water

Article
Humidification–Dehumidification (HDH)
Desalination System with Air-Cooling Condenser and
Cellulose Evaporative Pad
Li Xu * , Yan-Ping Chen, Po-Hsien Wu and Bin-Juine Huang
Mechanical Engineering Department, National Taiwan University, 708 Engineering Building, No.1 Section 4
Roosevelt Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan; r05522117@ntu.edu.tw (Y.-P.C.); god583god@hotmail.com (P.-H.W.);
bjhuang38@gmail.com (B.-J.H.)
* Correspondence: lixus@ntu.edu.tw




Received: 27 October 2019; Accepted: 30 December 2019; Published: 2 January 2020


Abstract: This paper presents a humidification–dehumidification (HDH) desalination system with an

air-cooling condenser. Seawater in copper tubes is usually used in a condenser, but it has shown the
drawbacks of pipe erosion, high cost of the copper material, etc. If air could be used as the cooling
medium, it could not only avoid the above drawbacks but also allow much more flexible structure
design of condensers, although the challenge is whether the air-cooing condenser can provide as much
cooling capability as water cooling condensers. There is no previous work that uses air as cooling
medium in a condenser of a HDH desalination system to the best of our knowledge. In this paper we
designed a unique air-cooling condenser that was composed of closely packed hollow polycarbonate
(PC) boards. The structure was designed to create large surface area of 13.5 m2 with the volume
of only 0.1 m3 . The 0.2 mm thin thickness of the material helped to reduce the thermal resistance
between the warm humid air and cooling air. A fan was used to suck the ambient air in and out of the
condenser as an open system to the environment. Results show that the air-cooling condenser could
provide high cooling capability to produce fresh water efficiently. Meanwhile, cellulous pad material
was used in the humidifier to enhance the evaporative process. A maximum productivity of 129
kg/day was achieved using the humidifier with a 0.0525 m3 cellulous pad with a water temperature
of 49.5 ◦ C. The maximum gained output ratio (GOR) was 0.53, and the maximum coefficient of
performance (COP) was 20.7 for waste heat recovery. It was found that the system performance was
compromised as the ambient temperature increased due to the increased temperature of cooling air;
however, such an effect could be compensated by increasing the volume of the condenser.

Keywords: desalinization; humidification; dehumidification; air cooling; cellulose

1. Introduction
Fresh water is very important for human life regarding development in industry, agriculture
and livelihood. The scarcity of fresh water in some countries and areas has driven the research and
development in desalination in recent decades. Various types of technology have been developed
for desalination, such as multi-stage flash (MSF), multi-effect desalination (MED), reverse osmosis
(RO), and humidification and de-humidification (HDH) [1]. Some of these technologies have been
commercialized at large scales; however, there are the drawbacks such as high capital cost and high
operation cost [2]. HDH systems are advantageous in many ways, such as flexible scales, simple
layout, low temperature operation, low capital cost and operation cost, and could be combined with
renewable energy resources such as solar energy [3,4].
Many research groups have presented their design and results of HDH desalination systems in
recent decades. The performance of these system depends on fluid properties and conditions, including

Water 2020, 12, 142; doi:10.3390/w12010142 www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2020, 12, 142 2 of 14

