Physics II

Special theory of relativity

Daniel Budaszewski Ph.D. Eng.

© 2014 The copyright to this document is owned by Warsaw University of Technology.

No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without their prior permission.
 Principles of classical mechanics

• Movement of any object is relative to the movement of other object ,,

• 2 types of frames of references:
• in which the rule of inertia exists (inertial frame of reference),
• in which the rule of inertia does not exist (noninertial frame of reference),

Is the frame of reference of Earth an inertial frame?

-Yes, but on the condition that the rotation of Earth and

orbital movement around the Sun are not considered,
(3,4 m/s² i 0,6 m/s² )
-in this case the rule of inertia is not fulfilled.

The better inertial frame of reference is bound with

A group of stars.
 Principles of classical mechanics

I law of Newton dynamics is in fact a generalization of II law,

F=0 a=0

There exists an inertial frame of reference, that means the frame of reference in
which an object is at rest, or moves with constant speed on condition that the
resultant force is equal to zero.
 Principles of classical mechanics

Frame of reference S’ moves

relative to frame S with constant
speed u along the x-axis
y S S’
x’
Origins O and O’ coincide
at the time t = t’ = 0

y y’
O O’
x x’
ut

It is possible to express coordinates of one inertial frame of reference

using coordinates of the second inertial frame of reference.
Galilean transformation
For coordinates:

For velocity:

For force:

In Galilean transformation force is invariant

Galilean law of relativity: in all inertial frames of reference,

under the same conditions, all mechanical phenomena are invariant.
What if the speed comparable with
light speed?
Light speed c = 2,979 246 x 108 m/s

v 1 v 1

2c ?
 What if the speed comparable with
light speed?
Newtonian mechanics is correct for speeds much lower than the light speed.

v << c
More correct is a relativistic approach:

(Newtonian mechanics is a generalization of the relativistic mechanics for v<<c)

Why should we consider relativity?

 Whay theory of relativity?
1. Physics is based on light interaction (optoelectronics, optics, astronomy)
2. Explains phenomena in electrodynamics,
3. Describes behaviour of subatomic particles in Nuclear Physics
(photons, neutrino – light speed)
4. Enables us to explore universe,
5. Quantum physics and relations between mass, energy and momentum,
6. Einstein’s famous relation E=mc²

Theory of relativity is hard to accept:

… because we consider it illogical: (Twin paradox, time dilatation, length contraction)

Classical mechanics is not able to explain:

• properties of light,
• electrodynamic phenomena,
• properties of subatomic particles,
• relations between mass, energy and momentum,
 Einstein’s Postulates

In 1905 Albert Einstein introduced his postulates proposing drastic revision

of Newtonian concept of space and time.

First Postulate: The laws of physics are the same in every

inertial frame of reference.

If the laws of physics differed in different frames of references, that could distinguish
one inertial frame from other inertial frame.
 Einstein’s Postulates

Second Postulate: The speed of light in vacuum is the same

in all inertial frames of reference and is independent of the
motion of the source.

This postulate explained the experiment made by Michelson and Morley in which
a hyphotetical medium – ether was investigated.
Implications of the Einstein’s postulates
1881 r. Albert Michelson i Edward Morley
Hypothetical medium Ether – medium in which the whole universe exists,
Mirror M2
Mirror M2

Initial light direction

Presumed
alignment
of ether wind Ether wind
L L velocity u

Mirror M1
Light beam

L
Flash
Half-silvered
mirror

Observer
Implications of the Einstein’s postulates

S’

 correct

Observer
Implications of the Einstein’s postulates

S’

 incorrect

Observer
Implications of the Einstein’s postulates

1. Problem of simultaneity in different frames of reference,

Two events simultaneous in one inertial frame of reference may not be
simultaneous in the second inertial frame of reference.
2. Problem of time and length measurement,
Two researchers measuring time and length in two inertial
frames of reference will not obtain the same results.
3. Second law of Newton mechanics,
To conserve the law of inertia the second law of Newtonian dynamics
must be revised.
4. Momentum and energy conservation,
For conservation principles of momentum and energy in inertial systems
its definitions must be revised to conform special theory of relativity.
Relativity of simultaneity

Lighting bolts strike each end of

the wagon (points A’ and B’) and
the ground (points A and B)
David
Relativity of simultaneity
David will notice both lights (from front and back of the wagon) at the same moment
Emily will notice at first light coming from front of the wagon and later light from rear
of the wagon
Whether or not two events at different x-axis locations are
simultaneous depends on the state of motion of the observer.
u

