Journal of Wilderness Medicine,S, 163-170 (1994)

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Group dynamics: implications for successful

expeditions
CHRISTINE M. CASHEL, EdD.
Associate Professor, Department of Leisure Studies, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA

A successful expedition requires technical ability as well as the ability to get along with others. Many
expeditions are unsuccessful because attention is not directed toward the dynamics between group
members. Positive relationships can assist an expedition to meet its goals, and may even contribute
to the safety of participants. Conscious effort to utilize the concepts of expedition behavior is
underutilized by most groups. The purpose of this article is to identify characteristics of group
dynamics, expedition behavior and leadership concerns for expeditions.
Key words:

Introduction
In outdoor pursuits, skills which have been identified as important include technical
(physical) abilities and process (getting along with others). For the last decade, outdoor
professionals have separated technical skills from process skills. Swiderski [1] defined
technical skills as specific methods and procedures needed for outdoors pursuits.
Examples of these skills include first aid, sanitation, weather monitoring, risk manage-
ment, climbing, river crossing, and establishing contracts and schedules. Process skills are
defined as interpersonal abilities and group dynamics. The components of process skills
are conflict resolution, trust building, communication and maintaining a supportive social
climate [1].
Technical skills are often emphasized at the expense of group relations, particularly in
expeditions when the goal is clear and a high level of skill is required. Technical skills,
while not enough to ensure safety or goal attainment, are essential and usually determine
one's assignment on an expedition, such as lead climber or medical personnel.
Interestingly, it is process skills which emerge as being critical to success as time proceeds
and conditions change during a trip. Individual differences, weather changes or
unanticipated events can bring the group together into a cohesive and loyal unit or divide
the members into uncommunicative cliques.
Maintaining harmony through conscious use of process skills protects the goal
attainment and safety of the group. In the annual report of Accidents in North American
Mountaineering, technical deficiencies, poor relationships and communication were cited
as reasons for many mishaps [2]. For example inexperience, exceeding abilities, failure to
communicate previous medical conditions, fatigue and overconfidence are listed as
frequent causes of accidents. Each of these causes could be prevented by open, honest
communication and decision making by each participant of the group. Indeed, if we listen
0953-9859 © 1994 Chapman & Hall
164 Cashel
to the experiences of people on expeditions, personal relationships are equally as
important as technical expertise. This paper will center on the process skills which hold a
group together not the technical skills of expedition members.