flow rate and temperature, and also relate to the configuration and materials of either humidifier or
dehumidifier. W.F. He et al. [5] presented the analysis of an open-air open-water HDH system with a
packing bed dehumidifier. Results showed that higher humidifier and dehumidifier effectiveness can
benefit the thermodynamic performance and production cost. Ahmed et al. [6] proposed an analytical
and numerical scheme for thermodynamically balanced HDH systems. Ghazi et al. [7] evaluated the
characteristics of the HDH desalination process as a function of operating conditions such as air flow
rate and cooling water temperature. They reported a water production increase upon the increase in the
air flow rate and decrease in the cooling water temperature. Zehui Chang et al. [8] presented a novel
multi-effect solar desalination system based on HDH and used a porous balls humidifier to increase
the contact surface area. They showed that the multi-effect solar HDH desalination system could be
potentially improved through the optimization of its design and operation. Abdelrahman et al. [9]
assessed a cross-flow HDH system experimentally. They found that the productivity greatly depended
on either the hot water temperature or the water flow rate, and there existed an optimal condition
for the performance of their system in different cases. Hossam A. Ahmed et al. [10] presented an
experimental study with packed aluminum sheets as the material in the humidifier, and showed
results such as humidify efficiency, enthalpy effectiveness and performance coefficient. They found
that the air temperature at the humidifier inlet has a smaller effect on productivity compared to the hot
water temperature. A.E. Kabeel et al. [11] combined the HDH desalination system and a solar dryer.
The latter provided additional vapor to the HDH system while drying food. E.H. Amer et al. [12]
obtained experimental and theoretical results in different materials of humidifier. Their mathematical
model was formulated by applying mass and energy balance on a control-volume to find the maximal
productivity among different packing materials. G. Prakash Narayan et al. [13] presented the simulation
results for different types of HDH system, such as CWOA (closed-water, open-air) HDH, CAOW
(closed-air, open-water) HDH and others. They used the second law of thermodynamics to analyze the
optimal conditions of each system. G. Prakash Narayan et al. [14] also presented analysis to obtain the
optimization of effectiveness and other measures. Dahiru Lawal et al. [15] presented simulation results
by adopting a heat pump in a HDH system. Their results showed that the performance of the HDH
system could be significantly increased by using a heat pump. W.F. He et al. [16] also studied a HDH
system with a heat pump. The simulation results showed that the best performance as 82.12 kg/h for
the water production and 5.14 for the GOR.
The cooling medium in the dehumidifier in these studies was usually sea water. Sea water in
heat exchangers can cause problems, such as the erosion of parts from the high salt content and pipe
blocking from impurities in the sea water. Copper material is usually used for the cooling system,
which increases the cost of the system. Therefore, there is high motivation to use an alternative cooling
medium that can also provide a sufficient cooling capability. In this paper we proposed a unique
air-cooling condenser design that can efficiently cool down the warm humid air and produce the fresh
water efficiently.
Using air as the cooling medium in the condenser of a HDH system is challenging and no previous
work has been reported to the authors’ knowledge. Air has a much lower mass density, lower heater
capacity and lower thermal conductivity than water. Several means have been applied in the design
to enhance the heat transfer rate, including maximizing the surface area of heat transfer, using thin
thickness of material to reduce thermal resistance between the cooling air and the warm humid air, etc.
The condenser is an open system to the environment and a fan was used to suck the ambient air into
the condenser and the heated air to the ambient without using any pipes. The flow rate of the cooling
air can be increased independently to increase the heat transfer rate. There was no copper material or
any other metal materials in the condenser, and therefore the total system cost was reduced.
Another feature of our system is the use of a cellulose pad as the filling material in the humidifier.
Most conventional humidifiers use plastics as the filling material. The surface of plastic material is
usually hydrophobic, which means the wettability of the water on the plastic surface is poor. Water
forms streams instead of films on the plastic surface, and thus the contact area between the air and
 bound cardboard structure and of a cross-fluted type. The capillary force results in the strong
absorption of water into the cellulose pad, which makes the cellulose pad a water dispersing device
once saturated. Such design greatly increases the contact area between air and water and can generate
vapor very efficiently [17,18].
The12,
Water 2020, rest
142 of the paper is organized as follows.—Section 2 describes the experimental setup, 3 of 14
Section 3 contains the thermodynamic analysis, Section 4 presents the results and discussion, and
finally Section 5 is a short conclusion.
water is much less than the surface area of the plastic fillings. Therefore, a cellulose pad is used as
an alternative filling
2. Experiment Setupmaterial in the humidifier. The cellulose pad is designed as a cellulose-bound
cardboard structure and of a cross-fluted type. The capillary force results in the strong absorption of
waterOurinto humidifier–dehumidifier (HDH)the
the cellulose pad, which makes system waspad
cellulose a closed-water-open-air (CWOA)
a water dispersing device oncesystem and
saturated.
the schematic
Such diagram
design greatly of the experiment
increases the contact setup is shownair
area between inand
Figure 1. The
water andstorage tank contained
can generate vapor veryhot
water that was
efficiently [17,18]. heated by an electric heater. Hot water was pumped into a tank on top of the
humidifier
The restand a big
of the chuck
paper of spongeaswas
is organized placed at the exit
follows.—Section of the tank
2 describes to help evenly
the experimental distribute
setup, Sectionhot
3
water throughout the humidifier. The humidifier contained a cellulose pad with a large surface
contains the thermodynamic analysis, Section 4 presents the results and discussion, and finally Section 5 area
isina direct contact with the hot water, which generated vapor efficiently. The rejected water was
short conclusion.
collected at the bottom tank and cycled back to the storage tank by another pump.
2. Experiment Setup air was carried to the dehumidifier through an air duct under the drive of the
The hot humid
blower located at the dehumidifier side. Cooling air from the ambient was driven by a fan located at
Our humidifier–dehumidifier (HDH) system was a closed-water-open-air (CWOA) system and
the top of the dehumidifier and the flow direction was from the bottom to the top of the dehumidifier.
the schematic diagram of the experiment setup is shown in Figure 1. The storage tank contained
The dehumidifier was composed of closely packed hollow polycarbonate (PC) boards that allowed
hot water that was heated by an electric heater. Hot water was pumped into a tank on top of the
humid air to flow between the PC boards while allowing the cooling air to flow inside the channels
humidifier and a big chuck of sponge was placed at the exit of the tank to help evenly distribute hot
of hollow PC boards in a cross direction. The vapor in the humid air condensed on the walls of the
water throughout the humidifier. The humidifier contained a cellulose pad with a large surface area in
PC boards and was collected by the container underneath the dehumidifier. After passing the
direct contact with the hot water, which generated vapor efficiently. The rejected water was collected
dehumidifier, the cooled humid air flew out of the system as an exhaust.
at the bottom tank and cycled back to the storage tank by another pump.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of experiment setup of the air-cooling humidifier–dehumidifier

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of experiment setup of the air-cooling humidifier–dehumidifier (HDH)
(HDH) system.
system.
The hot humid air was carried to the dehumidifier through an air duct under the drive of the
blower located at the dehumidifier side. Cooling air from the ambient was driven by a fan located at
the top of the dehumidifier and the flow direction was from the bottom to the top of the dehumidifier.
The dehumidifier was composed of closely packed hollow polycarbonate (PC) boards that allowed
humid air to flow between the PC boards while allowing the cooling air to flow inside the channels
of hollow PC boards in a cross direction. The vapor in the humid air condensed on the walls of
the PC boards and was collected by the container underneath the dehumidifier. After passing the
dehumidifier, the cooled humid air flew out of the system as an exhaust.
A detailed description of the experimental setup is as follows. Three electric heaters with 2 kW
each were used to heat the water in the storage tank. A control system was employed to keep the
 A detailed description of the experimental setup is as follows. Three electric heaters with 2 kW
each were used to heat the water in the storage tank. A control system was employed to keep the
water temperature constant at the experiment conditions and kept the amount of water in the storage
tank constant with feed-in water. The hot water temperature was limited to 50 °C, as the expected
Water 2020, 12, 142 4 of 14
temperature of heated water by the photovoltaic thermal (PVT) collector was about in this range. The
power of the two pumps that cycled the hot water were 50 W and 70 W, respectively.
waterThetemperature
size of theconstant
celluloseatpad
the experiment conditions
in the humidifier, and kept
as shown the amount
in Figure of water
2a, was 50 cmininthe storage
height, 35
tank constant with feed-in water. The hot water temperature was limited to 50 ◦ C, as the expected
cm in width and 30 cm in length, with a volume of 0.0525 m . The size of the condenser made of
3