Emily

Emily moves towards the lightwave

coming from the front of the wagon,
and away from the lightwave coming
David from the back of the wagon.
Relativity of time intervals
u

Emily Emily

Emily measure
time interval Δt0
David measure a longer time
interval Δt.
Light pulse travels at the same
speed in both frames, but travels
David greater distance than in David’s
frame
Relativity of time intervals
In David’s frame

Time dilatation
Time dilatation

5
4

3
2

0 0.25c 0.5c 0.75c c

Speed u
Time dilatation - Muons

High-energy subatomic particles coming from space interact with atoms in the earth’s
upper atmosphere, producing unstable particles called muons. A muon decays with a
mean lifetime of 2.2*10-6s as measured in a frame of reference in which it is at rest. If
a muon is moving at 0.99c relative to the earth, what will you measure its mea lifetime
to be?
Time dilatation - Meeting

You are driving your car to a business meeting at the speed 30 m/s. Your boss is
waiting for you and expect that your trip will last 5 hours. When you arrive late, your
excuse is that the clock in your car registered 5 hours of the trip, but you were driving
so fast that the clock was ticking slower than your boss’s watch. So if the car clock
indicate 5 hours, how much time passed on your boss’s watch?
Time dilatation - Meeting

To determine more precisely the  value lets use a binomial expansion:

… so your boss’s watch will be only 0,09 ns of your car clock.

Time dilatation
It is a verifable phenomenon, proved by experiment of Hafele and Keating:

October 1971

• 4 very accurate cesium clock were flown in a

commercial airplane around the world.
• experiment was repeated twice – eastward and
westward trip,
• results were compared with atomic clock in U.S.
Naval Observatory.
• during eastward trip – lost 5910 ns
• during westward trip – gain 273 7 ns

(Around-the-World Atomic Clocks: Observed Relativistic Time Gains, Science, Vol.177, 168-170)
Twin paradox
After the trip:
Twins – 20 yrs. old
• Speedo is 33 years old
(13 years older)
• Goslo is 62 years old,
Goslo Speedo

Who is the traveler, and who should be older?

Speed of the spacecraft = 0,95 c

20 light years
Earth Aplha-Centauri
Twin paradox
According to Goslo: Goslo Speedo

trip lasts:

Time on spacecraft:

Speedo
Goslo

Frame of reference of the spacecraft is not inertial

Special Theory of Relativity cannot be used in this case

Spacetime diagrams
• Four-dimensional character of spacetime,
• How to show events in different times at one diagram?

A and D are at the same

point, but different times

A nad B are at the same time,

But different points
If the partice is moving with acceleration
Length contraction
u

Emily Emily

For Emily light pulse

travels the distance l0
(length of the ruler)
David
For David ruler moves with
relative speed u, so the light
pulse will travel the distance
of the ruler and additional
distance uDt1
Time dilatation
A spaceship flies past earth at a speed of 0.99c. A crew member on
board the spaceship measures its length, obtaining the value 400m.
What length do observers measure on earth?
 The Lorentz Transformation
Instead of Galilean coordinate system, in STR we use Lorentz transformation

Frame of reference S’ moves

relative to frame S with constant
speed u along the x-axis

Classical approach is not

consistent with Einstein postulates
y S S’
x’

y y’
Origins O and O’ coincide
O O’
at the time t = t’ = 0 x x’
ut
The Lorentz Transformation

y S S’
x’

y y’
O O’
x x’
ut
The Lorentz Transformation
For velocity:
The Lorentz Transformation
For coordinates:

And time:
Relativistic transformation multiplier 
We will derive the  multiplier

In S frame

In S’ frame
Horse in the barn – another paradox

0,75c

15 m
10 m

The farmer can close and open

the doors at the same moment
Horse in the barn – another paradox
Farmer

-10 -9,9 0 10
Front Rear
door door
Horse in the barn – another paradox
Horse

Front door arrives

at back of the wagon

Back door arrives

at horse head

-15 -10 0
Back of the wagon Horse head
Proper length and proper time

Proper length – is measured by an observer for whom the

end points of the length remain fixed in space

Proper time – is measured by someone for whom two

events take place in at the same position in space

In the experiment with muons:

• In muon’s frame of reference: proper lifetime

• Earth-based observer will measure proper length
 Lorentz velocity transformation for
different directions
For movements in two orthogonal directions we obtain additional eguations:

The observer in S’ frame of reference will register the velocity:

y’ v
uy
S’
x’
z’

S
uz x

z
Lorentz velocity transformation for
different directions
Two motocycle gang leaders are racing at relativistic speeds along penperdicular
routes. How fast does Emily recede as seen by David over his right shoulder?