Process skills/group dynamics/expedition behavior

When a group is together for more than a few days, a variety of dynamics begin. As
group dynamics emerge, they influence morale, participation, leadership struggles,
conflict, competition and cooperation. Every group is different because of the dynamics
of the people involved and the conditions under which they are asked to perform.
Participants must adjust to new sets of behaviors in a relatively short length of time. The
stage is set for many dynamics when rules are neither well understood nor habitual,
routines are anything but regular, consequences for making mistakes can be serious, and
where social and emotional support are earned rather than taken for granted [3].
Group effectiveness in outdoor settings relates to the goals of the group as well as to
the ability to divide labor for a sense of cooperative interdependence. Johnson and
Johnson [4] define cooperative interdependence as "the perception that one is linked
with others in a way that one cannot succeed unless they do (and vice versa)". While
cooperative interdependence allows tasks to be divided, communication and a supportive
group atmosphere assure dedication to each task.
An expedition is defined as a group undertaking a journey of some length and
difficulty in the outdoors for a definite purpose. This would include educational, social,
recreational and adventure journeys. Each person on an expedition has responsibility for
individual tasks and for group tasks. Individual responsibilities are mostly personal care
and feeding. It is also a responsibility to learn all tasks in the group and to be able to
perform in all conditions. Group responsibilities encompass the social functioning of the
group and are essential to the group's achievement. The group responsibilities include
alleviating tension, giving moral support, recognizing honest effort and praising success.
Rewards are then distributed among all group members for their part in the expedition
effort.
Interpersonal difficulties and conflicts are often cited as a reason for failure to reach an
expedition goal. Reading diaries and recounting expeditions, one is reminded again and
again of the failure to complete the goal of the expedition because of a breakdown in
group relations or getting stuck in conflict. Conflict in groups is normal and likely. It can
occur between members and mayor may not involve the leader. Some people are more
comfortable avoiding conflict than dealing with it. This is often a mistake, because
conflicts permit groups to develop normally through observable stages. Essentially, there
are three stages to observe. The first is orientation, when groups need to be told what to
do and how to do it. Groups are generally tentative and unsure of what to expect and
look toward the leader for direction. The second stage is where conflict occurs. A group
can bog down if disenchantment with the expedition occurs or group commitments are
not fulfilled. If issues are resolved, more realistic goals can be set by the group. Lastly,
groups move into a constructive work phase. This is when everyone has a clear
understanding of their roles in work assignments and group relationships.
Paul Petzoldt, author of The New Wilderness Handbook [5], bridged group theory to
outdoor endeavors after observing successful and unsuccessful expeditions. He coined
the term 'expedition behavior' to refer to interpersonal relationships and behaviors in a
Group dynamics: implications for successful expeditions 165
group. Himalayan expeditions provide many examples in which poor expedition behavior
has promoted failure and disaster. The groups have either been terminated due to
conflict or the inability to resolve it. Petzoldt notes 'the early Germans on Nanga Parbat,
the French in the Karakoram, the Americans and Italians on K2, the French on
Annapurna, all had disappointments and tragedies that might have been prevented by
previous training in expedition behavior'. Petzoldt [5] defines poor expedition behavior
as:
a breakdown in human relations caused by selfishness, rationalization, ignorance of
personal faults, dodging blame or responsibility, physical weakness, and in extreme cases, not
being able to risk one's own survival to insure that of a companion.

Although poor pre-planning encourages a breakdown in relations, even well planned

and well equipped outings might face disaster if good expedition behavior practices are
missing. Whenever personal success is placed above the enjoyment, safety or friendship
of others, the potential for disaster exists. Good expedition behavior is described [5] as:

... an awareness of the relationship of individual to individual, individual to the group, group
to the individual, group to other groups, individual and group to the multiple uses of the
region, individual and group to administrative agencies, and individual and group to the local
populace.

While the concepts of good expedition behavior seem obvious, each is a vital key to
success for effective relationships during an expedition. Expedition behavior acknowl-
edges the stages of group growth and encourages open and honest communication to
resolve disturbances. Individual-to-individual behavior refers to a key relationship as it
emerges in a rope team, a tent mate or a chore-buddy. Living and working under close
conditions requires one to have knowledge of personal behaviors and a tolerance for
others. Having respect for others' privacy, another's belongings and sharing responsibi-
lities are important for positive relations.
Individual-to-group relations require one to modify idiosyncracies to conform to
group norms. For example always being late, constant talk about past experiences or
poor organization tends to irritate a group. An individual's responsibility to the group
also includes communication to others about developing illness, an injury or other
conditions so the group can adjust. The group responsibility to the individual rests with
the group trying to accept and consider the needs of every member. When injury or
illness limits a member, the group can assist without blaming the victim. This is easier
said than done because limited capacity of one member can alter the chance of attaining
the goal. This is the crux of expedition behavior: how individuals interact with their
group. During a trip, each member can have a bad day. The group, as an expedition, is
being asked to adjust to a variety of factors, such as being isolated with a group from
whom there is no escape, being away from family and friends, being confronted with a
host of physical dangers, and facing one's own limitations and disappointments. If the
expedition's goal is not met, understanding and support of each individual and his or her
role in the group allows one to salvage some satisfaction. A group may justify the
experience by having time to be disengaged from normal life, enjoying friendships or
opportunities to view the scenery. In other words, the motives for participation shift from
group goal achievement to personal rewards [6].
The other aspects of expedition behavior are also important. Group-to-group behavior
166 Cashel
means allowing other groups to have their own experience without interference.
Judgment to interact with other groups should be exercised in a cautious manner,
remembering that certain behaviors may be offensive to others. Relationships to multiple
users, administrative agencies and local people can trigger irritation and outrage when
rules or customs are not understood. Expedition behavior is evident in all intra and inter
group interactions.
For major expeditions, awareness of group dynamics begins at the selection phase.
Choosing members who are technically skilled is easy compared with matching roles and
personalities. The smaller the group, the more homogeneous the group should be. An
extreme personality is more difficult to integrate in a small group. The larger the group
(over eight), the more diverse it can be. Actually, diversity is preferable for optimal role
sharing and group effectiveness. To test the group, a pre-trip excursion can test group
fitness as well as technical skills. Group abilities need to be addressed as being an
important outcome of the expedition. In other types of trips, thorough pre-trip
communication is a must - whether written or in person. For the first few days, the leader and
the group need to talk about what is occurring and how they might resolve future problems.

