local Government Unit concerned with a project should decide on the social acceptability of a
project. Technical acceptability of the social impact assessment, however, and the corresponding
commitments to address any impacts is within the jurisdiction of DENR — Environmental Management
Bureau.
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Gender
Gender shall be considered in the design all infrastructure projects to ensure that adequate provisions
are included in projects to improve the function of new infrastructure for the users and third parties,
especially women, and to address gender issues included in policies and strategies for infrastructure
development.
The incorporation of gender into the design process requires an understanding of the different living
conditions and needs of women and men at project planning stage and taking these requirements into
account in the design and implementation of projects.
Gender policies include:
 Women and men must equally participate in climate change, disaster risk reduction, decision-
making processes and other government programs at community, regional and nationwide levels.
 Integration of gender-sensitive criteria into planning, design implementation, monitoring and
evaluation of programs, projects and initiative.
 Allocation of adequate resources to address the needs of women, for example by funding
appropriate, environmentally sound technologies and supporting women's grassroots initiatives in
sustainable use of natural resources.
The implementation of these-policies requires the inclusion of appropriate activities in the design
process, including but not limited to the following;
 Undertake environmental planning through public consultation and/or stakeholders forums and
identify gender issues and concerns in the involvement of women, youth, senior citizens and persons
with disability in infrastructure development. Women should constitute at least 30% of the total
participants.
 Develop gender-based information within the influence area of the proposed project.
 Conduct social gender analysis such as trend of employment of women at all levels (actual
construction, technical and management) in infrastructure projects or services, capacity of women to
influence decisions about the planning design, operation and maintenance of infrastructure facilities;
resettlement of women and their families as a result of the construction of infrastructure; access of
women to water, and health and transport services.
■ Maintain existing cross communication routes such as foot paths where crossed by new
infrastructure and maintain the amenity and usability of existing infrastructure adjacent to new work.
 Identify appropriate public infrastructure, for example access steps and pathways to the water at
dikes and bridges that may be included in infrastructure projects to maintain and improve access for
third parties.
IP- Include appropriate works to enhance the safety of users and third parties including pathways,
guardrails, pedestrian bridges, and other safety facilities and structures.
 Prepare standard gender-sensitive design of infrastructure and facilities that caters the needs of
women, aged people and children, such as wider space on restrooms for women, provision of access
stairs in the abutments of bridges and dikes.
 Incorporate the provision of gender-sensitive structures/facilities in feasibility studies, including
separate provision and costs in project budgets.
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Provisions for Accessibility

The rights of persons with disabilities (PWDs) have been protected by law in the Philippines. Law have
been enacted to ensure the rights of PWDs and it is the duty of every citizen to uphold them. The main
legislation specifying the rights of disabled persons is the Republic Act 7277 (1992), which is also known
as Magna Carta for Disabled Persons and its subsequent amendments. This Act specifies provisions for
the rehabilitation, self-development and self-reliance of PWDs and their integration in to the
mainstream of society and for the other purposes. Chapter VI of the act specified the Accessibility
requirements for PWDs including provision of a barrier-free environment, mobility, access to public
transport facilities and implementing rules and regulations.
The other important legislation relevant to infrastructure design is the Accessibility Law, also known as
Batas Pambansa Billing 344 and its Amended Implementing Rules and Regulations. This Act specifies
the requirements to enhance the mobility of persons with disabilities by requiring certain buildings,
institutions, establishments and public utilities to install facilities and other devices. A summary of
requirements in the Act relevant to DPWH infrastructure design is:
 Section 1 stipulates that no license or permit for the construction, repair or renovation of public
and private buildings for public use unless provisions for accessibility have been installed or
incorporated in such facilities. This also requires that the DPWH shall ensure all government buildings,
streets and highways are provided with architectural facilities or structural features for persons with
disabilities. In the case of parking places, suitable spaces should be reserved for PWDs.
 Section 2 requires that special bus stops shall be designed for PWDs and discrimination against
PWDs in the carriage or transportation of passengers has been declared unlawful.
Implementing rules and regulations as amended of Batas Pambansa Bilang 344 (Accessibility Law)
provides more specific requirements in relation to public infrastructure design. Some of the important
provisions are:
Rule II provides the minimum requirements for accessibility including categories of PWDs,
anthropometrics and dimensional data as a guide for design, and basic physical planning requirements.
Appendix A provides minimum requirements for accessibility for buildings, parking, inside buildings and
structures, and safety provisions.
Rule II provides specific requirements for buildings and related structures for public use including
classification of buildings by use of occupancy, architectural features and facilities, standards of
accessibility for special type of facilities, provisions for computation of accessible units and
application of barrier free facilities and features.
P-. Rule IV provides requirements for public transportation including classification of public
conveyances by mode of transport the minimum requirements for them to ensure accessibility.
 Rule V provides the administrative mechanism for the provisions and enforcement
procedures. It is mandatory that the designers incorporate the above provisions in the design of
public infrastructure.
Engineering Plans/ Drawings
The use of drawings based on previous designs rather than original design that is optimized for the
1,-IT,15c)
new site should be discouraged.

