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2 - Types - Effects of Faults
2 - Types - Effects of Faults
A H Chowdhury, PhD
Professor
Dept. of EEE, BUET
4 July 2021
Types of Faults
Steam turbine
Generator
Excitation generator
Generator Faults
A. Internal faults
1. Primary and backup phase or ground faults in the stator and associated areas
2. Ground faults in the rotor and loss-of-field excitation
B. System disturbances and operational hazards turbines
1. Loss of prime-mover; generator motoring 7. Uncleared system faults: backup distance;
2. Overexcitation: volts or hertz protection voltage controlled time overcurrent
3. Inadvertent energization: nonsynchronized 8. Overvoltage
connection 9. Loss of synchronism: out of step
4. Unbalanced currents: negative sequence; 10. Subsynchronous oscillations
breaker pole flashover 11. Loss of voltage transformer signal to relaying
5. Thermal overload or voltage regulator
6. Off-frequency operation for large steam 12. Generator breaker failure
External Faults
• External faults generally not covered by generator protection zone → differential protection does not
respond
• Overcurrent and earth fault protection of generator provides backup protection to external faults
Thermal Overloading
• Continuous unbalanced load ( 10% of Irated) cause dangerous heating of cylindrical rotor
▪ Mal-operation of a circuit breaker near generating station (not all pole being cleared)
• EMF is induced in the stator winding → opening the circuit is not enough
▪ Field is opened and de-energized by “field suppression”
• Smaller neutral-earth resistor → higher fault current → severe burning of stator core
– Large field circuit time constant → longer time to suppress field flux
• May develop owing to incoming current surges with a steep wave-front →may induce
high voltage (L di/dt) across turns at entrance of stator winding
• Protection scheme:
▪ Differential protection and overcurrent protection does not sense inter-turn faults
• Field system normally not connected to earth → a single earth fault does not give rise to any fault
current
→ A second earth fault will short circuit part of winding and may thereby produce an unsymmetrical field
system, giving unbalanced force on rotor
• Unbalanced loading on generator gives rise to negative sequence currents → cause negative
sequence component of magnetic field
– Negative sequence field rotates in opposite direction of main field and induces emf in rotor winding →
causes rotor heating
Field Winding Faults
• Reduced excitation may occur due to short circuit or an open circuit in field or exciter circuits or
a fault in automatic voltage regulator
– If field circuit breaker opens by mistake, fully loaded generator falls out of step and continues to run as
an induction generator drawing reactive power from bus
• Protection scheme:
▪ 'Rotor earth fault protection' provided for large generators
▪ Rotor temperature indicators used with large sets for detecting rotor overheating due to unbalanced
loading of generator
Overvoltages
Atmospheric surge-voltages
• Caused by direct lightning strokes to overhead lines
• Induced and capacitively transferred voltage surges can reach generator via unit transformer
• Amplitude and duration of surge on generator side depends on type of lightning arresters used on
the HV side and on configuration of HV busbar
• Surge arresters and surge capacitors used for protection
Overvoltages
Switching surges
• Switching operations may cause high transient overvoltage if restriking occurs across contacts of
circuit-breakers
• These transients similar to those obtained during intermittent earth faults (arcing grounds) and
may be limited by using circuit-breakers
Voltage transient
due to capacitor
bank switching
Overvoltages
Arcing Grounds
• Repeated arcing across fault due to capacitances between conductors and ground
– This phenomenon is observed in ungrounded three phase systems
• In ungrounded three phase systems operating in a healthy balanced conditions, capacitances are
formed between conductors and ground
Overvoltages
• During ground fault voltage across faulty conductor becomes zero, voltages across the healthy
conductors increase by a factor of 1.732
• Arc caused between faulty conductor and ground gets extinguished and restarts many times
• Amplitude of transient voltages during arcing grounds may reach a value of 5 times nominal
voltage
Overvoltages
• HV network Petersen coil earthed, neutral voltage of generator can reach normal
setting of earth fault protection
– This problem solved by either increasing earth-fault relay setting or reducing ohmic value
of generator earthing resistor
Overvoltages
• Surge arresters and R-C surge suppressors installed between generator and circuit-
breaker also assist in reducing switching surges
– provide overvoltage protection for all phases and between phases
Abnormal Conditions
• Loss of excitation
• Loss of synchronism
• Wrong synchronization
• Asynchronous running without excitation
• Local overheating
• Leakage in hydrogen circuit
• Moisture in generator winding
• Oxygen in pure water circuit
• Overspeeding
• Motoring of generator
Abnormal Conditions
Loss of excitation
• Machine continues to run as an induction generator, drawing excitation current from bus bars
• Currents are taken at a high lagging power factor and magnitude similar to full load current → causes
overheating of stator winding and rotor winding
• Field should be either restored or machine should be shut off, before system stability is lost
Loss of synchronism
• If machine losses synchronism after a short circuit has been interrupted, a certain amount of slip is