Research review
While many believe in the value of developing and maintaining a good expedition climate
of working relationships during a trip, there is limited scientific research in the area of
group effectiveness during outdoor experiences. Participant outcomes of outdoor
camping experiences have been researched extensively. Over 80 per cent of dissertations
involving outdoor settings measured psychological or sociological outcomes in the 1982
Bibliography of Research [7]. Most of these relate to self-concept. Outcomes or benefits
of engaging in adventure activities have been categorized in several ways. Ewert [8] lists
benefits as physical, sociological and psychological.

Potential benefits of outdoor adventure participation

Psychological Sociological Physical
Self concept Group cooperation Strength
Confidence Communication Coordination
Self efficacy Compassion Outdoor skills
Value clarification Nature awareness Sensory awareness
Problem solving Respect for others Health
Additionally, Rogers [9] and Jensen [3] have made good cases for understanding
small group process in outdoor settings.

The outdoor adventure activity is the epitome of the dynamic small group. Knowledge of how
and why groups function and dysfunction is basic to environmental behavior, personal
growth, safety and in many instances the acquisition and proper performance of technical
motor skills. Group problem solving is essential in adventure activities [9].

Leadership issues
A few investigations have been conducted in the area of leadership in the outdoors.
Leader effectiveness has been examined by assuming that leadership dimensions are
Group dynamics: implications for successful expeditions 167
learnable skills. While safety and environmental concerns lead the list of valuable leader
skills, use of different leadership styles is equally important for group success [10-14].
Process skills have been identified as an area where outdoor leaders are deficient.
Perhaps this is due to limited teaching of process skills by outdoor training organizations
and the difficulty of measuring leadership variables.
Judgment is a key skill for effective leadership [15]. Judgment is the result of
experience that is processed into a new problem solving situation. 'A bad experience
could be the result of poor judgment and such an experience can happen on expeditions
if psychological and sociological considerations are not recognized and dealt with' [16].
Leaders who are aware of their own abilities, limitations, style, talents of group
members and the trip environment can enhance the possibility of attaining the expedition
goals. Before entering a new situation, preparation of the group and developing good
communication patterns are important. A leader cannot ignore emotions that emerge and
the group cannot ignore dynamics that will influence the behavior of the group. A leader
has some but not all the responsibility for group relations. However, the attention of the
leader as a group evolves through the stages of orientation, conflict and constructive
work varies. The functions of the leader in regard to group development vary depending
on competence, theoretical orientation, the nature of the group and the leader's
perceptions of the demands of each situation. There are forces brought into a group by
the leader, the group members and the situation which factor into the style used by the
leader. A leader's behavior will reflect three sets offorces [17].