With the change to AutoCAD for production of drawings, each project should have a complete set of
project specific drawings, which may include some standard drawings.
To support the AutoCAD production of drawings, the DPWH should establish a library of standard
details for the control of AutoCAD drawings. The library would hold:
Standard AutoCAD settings for drawings including layer details, pen details, drawing title blocks,
etc.
Standard details for use in the production of drawings; these details would have a maximum life
of four years.
The AutoCAD library should be maintained and controlled by the Bureau of Design.
Scope and Limitations of the DPWH Design Guide

The DPWH DGCS is intended to be the principal design reference for infrastructure designed within the
DPWH. It will also be of value to consultants working on behalf of the DPWH and to third party
organizations involved with the development of infrastructure within The Philippines.
The economic potential of the Philippines has been limited largely by a lack of infrastructure. The use of
the DPWH DGCS will contribute to the development of infrastructure by encouraging the development
of cost-effective and appropriate designs for infrastructure.
The DPWH DGCS provides only a limited coverage of many design issues that will be appropriate in
most cases. However, the DPWH DGCS provides details of other relevant published guidelines, some of
which are readily available on the Internet, and others which have been recommended for purchase
under the design tools review. Designers may consult these published guidelines to increase their
understanding of particular design issues and to improve the design where necessary.
The use of the DPWH DGCS will be appropriate for the majority of the standard infrastructure projects
undertaken by the DPWH. Some major projects will fall outside the scope of the DPWH DGCS and will
require the adoption of the appropriate international design standards. In all cases, the requirements of
the DPWH DGCS remain the underlying basis for the design.
Designers shall avoid the following traps that will limit the value of the DPWH DGCS in the production
of cost-effective and appropriate designs for infrastructure:
Lack of information: Failure to obtain all relevant information can contribute to a lack of
understanding of the full requirements for a project.
Wrong beliefs: Design based on erroneous beliefs rather than facts, including prejudice against
changes, can result in inappropriate design.
Habitual thinking: Designers should update their knowledge to cover changes in technology and
practices. Design based on previous designs without consideration of alternatives may result in
outdated designs. Standard designs, procedures and customs entrench this problem.
Risk of personal loss: Risk adverse designers tend to stick to previously successful designs rather
than adopt new solutions. This makes it difficult for better solutions and innovation to improve
designs. IP- Reluctance to seek advice: Designers are reluctant to seek advice as this may reflect on
their
competence and standing. Designers must always seek advice from appropriate experts to address
design issues and maximize design efficiency.
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 Time constraints: The demand for projects to stay on schedule frequently limits the efficiency of
design and results in inappropriate design, over-design and increased construction costs.
 Negative attitudes: Design innovation will not occur if decision-makers are reluctant to adopt
new designs in projects.
 New technology: Where a designer fails to recognize and consider new materials and processes,
infrastructure costs may be higher than they should be.
 Strict adherence to requirements: Designers traditionally develops designs that exceed the
requirements and result in over-design and inflated construction costs.
 Performance at any cost: Designers must be aware of not over-engineering infrastructure
projects to avoid cost-blowouts. Design features must be optimized commensurate with the
requirements of the project.
 Poor communication: Design teams need to work together to produce cost effective designs.
Involvement of the full range of expertise in design and design review is always worthwhile.
Alternative Delivery Methods