temperature of heated(PC)
hollow polycarbonate water by the
boards photovoltaic
in the dehumidifier thermal (PVT)50collector
was about was about
cm in height, 40 cmin in this
widthrange.
and
The
50 cmpower of thewith
in length, twoapumps
volumethat cycled
of 0.1 the hollow
m3. The hot water PCwere
boards 50 contains
W and 70channels
W, respectively.
with a cross section
The ×size
of 6 mm 6 mm,of the
as cellulose
shown inpad in the
Figure 2b.humidifier,
Twenty-eight as shown
pieces in of Figure
PC board 2a, were
was 50 cm in height,
assembled 35 cm
in parallel
in width and 30 cm inoflength, 3
with an even spacing 5 mmwith a volume
by fixture andof 0.0525asmshown
epoxy, . The in
size of the2c.
Figure condenser
The totalmade
surfaceof contact
hollow
polycarbonate
area was about(PC) 13.5boards
m2. Theinsystem
the dehumidifier
was designed wassuch
about 50 the
that cm in
hotheight,
humid40air cm in width
flowed and 50the
between cmPC in
length, 3
boards,with
while a the
volume of 0.1
cooling airmflowed
. The through
hollow PC theboards
channelscontains
insidechannels with a in
the PC boards cross
the section of 6 mm
cross direction,
× 6 mm, direct
without as shown in Figure
contact between 2b. the
Twenty-eight
two fluids.pieces of PC board were assembled in parallel with an
even The
spacing of 5 mm and
temperature by fixture
humidity and were
epoxy,measured
as shownby in aFigure
T-type2c.thermocouple
The total surface
and contact area was
psychrometer at
about 2
13.5points
m . The system was designed such that theathot
multiple across the section of the air duct and thehumid
exit of air
theflowed betweenThe
dehumidifier. theair
PCvelocity
boards,
while the cooling
was measured byair
an flowed through
anemometer. Thetheflow
channels
rate ofinside the PC
the water wasboards in theby
measured cross direction, without
a measuring cup.
directAcontact between the two fluids.
photograph of the actual system was shown in Figure 3.

Figure 2. (a) Photo of the cellulose pad in humidifier; (b) Photo of a piece of hollow polycarbonate (PC)
Figure 2. (a) Photo of the cellulose pad in humidifier; (b) Photo of a piece of hollow polycarbonate
board with the internal spacing of 6 mm by 6 mm; (c) 3D schematic structure of a stack of PC boards
(PC) board with the internal spacing of 6 mm by 6 mm; (c) 3D schematic structure of a stack of PC
assembled with a spacing of 5 mm by fixture and epoxy.
boards assembled with a spacing of 5 mm by fixture and epoxy.
The temperature and humidity were measured by a T-type thermocouple and psychrometer at
multiple points across the section of the air duct and at the exit of the dehumidifier. The air velocity
was measured by an anemometer. The flow rate of the water was measured by a measuring cup.
A photograph of the actual system was shown in Figure 3.

3. Thermodynamic Analysis
Several parameters were used to evaluate the performance of our HDH desalination system.
The applied principles of thermodynamics are mass and energy conservation and the entropy increase
in each process. A diagram for thermodynamic analysis was shown in Figure 4.
The mass ratio (MR) is a ratio between the hot water mass rate and the air mass rate as follows:
mw,i
MR = (1)
ma

where ma is the mass rate of air and mw,i is the mass rate of water in the humidifier inlet.
Water 2020, 12, 142 5 of 14
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 14

Figure 3. Photograph of the experiment setup.

3. Thermodynamic Analysis
Several parameters were used to evaluate the performance of our HDH desalination system. The
applied principles of thermodynamics are mass and energy conservation and the entropy increase in
each process. A diagram for thermodynamic analysis was shown in Figure 4.
Figure 3. Photograph
Figure 3. Photograph of
of the
the experiment
experiment setup.
setup.

3. Thermodynamic Analysis
Several parameters were used to evaluate the performance of our HDH desalination system. The
applied principles of thermodynamics are mass and energy conservation and the entropy increase in
each process. A diagram for thermodynamic analysis was shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Diagram
Figure 4. Diagram of
of the
the air-cooling
air-cooling HDH
HDH system
system for
for thermodynamic
thermodynamic analysis.
analysis.

The
The gained output
mass ratio (MR)ratio
is a(GOR) is commonly
ratio between used
the hot to evaluate
water theand
mass rate performance of rate
the air mass a HDH system.
as follows:
It is defined as the ratio of the latent heat of generated fresh water over the input heat Qin (while the
𝑚 ,
work input of pumps and fans is negligible) as𝑀𝑅 =
follows (1)
𝑚
where 𝑚 is the mass rate of air and 𝑚 , is the mass md hrate
f g of water in the humidifier inlet.
GOR = (2)
The gained Figure
output 4. Diagram of the
ratio (GOR) isair-cooling
commonlyHDH usedQsystem for thermodynamic
in evaluate
to the performance analysis.
of a HDH system.
It is defined as the ratio of the latent heat of generated fresh water over the input heat 𝑄 (while the
whereThe md mass
is theratio
mass(MR)
rate of produced water the
in dehumidification, h f g and
is latent heat of water and Qin is
work input of pumps andisfans
a ratio between
is negligible) hot water mass rate
as follows the air mass rate as follows:
heat input of this system. Qin is evaluated with the energy 𝑚 , balance of the water storage tank as
𝑀𝑅= 𝑚 ℎ (1)
𝐺𝑂𝑅 = 𝑚  (2)
Qin = mw,i ·hw,i − mw,o𝑄·hw,o + me ·h f ,0 (3)
where 𝑚 is the mass rate of air and 𝑚 , is the mass rate of water in the humidifier inlet.
where 𝑚 is the mass rate of produced water in dehumidification, ℎ is latent heat of water and
whereThe mw,igained
and moutput
w,o are the
ratiohot waterismass
(GOR) flow rate
commonly usedat totheevaluate
inlet andthe outlet of humidifier,
performance respectively,
of a HDH system.
𝑄 is heat input of this system. 𝑄 is evaluated with the energy balance of the water storage tank
It is hdefined
and w,i and h areratio
asw,othe the enthalpy of the
of the latent hot
heat ofwater at thefresh
generated inlet water
and outlet
over of thethe heat 𝑄 respectively,
humidifier,
input (while the
as
m e is the
work evaporation
input of pumpsrate andin humidifier
fans which
is negligible) asequals
follows to the feed water rate at steady state condition,
and h f ,0 is the enthalpy of the feed water at ambient𝑚temperature. ℎ
𝐺𝑂𝑅 = (2)
𝑄
where 𝑚 is the mass rate of produced water in dehumidification, ℎ is latent heat of water and
𝑄 is heat input of this system. 𝑄 is evaluated with the energy balance of the water storage tank
as
Water 2020, 12, 142 6 of 14