Forces in the leader

His/her value system
His/her confidence in the group
His/her leadership inclinations
His/her feelings of security in an uncertain situation

Forces in the group

Need for independence or dependence
Readiness to assume responsibility
Tolerance for ambiguity
Understanding of goals
Knowledge and experience
Expectations

Forces in the situation

Type of sponsoring organization
Group effectiveness
Time pressure
By understanding these forces or influences, leaders can adjust their styles accordingly.
Leaders have a range of styles to draw upon, depending on the group and the situation.
Styles range from authoritative where participants are told what to do, to a more
democratic approach where the group has input into decision making. Different groups,
or even the same group under different conditions, will probably need different kinds of
leadership.
In the outdoors, there are some legitimate reasons why an authoritarian style will be
168 Cashel
used to some degree. Safety cannot be compromised. Outdoor pursuits tend to be goal
oriented and decision making rests with 'the leader'. Authoritative leadership is required
to carry out objectives and prevent disruption but can lower group morale. Under highly
stressful conditions of personal danger or fear, individuals may be strongly attracted to
authoritarian leadership. This is the case in many expeditions.
There are some inherent weaknesses in maintaining a strict authoritarian atmosphere
over a long period of time. Over long periods of time, the overall group effectiveness
deteriorates [18]. Allegiance to the goal may wane after extended time in the field and/
or things become difficult. After the goal has been accomplished, members of the group
relax their vigilance for each other and accidents can happen. The leader becomes a
target of criticism if personal goals are not achieved. In 1979 when the leader of the
women's climb on Annapurna went against her own judgment and a second attempt was
made, two climbers fell to their death. The leader bent to criticism. But, when a second
summit attempt is not permitted even when climbers are ready to go, the leader is also
blamed. Finally, if the leader uses only authoritative behaviors, he or she must oversee all
aspects of the trip because no one will make independent decisions. This is where the
ability to get along with others in the group assists a leader and allows oversight of many
tasks rather than intense direction of each one. Effective communication is the method
used by leaders in successful groups. Listening to what is being said or communicated,
giving useful feedback and even encouraging conflict when appropriate helps the group
develop and move through growth stages. Leaders are responsible for the effectiveness of
their group and must exhibit a high level of integrity to ensure stability as changes occur.
There are some consistent behaviors which emerge from effective leaders [19]:
1. A guiding vision - a leader has a clear idea of what he or she wants to do.
2. Passion - a leader has an intense drive for a course of action which offers hope
and inspiration to others.
3. Integrity - a leader has good self knowledge of personal abilities and limitations, is
candid about and has maturity to equal the role. This equates with years of
following and analysing others and testing one's own abilities in groups along the
way.
4. Trust - a leader needs to have the trust of followers, which is usually brought
about through consistent behavior.
5. Curiosity and daring -leaders are risk takers, but they generally know the limits of
the group.
Although all group members are responsible for contributing to the group's success,
the leader is expected to guide, intervene and encourage the group's progress. Ultimately,
leaders are held responsible for the expedition's outcome.

Conclusion
People join groups in outdoor pursuits for social reasons and/or because they believe
they cannot achieve a goal independently. This is called positive interdependence. A joint
endeavor should benefit all who participate. The better the group functions, the more
content the group members are. The better off the individual members are, the more they
can contribute to the group's efforts. Expedition behavior emerges as a useful concept
and tool when leading groups into the outdoors. So much occurs that many small
Group dynamics: implications for successful expeditions 169
conflicts can go unnoticed unless everyone realizes that an expedition is a group process,
not a selected group of individuals on the same trail. It provides a framework in which
each person understands the importance of relationships and the role of each individual
in the accomplishment of the expedition. Interpersonal skills do not slow progress, but
allow for safe and enjoyable adventures where the chance for success is enhanced
because everyone is part of the process. Successful expeditions have probably utilized the
characteristics of good expedition behavior even if they did not use the term. Anyone
who has been on an unsatisfactory outdoor trip can identify with aspects of poor
expedition relationships. While it may be an understated aspect of an outing, expedition
behavior looms large as an ingredient for success.
Participants selected for expeditions should be able to get along with others in extreme
circumstances as well as possess the necessary technical skills. This translates to a
willingness to sacrifice personal goals for the sake of the group. Acknowledging relation-
ships in the group fosters communication and trust, and gives the group a good chance of
achieving it's goal, weather permitting! While the idea of group dynamics seems self
evident, it becomes complex as personalities and conditions interact. There is no best way
to select participants or handle frictions, other than recognizing the source of the conflict,
communicating and taking time to become a group that understands its purpose and
tasks before being placed in difficult circumstances.

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