The current method for procurement of infrastructure construction, including the engaging of
consultants, is based on lump sum tenders with any variations limited to a maximum 10% of the original
contract sum. The maximum amount of each contract is set by the DPWH prior to tendering based on
the cost estimates prepared by the DPWH, and any tenders above this amount are rejected. This
practice is restricting the quality of work and limiting the options for improved design and innovation.
Alternative forms of infrastructure delivery may enable provision of improved infrastructure and reduce
procurement costs.
Traditional Approach
The normal approach to the construction of infrastructure in The Philippines is the traditional design,
bid, build method which comprises:
IP- Design either by DPWH in-house or by a consultant appointed by the DPWH, leading to the
preparation of a full set of full drawings and construction specification.
 Construction by a contractor selected by tender, normally based on the lowest price.
This approach is recognized as not providing the best outcome for many reasons including:
 The design is not innovative and tends to be the same as previous similar projects as this is the
best way to ensure design approval and avoids any issues in trying to get new designs accepted
though they offer the chance of improved performance and / or lower construction costs.
The contractor has to construct the documented design and there is no flexibility for the
contractor to modify the design to reduce construction costs.
 The contractor has to employ equipment suitable to execute the documented design and there
is no opportunity for the use of other equipment or technology that would reduce construction costs.
The traditional approach also requires the government to fund the development project up-front,
utilizing either revenue funds or loan funds. For major projects, this can be a major impediment to the
timely development of critical infrastructure.
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Permitted Alternative Methods

Other forms of project implementation have been developed to achieve improved technical and
financial outcomes for infrastructure owners.
The Handbook of Philippine Government Procurement, 6th edition 2012, allows two alternative
methods of procurement:
Design and construct.
Public Private Partnership (PPP).
These forms of procurement are discussed in Section 10.4 and Section 10.5.
New Alternative Methods

There are other forms of procurement that have been used in other countries to construct
infrastructure, but they have not been used in The Philippines at the present time and enabling
legislation may be required to permit their use.
Other forms of procurement include:
Schedule of Rates: This type of arrangement is widely adopted for the construction of infrastructure.
The contractors are paid for all work undertaken on a unit rate basis at tendered rates. The final
construction cost is based on the amount of work undertaken and the scope of work may be easily
amended during the construction. This type of procurement requires additional supervision staff to
survey and measure the amount of work undertaken by the contractors. This form of contract should
be considered for site investigations and other projects where the scope of work will vary depending
on as per actual field conditions, to enable the contractor to be compensated for the actual work
undertaken.
Build, Operate, Maintain and Transfer: This type of arrangement enables the Government to defer the
payment for infrastructure development by requiring the contractor to fund the development. The
contractor designs, constructs and operates the infrastructure, normally under a fixed period contract
and is reimbursed by annual or other payments from the Government. This form encourages the
contractor to optimize the design for minimum cost and also for lowest maintenance costs. The
development occurs in a similar manner as for a PPP project. This arrangement is attractive to
Government in cases when the Government does not have the available funding or access to suitable
loan funds.
Construction Management: This type of arrangement includes the engagement of a construction
manager to manage and coordinate the construction to a design provided by the government. This
form is used in cases where design cannot be completed prior to commencement of construction and
in cases where the original contractor has collapsed part way through a contract.
Alliancing Contracting: In this form of delivery, the Government collaborates with one or more
designers and contractors to share the risks and responsibilities in delivering the construction phase
of a project. The alliance model is based on a no-fault, no-blame culture and unanimous decision-making
requiring all participants to find best for project solutions. The non-Government participants are
guaranteed reimbursement of direct costs on an open-book basis, payment of a fee to cover corporate
project overheads and share in a gain share if the project meets agreed KPIs for cost, schedule and
other key parameters. This approach is used for projects where there are large construction risks and
design has to be integrated into the construction.
Early Contractor Involvement: In this approach the contractor is selected to assist the designer in
development of the design for constructability issues. The Government retains the right to tender the
design if final price agreement cannot be agreed with the contractor.
Long Term Performance Based Maintenance: This type of arrangement is used for contract
maintenance of public infrastructure. The contractor is appointed for a set period to plan, program and
execute the necessary maintenance works to meet specified service standards. The length of contract
allows the Contractor to be innovative in terms of materials, methods, scheduling and work practices.
Design and Construct Procurement