The recovery ratio (RR) is a ratio of the mass rate of condensed water in the dehumidifier over the
mass rate of evaporated water. RR is defined as
md
RR = (4)
me

where me is the mass rate of evaporated water in the humidifier and calculated by mass conservation as

me = ma (wa,2 − wa,1 ) (5)

where wa,1 is the absolute humidity at the inlet of the humidifier and wa,2 is the absolute humidity at
the outlet of the humidifier.
The coefficient of performance (COP) is a coefficient to obtain performance of a system, typically
used in cooling systems such as heat pumps. It is defined as

md h f g
COP = (6)
Win

where Win is the total power consumption of this system, excluding Qin .
To evaluate the performance of our system, we defined the effectiveness of the HDH system.
The commonly used effectiveness is diverse in the simultaneous heat and mass exchanger or heat
exchanger. We considered that the performance of HDH greatly depends on the fluid property
described as enthalpy, so the definition of effectiveness for HDH is as [14]:

∆H
ε= (7)
∆Hmax

where ∆H is the actual enthalpy change of either water steam or air stream, and ∆Hmax is the maximum
possible enthalpy change.
The above Equation is based on mass and energy conservation, so the effectiveness is the ratio
of real enthalpy change over maximum possible enthalpy change, which could be achieved in either
stream. We name the enthalpy of any stream(x) in ideal state hx,ideal . Thus, the humidifier effectiveness
(εh ) could be defined as the following [13]:
 
 ma (ha,2 − ha,1 ) mw,i hw,i − mw,o hw,o 

εh = max
 
, (8)


m h − m h

 ma h
a,2,ideal − ha,1 w,o
 
w,i w,i w,o,ideal 

The max symbol is to make sure that the definition is not against the second law of thermodynamics.
Similarly, the dehumidifier effectiveness (εd ) could be defined as
 
 ma (ha,2 − ha,1 ) mw,i hw,i − mw,o hw,o 

εh = max
 
, (9)


m h − m h

 ma h
a,2,ideal − ha,1 w,o
 
w,i w,i w,o,ideal 

T +T
 
where the temperature of h f is assumed to be a,2 2 a,3 and md h f is calculated when the air
ideal
temperature at the dehumidifier outlet (Ta,3,ideal ) is set to be the ambient temperature.

4. Results and Discussion

Table 1 lists some selected previous work with similar configuration of HDH systems to compare
with ours. The hot water temperature in our system is set at 40 to 50 ◦ C to simulate hot water from
a photovoltaic thermal (PVT) collector. Taking into account the size difference of the lab systems,
a calculation was done by setting the feed water flow rate to be the same and modifying the productivity
proportionally. At the temperature range of 40–50 ◦ C results showed that the productivity of our
system was the highest among the listed previous work in Table 1.
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

productivity proportionally. At the temperature range of 40–50 °C results showed that the
productivity of our system was the highest among the listed previous work in Table 1.
Water 2020, 12, 142 7 of 14

Table 1. Selected previous work on HDH systems.