Policeman
S at frame S
0.75c

David
Lorentz velocity transformation for
different directions
We calculate the Emily’s velocity in S’ frame
David: of reference (in which David is at rest)

Emily:
Doppler effect for electromagnetic
waves
Source emits first Source emits second Position of first wave crest
wave crest wave crest at the instant that the second
wave crest is emitted

uT l

cT S
Observer
Relativistic linear momentum
• The implication of Einstein’s postulates is that physics laws must be revised,
• In order to describe properly the motion of particles:

Galilean coordinate system replace Lorentz coordinate system

The laws of physics must remain unchanged under the Lorentz transformation

• Newton’s laws
Must be generalized to conform the
• Linear momentum
Lorentz transformation equations.
• Energy

Linear momentum expressed in Lorentz transformation should reduce to

nonrelativistic clasical definition (for v<<c)
Relativistic linear momentum

Law of conservation of linear momentum:

When two particles (or objects) collide, the total momentum of the isolated
system ot hte two particles remains constant.

Or

In the absence of external forces, sum of the momenta of interacting

particles is constant.
Relativistic linear momentum

S’

• In S frame of reference – momentum is conserved

• In S’ frame of reference – momentum will not be conserved
if we use Lorentz transformation for velocity and clasical
definition of momentum
Relativistic linear momentum
Laws of physics must be the same in all inertial frames of reference
+
Lorentz transformation is correct

Definition of linear momentum must be modified

 Relativistic linear momentum
An electron, which has a mass of ,moves with the speed of 0,75c.
What is the relativistic momentum of an electron?
Compare the result with result calculated from classic definition.

From classical definition:

So the correct relativistic result is 50% greater than the classical result
Relativistic linear momentum
p

5mc

4mc  correct  incorrect

Relativistic momentum Newtonian
3mc
momentum
2mc

mc

0 0.25c 0.5c 0.75c c v

Speed u
Relativistic linear momentum

Under the relativistic conditions the acceleration of a particle decreases under

The action of a constant force

As the particle’s speed approaches c,

the acceleration caused by any finite
force approaches zero.

It is impossible to accelerate a particle

from rest to a speed v>c
Relativistic Work and Energy
To make it compatible with Einstein’s postulates, the definition of kinetic energy
must also be modified.

Lets consider a particle moving along x-axis

x1 x
x2
Relativistic Work and Energy

Evaluate

Substituting this expression for and

We change the integration variable, so

the limits also have to change

Evaluating the integral:

According to Reletivistic
work-energy theorem Kinetic
Energy
Relativistic Work and Energy

It was confirmed by experiments using high-energy particle accelerators

Work done to bring a particle of mass m from rest to speed v will be the
kinetic enegry of the particle

If we use a polynomial expansion for  for v<<c

Classical form of kinetic energy

Relativistic Work and Energy

Rest energy
Total Energy = Kinetic energy + Rest energy

• Mass is a form of energy,

• even a small mass corresponds to an enormous amount of energy, a concept

fundamental to nuclear and elementary particle physics,
Relativistic Work and Energy
Instead of measuring velocity, it is better to measure linear momentum or energy of
the particle.

By eliminating v

When particle’s momentum p=0, then

Photon : m= 0
Relativistic Work and Energy

Photon : m= 0

Exact expression relating total energy and linear momentum for photons

Invariant mass – mass is independent of its motion, and must

be the same in all inertial frames

…but total energy and momentum depends on velocity , so depend

on the frame of reference in which are measured.
Relativistic Work and Energy
Energy given by
Electron volt acceleration through
potential difference

Electron

Electron rest energy

Relativistic Work and Energy

An electron in a television picture tube typically moves with a speed v=0,25 c.

Find its total energy and kinetic energy in electron volts.

This is 3% greater than the rest energy.

Relativistic Work and Energy

 correct
Relativistic
kinetic
energy
 incorrect
Newtonian
kinetic energy

0 0.25c 0.5c 0.75c c v

Speed u
General theory of relativity

Mass has two different properties:

• Gravitational property (a force of mutual attraction between two masses)

• Inertial property (resistance of a single mass to be accelerated)

Gravitational mass and inertial mass are equal

• 1916 Albert Einstein, General theory of relativity,

• Describes relativity in noninertial frames of reference,
• Dual behaviour of mass is a evidence for a very
intimate and basic connection between the two behaviours,
General theory of relativity
No mechanical experiment could distinguish between following situation:
• Observer on Earth feels gravitational force (inertial frame of reference),
• Observer in space feels the same force (noninertial frame of reference),

According to Einstein, both situations are equivalent.

a=g
General theory of relativity
Einstein extended this idea further for nonmechanical experiments.
• For observer outside the elevator light travels straight when elevator
accelerates upwards,
• For observer inside the elecator light trajectory bends downwards when
elevator accelerates upwards.