Design and construct procurement is allowed in the following circumstances:
I.- Flagship, priority and fast-track projects included in the Medium-Term Philippine Investment Plan
(MTPIP) and Regional Development Investment Program (RDIP).
IP- Infrastructure projects requiring advanced technology or construction technology.
 Infrastructure projects where manufacturer's input is required in the design.
 Small projects of standard design.
In this form of procurement, the contractor is responsible for the design and the construction of the
project.
The advantages of design and construct procurement are:
 The design and construction are in the hands of the contractor, who is responsible for design,
quality, cost and schedule;
 The contractor is able to submit a lower cost for the project as he has the ability to tailor the
design to suit his equipment, expertise, capability and resources;
 The work can normally be completed earlier compared to the traditional approach as the design
and construction can overlap;
 For complex infrastructure such as large bridges, this type of procurement is essential as the
design will depend on the method of construction of the infrastructure; and
 Innovative design solutions are developed that provide improved infrastructure. A
successful design and construct contract do not happen by itself and will require the DPWH to
provide:
 A detailed scope of work for the project that set out explicitly the performance and requirements
for the infrastructure; and
Adequate supervision of the contract to ensure that the completed works comply with the
requirements of the plans and DPWH DGCS.
Design and construct should be considered for the following types of infrastructure
projects:
 Class C and Class D projects where the contractor may be able to offer lower construction costs
by tailoring the design to suit his equipment, expertise and capability.
IP- Large infrastructure projects that will be designed and constructed as a single package where the
r'H.:r 19c
component designs can be standardized to suit the project requirements (this will already occur for
road projects developed under a PPP).
For a design and construct project, the DPWH shall undertake the design development (preliminary
design) but with the following modifications to the requirements:
IP- The design development drawings for the project shall be developed to show the physical
requirements of the project (for example, for bridges the waterway area, design flood levels, deck level,
number of lanes, walkways, scour protection, river training) but will not define the form of the
infrastructure to be developed.
 The project alignment shall be finalized.
Inclusion of a detailed scope of work of the project giving complete requirements for the project
and setting out the contract limits.
Public Private Partnership

Public Private Partnerships (PPP) are a partnership between the public and private sectors to deliver
infrastructure and related non-core services.
There are two types of PPP:
 Where the Government pays the developer over the contract's term based on services delivered
based on the achievement of key performance indicators (KPIs). There are no payments before the
infrastructure has been completed and commenced operation.
 Where the Government makes no payments to the developer and the developer recovers his
costs through service charges (tolls) on the infrastructure users.
The only form of PPP adopted in The Philippines to date is the second type where there are no direct
payments by the Government. The Government may contribute to construct some related
infrastructure.
Research has shown that PPPs are the most efficient method for the provision of large infrastructure
projects with a construction cost over two billion pesos. The implementation of Government funded
PPPs should consider cost and schedule due to the benefits that can be obtained in the provision of
infrastructure. This may require legislation to be amended.
PPP in the Philippines
The Government of the Philippines has established the Public-Private Partnership Center of the
Philippines, attached to the National Economic and Development Authority, to facilitate the
implementation of the country's PPP Program and Projects.
PPP projects are undertaken under the following legislation:
I.- Revised Implementing Rules and Regulations of R.A. No. 6957, 'An Act Authorizing the Financing,
Construction, Operation and Maintenance of Infrastructure Projects by the Private Sector and for Other
Purposes', as Amended by Republic Act No. 7718.
 An Act Amending Certain Sections of Republic Act No. 6957 entitled 'An Act Authorizing the
Financing, Construction, Operation and Maintenance of Infrastructure Projects by the Private Sector,
and for Other Purposes.
The PPP Program is a cornerstone strategy for national development aimed at accelerating
infrastructure and other development services, in order to sustain national economic growth. It enables
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projects to be developed without government funding, provided the project is able to generate
sufficient revenue through tolls and other charges to pay for the operation and maintenance of the
infrastructure, and to repay the cost of construction and funding. PPP projects normally operate for a
defined period at the end of which the infrastructure is handed over to the government.
PPP projects are selected based on the following criteria:
 Project readiness / preparation.
 Completed initial business case.
 Included in the priority projects of the Implementing Agency.
 Initial preparation is on-going, for example the feasibility study has been commenced.
 Responsiveness to the sector's needs (for example, part of the transport network system, water
supply / sewerage, electric power capacity).
 High implementability (bankable, no major issues).
The PPP process is a funding conduit for the development of infrastructure and the form of
implementation of the infrastructure included in a PPP project is a matter for the developer. The most
likely form would normally be a design, construct, operate and transfer sub-project aligned to the PPP
agreement under the aegis of the developer based on the feasibility study report.
PPP project conditions should include compliance with all provisions of the DPWH DGCS, including the
submission of the design documentation to the DPWH, and complying with all DPWH requirements.
Design information that should be supplied to DPWH includes:
 Feasibility study reports.
 Design development (preliminary design) reports.
 Survey drawings and reports.
Hydrologic and hydraulic reports.
 Complete set of preliminary design drawings.
 Geotechnical and geological investigation reports.
 Detailed design reports.
 Complete sets of design calculations.
 Complete sets of drawings for construction.