Table 1. Selected previous work on HDH systems.
Top Temperature Feed Water Carrying Air Flow Cooling Medium Max
Reference
of Hot
TopWater Flow Rate Rate and Temperature Productivity
Feed Water Carrying Air Cooling Medium Max
Temperature 0.02 kg/s 0.0014~0.0028 kg/s Water cooling; 10~20 Reference
35~45 °C Flow Rate Flow Rate3 and Temperature 7.6 kg/day
Productivity [7]
of Hot Water (75 kg/hour) (5~10 nm /hour) °C
0.085~0.115
0.02 kg/s 0.0014~0.0028 kg/s cooling;19 °C 26.4 kg/day (1.1
Watercooling;
35.5~50
35~45 ◦ C°C 0.045~0.068 kg/s Water 7.6 kg/hour)
kg/day [19]
[7]
kg/s
(75 kg/h) (5~10 nm /h)
3 10~20 ◦ C
0.005~0.045
0.085~0.115 Water cooling; 24~33 26.4 kg/day
25.94~36.75
35.5~50 ◦ C °C 0.0049~0.0294
0.045~0.068 kg/s kg/s Water cooling; ◦ 10.25 kg/day [20]
kg/s kg/s °C 19 C (1.1 kg/h)
[19]
0.005~0.045 Water
Water cooling;
cooling;
25.94~36.75 ◦ 0.012~0.023 0.0049~0.0294 kg/s 34.8 kg/day
44.6~68.9 °CC kg/skg/s 0.040~0.043 kg/s 24~33 ◦ C not
Temperature 10.25 kg/day [20]
[21]
(1.45 kg/hour)
Waterspecified
cooling;
0.012~0.023 34.8 kg/day
44.6~68.9 ◦ C 0.040~0.043 kg/s Water cooling;
Temperature [21]
60~75 °C 0.2 kg/s
kg/s 0.177 kg/s 92 kg/h)
(1.45 kg/day [9]
not specified
30+/−2 °C
Water cooling;
Air cooling; 16~27 Current
45~50◦ C
60~75 °C 0.2 0.16
kg/skg/s 0.177 kg/skg/s
0.036 92129
kg/day
kg/day [9]
30+/−2°C◦ C work
45~50 ◦ C 0.16 kg/s 0.036 kg/s Air cooling; 16~27 ◦ C 129 kg/day Current work
4.1. Part 1. Effect of Mass Ratio
4.1. Part 1. Effect of Mass Ratio
The amount of fresh water produced per day, or productivity, is an important measure of a HDH
desalination system.
The amount The water
of fresh correlation between
produced productivity
per day, and the
or productivity, is mass ratio of measure
an important hot water ofand
a HDHair
(MR) is shown
desalination in Figure
system. The5.correlation
Productivity, measured
between by the produced
productivity and the massfreshratio
water, increased
of hot as MR
water and air
increased, which was attributed to the increasing amount of vapor carried by the air at higher water
(MR) is shown in Figure 5. Productivity, measured by the produced fresh water, increased as MR
flow rates. which
increased, As the was
water flow rateto
attributed increased, the contact
the increasing amount area
of between the hot
vapor carried bywater and
the air the cellulose
at higher water
pad
flowincreased, since
rates. As the a larger
water flowvolume of the cellulose
rate increased, pad area
the contact was between
soaked. Itthe
is also shownand
hot water in Figure 5 that
the cellulose
apad
higher water since
increased, temperature
a larger improved
volume of the productivity, as the
cellulose pad was evaporation
soaked. rate
It is also increased
shown at higher
in Figure 5 that
water
a highertemperatures. The increase
water temperature in productivity
improved was more
the productivity, as significant at higher
the evaporation ratewater temperatures,
increased at higher
as indicated
water by the slope
temperatures. The of the trend
increase lines.
in productivity was more significant at higher water temperatures,
Table 2 lists
as indicated by thetheslope
experiment data lines.
of the trend for some example runs.

Figure 5. Productivity as a function of mass ratio (MR).

Figure 5. Productivity as a function of mass ratio (MR).
Table 2 lists the experiment data for some example runs.
Water 2020, 12, 142 8 of 14
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14

Table 2. Experiment data of some example runs with varying MR.

Table 2. Experiment data of some example runs with varying MR.
Hot Water Water
Water Mass Air Air Mass Produced Ambient Ambient
Run # Hot
Run
Water
Temperature Rate mw ,i Mass
Mass Rate ma MR Water md GOR Ambient
Produced Temperature Ambient
Relative
Temperature
(◦ C) MR Water m GOR Temperature T0
T 0 (◦ C) Relative
Rate(kg/s) Rate m(kg/s) (kg/day) Humidity
d
# mw,i a
(°C) (kg/day) (°C) Humidity
1 40.1 (kg/s)
0.14 (kg/s)0.038 3.7 72 0.45 16.0 86%
12 49.6
40.1 0.14
0.14 0.038 0.0373.7 3.8 72 122 0.45 0.52 16.0 15.0 91%
86%
23 50.5
49.6 0.10
0.14 0.037 0.0413.8 2.5 122 115 0.52 0.53 15.0 14.7 81%
91%
34 49.5
50.5 0.19
0.10 0.041 0.0422.5 4.5 115 129 0.53 0.54 14.7 15.0 81%
81%
4 49.5 0.19 0.042 4.5 129 0.54 15.0 81%

The measured average temperature at the outlet of the humidifier Ta,2 increased as MR increased,
The measured average temperature at the outlet of the humidifier Ta,2 increased as MR increased,
as shown in the left y-axis of Figure 6. The absolute humidity wa,2 in the air duct, as shown in the
as shown in the left y-axis of Figure 6. The absolute humidity wa,2 in the air duct, as shown in the right
right y-axis of Figure 6, represented the amount of the vapor generated by the humidifier. It was
y-axis of Figure 6, represented the amount of the vapor generated by the humidifier. It was expressed
expressed as vapor mass over air mass and was calculated from the measured temperature and relative
as vapor mass over air mass and was calculated from the measured temperature and relative
humidity across the air duct at the outlet of the humidifier. The results in Figure 6 show a positive
humidity across the air duct at the outlet of the humidifier. The results in Figure 6 show a positive
correlation between the generated vapor and the mass ratio, i.e., the higher the mass ratio, the higher
correlation between the generated vapor and the mass ratio, i.e., the higher the mass ratio, the higher
the temperature and the absolute humidity at the exit of the humidifier.
the temperature and the absolute humidity at the exit of the humidifier.