Based on equality light should be bent downward by gravitational field

a=g
General theory of relativity
Einstein’s postulates in general theory of relativity

• All the laws of nature have the same form for observers in any frame of reference,
whether accelerated or not.
• In the vicinity of any point, a gravitational field is equivalent to an accelerated
frame of reference in the absence of gravitational effects (Principle of equivalence)

An interesting effect:

• Time is altered by gravity,

• Clock runs slower in presence of gravity,
• Frequencies of radiation emitted by atoms are red-shifted in presence of
strong gravity. (experimentally verified).
 General theory of relativity
Second Einstein’s postulate in general theory of relativity

In the vicinity of any point, a gravitational field is equivalent to an accelerated

frame of reference in the absence of gravitational effects (Principle of equivalence)

• It suggests that a gravitational field can be „transformed away” at any point

if we choose an appropriate accelerated frame of reference.

Curvature of space-time - innovative concept of describing influence of

gravitational field at every point – description of acceleration to make gravity „dissapear”

• It replaces Newton’s gravitational theory,

• The gravitational field does not exist,
• … rather the presence of a mass that causes the curvature of space-time
in vicinity of the mass,
• This curvature dictates the space-time path that all objects must follow,
General theory of relativity

Curvature of space-time - innovative concept of describing influence of

gravitational field at every point – description of acceleration to make gravity
„dissapear”

• It replaces Newton’s gravitational theory,

• The gravitational field does not exist,
• … rather the presence of a mass that causes the curvature of space-time
in vicinity of the mass,
• This curvature dictates the space-time path that all objects must follow,
General theory of relativity

Curvature of space-time – an example

• Two travelers walks northward along parallel paths apart few meters,
• Observing each other near the equator they claim that their paths are parallel,
• By approaching the north pole they will meet,
• They moves parallel but approach each other, as there was some attractive
force between them.
• Their conclusions are based on their everyday experience…
• … but in fact they are moving on a curved surface,

• In a similar way generat theory of relativity replaces the notion of forces

with the movement of objects throug curved space-time
General theory of relativity

Light deflection near the Sun

1,75”

Sun

Earth

Light beam passing near the Sun will be deflected in the curved space-time
created by the Sun’s mass (experimentally verified)
General theory of relativity

„Space tells matter how to move

and matter tells space how to curve”

John Wheeler, 1979

One sentence that summarizes the general theory of relativity

Summary

All of the fundamental laws of physics have the same form in all
inertial frames of reference. The speed of light in vacuum is the same
in all inertial frames and is independent of the motion of the source.
Simultaneity is not an absolute concept; events that are simultaneous
in one frame are not necessarily simultaneous in a second frame
moving relative to the first.
Summary

If two events occur at the same space point in a particular frame of

reference, the time interval ∆t0 between the events as measured in
that frame is called a proper time interval. If this frame moves with
constant velocity u relative to a second frame, the time interval ∆t
between the events as observed in the second frame is longer than
∆t0 . This effect is called time dilation.
Summary

If two points are at rest in a particular frame of reference, the distance

l0 between the points as measured in that frame is called a proper
length. If this frame moves with constant velocity u relative to a second
frame and the distances are measured parallel to the motion, the
distance l between the points as measured in the second frame is
shorter than l0 . This effect is called length contraction.
Summary

The Lorentz coordinate transformation relates the coordinate and time

of an event in an inertial frame S to the coordinates and time of the
same event as observed in a second inertial frame S’ moving at
velocity u relative to the first. For one-dimensional motion, a particle’s
velocities vx in S and v’x in S’ are related by the Lorentz velocity
transformation.
Summary

The Doppler effect is the frequency shift in light from a source due to
the relative motion of source and observer. For a source moving
toward the observer with speed uthe received frequency f in terms of
the emitted frequency f0 is given by
Summary
Summary

The special theory of relativity is a generalization of Newtonian

mechanics. All the principles of Newtonian mechanics are present as
limiting cases when all the speeds are small compared to c. Further
generalization to include noninertial frames of reference and their
relation to gravitational fields leads to the general theory of relativity
 © 2014 The copyright to this document is owned by Warsaw University of Technology.
No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without their prior permission.