 All other reports and drawings prepared for the design and construction of the projects.
Selection of Procurement Method

Many Government infrastructure agencies require that the procurement method be selected for each
project to ensure that the optimum approach is adopted considering all relevant factors.
The preferred procurement methods for infrastructure projects are:
Class A Project: Design, bid, build.
 Class B Project: Design, bid, build unless site suits design and construct.
 Class C Project: Design and construct
 Class D Project: Design and construct or Public private partnership
Revision
The DPWH DGCS is intended to be updated on a regular basis to reflect changes in procedure,
21
requirements, standards, materials and technology.
The Division Chiefs shall receive any comments on their discipline volumes of the DGCS from BOD
Divisions, Regional Offices, District Engineering Offices and Consultants and shall maintain a register of
comments and proposed modifications.
A review should be undertaken by the Division Chiefs in the BOD of their discipline volumes of the
DGCS, on an annual basis and recommend revisions for consideration by DPWH. The register of
comments and proposed modifications shall be the basis for the annual reviews.
Individual volumes or sections may be updated as required to incorporate significant recommended
revisions as developed from the annual reviews. It is expected that individual volume may require
revision at 5-year intervals.

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Highway and Railroad Engineering (Hwyraileng) Module #1

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Highway and Railroad Engineering

Introduction This chapter tackles the importance of transportation in the

Content This chapter focuses on

Objectives After this chapter, the student should be able to

Related These are supplemental content necessary for this chapter

Readings ➢ DPWH Highway Safety Design Standards

References Nikolaides A. (2015). Highway Engineering - Pavements, Materials and Control

“For walk where we will, we tread upon some story”

Different Modes of Transportation

Characteristics of Road Transport

The Characteristics of Road Transport

2. It is comparatively easy and cheap to construct and maintain roads.

Based on EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 180 entitled “ESTABLISHING THE CLASSIFICATION OF

II. PROVINCIAL ROADS

III. MUNICIPAL AND CITY ROADS

Scope of highway and traffic engineering

Highway engineering deals with various phases like,

SCOPE OF TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

This chapter challenges the students to grasp the importance of

Introducon Highway development and planning which serves as their

Content This chapter focuses on

 Learn the importance of highway development

Related  Learn the scope of highway development and

Readings These are supplemental content necessary for this chapter

"If you fail to plan, you are planning to fail"

Objectives of Highway Planning

Planning is considered as a pre-requisite before attempting any development

To fulfill these objectives, the following principles have to be borne in mind:

The classification of roads depends on the criterion considered.

According to the DPWH

Road classification is as follows:

4. Provincial Roads (Local Roads)

5. Municipal and City Roads (Local Roads)

6. Barangay Roads (Local Roads)

The various road Patterns may be classified as follows:

Star and Grid

Highway Planning Studies:

Horizontal curves for smoothening change of direction

Vertical curves for smoothening change of longitudinal gradients

Factors Controlling Alignment:

A, El: End points

5. Deviations Dictated by Circumstances:

Page 11) 0'13

Site or Index Map:

Content This chapter focuses on

After this chapter, the student should be able to

Related These are supplemental content necessary for this chapter

Reacings DPWH Highway Safety Design Standards

Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards

Design Preparation Process

Detailed Design Stage Review

Application of the Guide

Context Sensitive Solutions

Table 2-1 Qualitative Risk Analysis Matrix Level of Risk

Design for Emergency Response

 Permanent repairs These phases are

 Recognize the scale of the disaster.