Figure 6. Left y-axis shows the average air temperature in the air duct Ta,2 as a function of MR;
Figure 6. Left y-axis shows the average air temperature in the air duct 𝑇 , as a function of MR; Right
Right y-axis shows the absolute humidity in the air duct (wa,2 ) as a function of MR. The data were
y-axis shows the absolute humidity in the air duct (𝑤 , ) as a function of MR. The data were calculated
calculated based on the measured temperature and relative humidity in the air duct and averaged
based on the measured temperature and relative humidity in the air duct and averaged across the
across the section.
section.
The gained output ratio (GOR), as an important measure of HDH system performance, varied
with The gained
the mass output
ratio, ratio (GOR),
as shown as an
in Figure 7. important measure
A higher mass ratioofresulted
HDH system performance,
in a higher varied
GOR. A higher
with the mass ratio, as shown in Figure 7. A higher mass ratio resulted in a higher GOR.
water temperature also improved GOR. The results show that the recovery ratio (RR) was relatively A higher
water temperature
constant also improved
as MR varied, as shown in GOR. The8.results
Figure show
In other that the
words, the recovery
capabilityratio (RR) was the
to transform relatively
vapor
constant as MR varied, as shown in Figure 8. In other words, the capability to transform the vapor
into water in the condenser was constant. The same portion of the vapor could be extracted in the
humidifier, in spite of the amount of vapor carried by the air. This was probably attributed to the
Water 2020, 12, 142 9 of 14
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14

into water
high cooling
Water 2020,
in the condenser
capability
12, x FOR
wascondenser,
of the
PEER REVIEW
constant. The
andsame
it wasportion of the vapor
evidenced by thecould be extracted
constant in the
dehumidifier
9 of 14
humidifier, in spite of the amount of vapor carried
effectiveness which will be discussed in a later section. by the air. This was probably attributed to the high
cooling
high capability
cooling of the condenser,
capability and it was
of the condenser, andevidenced by the constant
it was evidenced dehumidifier
by the effectiveness
constant dehumidifier
which will be discussed in a later section.
effectiveness which will be discussed in a later section.

Figure 7. Gained output ratio (GOR) as a function of MR.

Figure 7. Gained output ratio (GOR) as a function of MR.
Figure 7. Gained output ratio (GOR) as a function of MR.

Figure 8. Recovery ratio (RR) as a function of MR.

Figure 8. Recovery ratio (RR) as a function of MR.
The humidifier effectiveness εh and dehumidifier effectiveness εd , as defined in Equations (8) and (9),
varied with MR as shown in Figure 9. The humidifier effectiveness εh was positively correlated with MR.
The humidifier effectiveness 𝜀 Recovery
Figure 8. and dehumidifier
ratio (RR) aseffectiveness 𝜀 , as defined in Equations (8)
a function of MR.
A higher mass rate of hot water resulted in a larger contact area, which raised the air temperature and
and (9), varied with MR as shown in Figure 9. The humidifier effectiveness 𝜀 was positively
The humidifier
correlated with MR. effectiveness
A higher mass 𝜀 rate
andofdehumidifier effectiveness
hot water resulted 𝜀 , as
in a larger defined
contact in Equations
area, (8)
which raised
andair
the (9),temperature
varied withand
MRtheasabsolute
shown humidity
in Figure as
9. the
Thehot
humidifier
water mixedeffectiveness 𝜀 was positively
with the incoming air in the
correlated with MR. A higher mass rate of hot water resulted in a larger contact area, which raised
the air temperature and the absolute humidity as the hot water mixed with the incoming air in the
Water 2020, 12, 142 10 of 14

Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

the absolute humidity as the hot water mixed with the incoming air in the humidifier. The dehumidifier
humidifier.
effectivenessTheεd did
dehumidifier much change 𝜀with
not show effectiveness didMR.
notThe
show muchwas
reason change with MR.
probably The the
because reason was
cooling
probably
capabilitybecause the cooling
of the condenser wascapability ofto
sufficient the condenser
condense thewas
vaporsufficient to the
under all condense the vapor
experiment under
conditions.
all the
This experiment
may conditions.
be attributed This may
to the efficient beexchange
heat attributed to the efficient
between heat exchange
the hot humid between
air and the the
cooling airhot
in
humid air and
the unique the of
design cooling air in the unique design of the condenser.
the condenser.

Figure 9. Humidifier effectiveness εh and dehumidifier effectiveness εd as a function of MR.

Figure 9. Humidifier effectiveness 𝜀 and dehumidifier effectiveness 𝜀 as a function of MR.
One of the reasons we think that the air-cooling condenser could work is that the ambient air
as the
Onecooling
of themedium
reasons wehasthink
no energy cost
that the and the system
air-cooling can could
condenser take as much
work air as
is that theitambient
needs toaircool
as
down the warm humid air, while a water-cooling condenser needs to match the flow
the cooling medium has no energy cost and the system can take as much air as it needs to cool down rate of water in
the condenser
the warm humid with that
air, in the
while humidifier, and
a water-cooling limits how
condenser fast the
needs cooling
to match thewater
flow(or preheated
rate of water water)
in the
could flow. In other words water-cooling condensers recycle the heat, but compromise
condenser with that in the humidifier, and limits how fast the cooling water (or preheated water) on the cooling
capability
could flow.ofInthe condenser.
other The air-cooling
words water-cooling condenser
condensers worked
recycle more
the heat, butindependently,
compromise onand theitcooling
could
condense the
capability water
of the vapor efficiently
condenser. with a large
The air-cooling surface worked
condenser area. more independently, and it could
condense the water vapor efficiently with a large surface area.
4.2. Part 2. Effect of Power Consumption on COP
4.2. Part
The2.coefficient
Effect of Power Consumption(COP)
of performance on COP is an important measure to evaluate how much useful
thermal energy we can obtain provided
The coefficient of performance (COP) is the amount of workmeasure
an important required.toInevaluate
our case,how it was calculated
much useful
as the ratio of the latent heat of fresh water over the work of the whole system,
thermal energy we can obtain provided the amount of work required. In our case, it was calculated including pumps,
fans
as theetc., but
ratio ofexcluding Qin for
the latent heat the application
of fresh water overof waste
the workheat recovery.
of the The maximal
whole system, includingCOP of 20.7fans
pumps, has
been achieved with our system. The correlation between the COP and the total
etc., but excluding 𝑄 for the application of waste heat recovery. The maximal COP of 20.7 has been power consumption (Pt )
is shown in Figure 10. The power consumption of the
achieved with our system. The correlation between the COP and the totalhumidifier fan (P ) and dehumidifier
H power consumption (PtDH fan (P ) is)
varied
shown to in find
Figure the10.
maximum
The power COP, while the power
consumption of the consumption
humidifier fanof(Pthe rest of the system (pumps)
H) and dehumidifier fan (PDH)
was kept constant. The humidifier fan was the blower that delivered
varied to find the maximum COP, while the power consumption of the rest of the system the vapor-carrying air (pumps)
through
the system
was and the The
kept constant. dehumidifier
humidifierfan fanwaswasthe
thefan that delivered
blower the cooling
that delivered air into the dehumidifier.
the vapor-carrying air through
The left half of Figure 10 shows that the COP was positively
the system and the dehumidifier fan was the fan that delivered the cooling air correlated to PDHintowhen PH was kept
the dehumidifier.
constant.
The This
left half of was probably
Figure 10 showsbecause the COP
that the higher wasPDH resulted correlated
positively in a highertocooling
PDH when capability
PH wasofkept the
dehumidifier
constant. Thisand wasincreased
probablythe pure water
because production
the higher rate significantly.
PDH resulted in a higherThe right capability
cooling half of Figure 10
of the
shows that the COP was negatively correlative with P
dehumidifier and increased the pure water production Hrate significantly. when P DH was kept constant. The reason
The right half of Figure 10
was
shows that the COP was negatively correlative with PH when PDH was keptmuch,
probably that a larger P H did not increase the fresh water production constant.but The
the total
reasonpower
was
consumption
probably thatincreased,
a larger Presulting a lower COP. The data of some experimental runs are presented in
H did not increase the fresh water production much, but the total power
Table 3.
consumption increased, resulting a lower COP. The data of some experimental runs are presented in
Table 3.
Water 2020, 12, 142 11 of 14
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

Figure
Figure 10.10.The
Thecoefficient
coefficient of
of performance
performance (COP)
(COP)ofofthe system
the systemversus the the
versus totaltotal
power consumption
power of
consumption
of the
the system.
system.TheThepower
powerconsumption
consumptionofofthe
thehumidifier
humidifier fan and
fan de-humidifier
and de-humidifier fanfan
is specified as as
is specified a a
secondary axis. Pure water production is also shown as a reference.
secondary axis. Pure water production is also shown as a reference.

Table3.3.Experiment
Table Experimentdata
dataof
of some
some example runswith
example runs withvarying
varyingpower
powerconsumption.
consumption.

HotHot
Water Water
Water Produced
Produced Blower
Blower Fan
Fan
Power
Powerof of Total
Total Power
Power
Run Water MassRate Two
Run # Temp. Mass Water
Water mdmd Power
Power PH Power
Power Two Consumption GOR
Consumption GORCOPCOP
# (Temp.
◦ C) mRate mw,i Pumps
w ,i (kg/s) (L/h)
(L/h) PH (W)
(W) PPDH
DH (W)
(W) Pumps (W) (W)
(W)
(°C) (kg/s) (W)
1 1 48.9
48.9 0.19
0.19 3.53
3.53 44
44 47
47 4040 131131 0.50 18.0
0.50 18.0
2 2 49.0
49.0 0.19
0.19 3.33
3.33 33
33 47
47 4040 120120 0.51 18.6
0.51 18.6
3 3 49.1
49.1 0.19
0.19 3.33
3.33 21
21 47
47 4040 108108 0.50 20.7
0.50 20.7
4 4 49.1
49.1 0.19
0.19 2.74
2.74 21
21 35
35 4040 96 96 0.46
0.46 19.1
19.1
5 5 49.0
49.0 0.19
0.19 0.60.6 21
21 24
24 4040 85 85 0.11
0.11 4.84.8

Another measure of the system performance is the performance ratio (PR), recently developed
Another
using measure
an exergy of the
approach bysystem
K. C. Ng performance
et al. [22]. Theis the performance
calculated result ofratio
PR (PR),
for our recently
system developed
is about
using an exergy
9.8, based approach
on the Equationby Ng, in
given K.C.,
the et al. [22]. The calculated result of PR for our system is about
article.
9.8, based on the Equation given in the article.
4.3. Part 3. Effect of Ambient Temperature
4.3. Part 3. Effect of Ambient Temperature
We did experiments at different ambient temperatures and found that the ambient temperature
We did experiments
influenced at different in
the system performance ambient
two main temperatures
aspects. One and
wasfound that theair
the carrying ambient temperature
temperature and
influenced
the other was the cooling air temperature. The two effects influenced the system performance inthe
the system performance in two main aspects. One was the carrying air temperature and
other was the
opposite cooling
ways. air temperature.
The former one resulted Thein atwo effects
larger amountinfluenced
of vapor the system performance
generation in opposite
in the humidifier and
ways. The temperature
a higher former one resulted in a of
at the outlet larger amount ofasvapor
the humidifier generation
the ambient in the humidifier
temperature increased.andThe alatter
higher
one, on theatother
temperature hand, of
the outlet resulted in a lower
the humidifier ascooling
the ambientcapability of cooling
temperature air in theThe
increased. dehumidifier
latter one, and
on the
hence lower productivity as the ambient temperature increased. The net effect
other hand, resulted in a lower cooling capability of cooling air in the dehumidifier and hence lower of the two factors could
be evaluated
productivity by the
as the correlation
ambient of GOR
temperature and ambient
increased. The nettemperature.
effect of theAstwoshown
factorsin could
Figurebe11, GOR
evaluated
bydecreased as the ambient
the correlation of GOR and temperature
ambientincreased,
temperature. implying that theinlatter
As shown Figureeffect
11, was
GORmore significant
decreased as the
ambient temperature increased, implying that the latter effect was more significant than the formerinone.
than the former one. Although the results suggest that it is more desirable to operate the system
cool weather
Although or at night,
the results suggest thethat
system
it is performance
more desirable could be compensated
to operate the system orin
improved by increasing
cool weather or at night,
the size of the dehumidifier, more specifically by adding more PC boards
the system performance could be compensated or improved by increasing the size of the dehumidifier, to further increase the
surface area of the condenser.
more specifically by adding more PC boards to further increase the surface area of the condenser.
Water 2020, 12, 142 12 of 14
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14

Figure11.11.Effect
Figure Effectofofambient
ambienttemperature T0Ton
temperature GOR.
0 on GOR.

4.4. Part 4. Cost Comparison

4.4. Part 4. Cost Comparison
The cost comparison includes two aspects—the material cost and manufacturing cost of
The cost comparison includes two aspects—the material cost and manufacturing cost of the air-
the air-cooling condenser and a water-cooling condenser with the same volume. The former
cooling condenser and a water-cooling condenser with the same volume. The former used the
used the polycarbonate boards which are readily available as greenhouse covers on the market.
polycarbonate boards which are readily available as greenhouse covers on the market. The
The manufacturing process was to cut the boards and stack them together with epoxy. The latter used
manufacturing process was to cut the boards and stack them together with epoxy. The latter used
copper material which is commonly seen in other HDH systems. The manufacturing process involves
copper material which is commonly seen in other HDH systems. The manufacturing process involves
piping, welding, and screw mounting. The total cost of the air-cooling condenser was about 100 USD,
piping, welding, and screw mounting. The total cost of the air-cooling condenser was about 100 USD,
which is about half of the cost of the water-cooling condenser.
which is about half of the cost of the water-cooling condenser.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
We have presented a HDH desalination system with an air-cooling condenser and a cellulose
We have
evaporative pad.presented
A maximum a HDH desalination
productivity of 129system
kg/day,with
GOR anofair-cooling
0.53 and COP condenser and aachieved.
of 20.7 were cellulose
evaporative
The main pad. A maximum
features of our system productivity of 129
are (1) efficient air kg/day, GOR ofhollow
cooling through 0.53 and COP of 20.7
polycarbonate were
boards
achieved.
(better than traditional water cooling); (2) the use of the cellulous pad as a humidifier (more efficient
and moreThe compact);
main features
(3) highof our system are
productivity per(1) efficient
unit volumeairofcooling through
dehumidifier; (4)hollow
high COP polycarbonate
for waste
boards (better than traditional water cooling);
heat recovery; (5) lower cost of the condenser. (2) the use of the cellulous pad as a humidifier (more
efficient and more compact); (3) high productivity per unit volume of dehumidifier;
It was found that productivity, GOR and humidifier effectiveness increased as MR increased (4) high COP for
waste heat recovery; (5) lower cost of the condenser.
and water temperature increased, while dehumidifier effectiveness did not vary much with MR or
It was found The
water temperature. thatsystem
productivity, GOR was
performance and compromised
humidifier effectiveness
as the ambientincreased as MRincreased,
temperature increased
and water temperature increased, while dehumidifier effectiveness did not vary
due to the increased temperature of the cooling air; however, such an effect could be compensated much with MRbyor
water temperature.
increasing the volume of Thethesystem performance
condenser, or specificallywasbycompromised
adding more PC as boards
the ambient temperature
to further increase
increased, due to the increased
the surface area of the condenser. temperature of the cooling air; however, such an effect could be
compensated by increasing the volume of the condenser, or specifically by adding more PC boards
Author Contributions:
to further Conceptualization
increase the surface area ofandtheinvestigation:
condenser. L.X. and B.-J.H.; Experiments setup and tests: Y.-P.C.
and P.-H.W.; Writing: L.X.; Funding acquisition: L.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
Author
the Contributions: Conceptualization and investigation: L.X. and B.-J.H.; Experiments setup and tests: Y.-
manuscript.
Funding: P.-H.W.;
P.C. and FundingWriting:
of thisL.X.;
workFunding acquisition:
is provided L.X.Research and Development Division of National
by the
Taiwan University.
Funding: Funding of this work is provided by the Research and Development Division of National Taiwan
University.
Water 2020, 12, 142 13 of 14

Acknowledgments: We would like to sincerely thank Yi-Fei Chen and Jung-Fu Yeh’s suggestions on the
experiment setup.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
Symbol Physical Quantity Unit
hf Enthalpy of distilled water kJ/kg
hfg Latent heat of water in vapor(liquid) kJ/kg
ha,1 Enthalpy of air at inlet of humidifier kJ/kg
ha,2 Enthalpy of air at outlet of humidifier kJ/kg
ha,3 Enthalpy of air at outlet of dehumidifier kJ/kg
hc,i Enthalpy of cooling air at inlet of dehumidifier kJ/kg
hc,o Enthalpy of cooling air at outlet of dehumidifier kJ/kg
h f ,0 Enthalpy of water at ambient temperature kJ/kg
hw,i Enthalpy of water at inlet of humidifier kJ/kg
hw,o Enthalpy of water at outlet of humidifier kJ/kg
hx,ideal Enthalpy of any stream(x) in ideal state kJ/kg
ma Mass rate of air kg/s
mc Mass rate of cooling air kg/s
md Produced fresh water rate kg/day
me Evaporation rate in humidifier kg/s
mw,i Mass rate of hot water at inlet of humidifier kg/s
mw,o Mass rate of water at outlet of humidifier kg/s
Qin Heat input to heat the water kW
T0 Ambient temperature ◦C

Ta,1 Air temperature at inlet of humidifier ◦C

Ta,2 Air temperature in the air duct ◦C

Tw Water temperature ◦C

wa,1 Absolute humidity at inlet of the humidifier kg vapor/kg dry air

wa,2 Absolute humidity in the air duct kg vapor/kg dry air
Win Total power consumption of the system excluding heaters kW
εh Humidifier effectiveness -
εd Dehumidifier effectiveness -

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