generally permissible
– providing that stator current does not exceed 85% of maximum asymmetric short current with a solid short-
circuit at terminals
Abnormal Conditions
Wrong synchronization
• In the event of wrong synchronization current can be higher than under short-circuit conditions
• Preventive measures
– Uncontrolled reclosure after complete isolation of generator from network must be avoided (because this quickly
• It must be decided whether asynchronous running is to be carried out with open or short-circuited
rotor
• Slip and stator current must not be allowed to exceed specified limits
Abnormal Conditions
Local overheating
• Normally, emission products, in the form of gas, mist or smoke escape and these can be used for
tripping a signal
– analysis of these products provides a basis for decision
Abnormal Conditions
• Adequate ventilation should be provided in the vicinity of generator and terminal box
• Cooling water circuit closely monitored because any hydrogen carried along by water
is a danger factor
Abnormal Conditions
• Moisture detectors and drains must be provided at all points where liquids can collect
• Situation can arise where make up hydrogen is moist and can thus introduce moisture into generator
• Dissolved oxygen in stator cooling water leads to corrosion of hollow copper strands (for windings
with direct cooling)
Overspeeding
• If main generator circuit-breaker is tripped while full electrical power is being delivered to network,
dangerous overspeeding is prevented by normal actions of governor
Motoring of generator
• Will occur if driving torque of prime mover reduced below total losses of turbo-generator unit
• Active power will then be drawn from network in order to maintain synchronous running
– Generator will work as a synchronous motor
Vibrations
• May arise due to mechanical faults, impurities in lubricating oil or defects in oil circulation system
• Power transformers
• Power autotransformers
• Regulating transformers
• Grounding transformers
• Power-converter transformers
Transformer Faults
– pickup of such relaying equipment usually too high to provide effective transformer protection
except for prolonged short circuits
2. Different voltage levels (CTs are of different types, ratios , and performance characteristics)
4. Transformer taps for voltage control (alters ratio of voltage (and currents) between H.V. side and
L.V. side)
Magnetizing inrush
current phenomenon
(no residual flux initially
in transformer)
Factors Affecting Differential Protection
Harmonic restraining
• Operating coil of relay receives fundamental component of current only
• Restraining coil receives rectified sum of fundamental and harmonic component
→ inrush currents have more harmonic content, give more restraining torque
Factors Affecting Differential Protection
Harmonic blocking
• Blocking relay contains a 100 Hz blocking filter in operating coil and 50 Hz blocking filter in
restraining coil
– During inrush currents, 2nd harmonic component predominant and blocking relay is blocked → blocking
relay contacts remain open
– During short circuits, 50 Hz component predominant → blocking relay operates and relay contact circuit is
closed
Earth Fault of Transformer
• Restricted earth fault protection may then be used for faults on star
connected earthed secondary winding of power transformer
Earth Fault of Transformer
• Fault F1 → both I2, I1 flows → resultant F2 : earth fault within F1 : earth fault
transformer star beyond transformer
current in earth fault relay negligible connected winding
• Fault very near neutral point of transformer → voltage available for driving earth fault current is
small → low fault current
– Relay has to be too sensitive to sense such faults → would operate for spurious signals, external
faults, switching surges
• Practice is to set relay such that it operates for earth fault current of the order of 15% of rated
winding current
• Such setting protects restricted portion of winding → hence the name “restricted earth fault
protection”
Parallel Transformer Banks
• High V/f can occur in unit transformers and unit-auxiliary transformers if full excitation is applied to
generator before full synchronous speed is reached
– Automatic voltage regulator of generator have V/ f (Volts/Hertz) relay
– Relay blocks and prevents increasing excitation current before full speed and frequency is reached
• Time and current graded protection used where instantaneous operation is not necessary
▪ i.e., where time-lag in fault clearance does not cause instability or damage to cables, lines, etc.
• Short lines - pilot wire protection based on differential circulating current principle (e.g. Merz-Price)
is used
Overcurrent Protection
• In time graded overcurrent protection time setting of over-current relays at different locations
is graded
• Fault beyond C circuit breaker at C operates first, i.e., with relay time of 0.3 second
– Relays at B and A start operating but after about 0.3 second fault is cleared and relays at A and B get reset
• For faults between B and C circuit breaker only at B operates and likewise
1.3
Transformers
Time setting
of relays in these
feeders should be less 1.3 sec
• Two relays are employed for phase faults and one for earth fault
• Phase fault and earth fault relays are set for short circuits → do not detect over-loads of small
magnitude
• Overload protection may be provided in addition, with long time setting (minutes) and low current
setting
Transmission Line Faults
• Directional time and current graded systems suitable, where power can flow to fault from both
directions
– Circuit breakers on both sides should trip, so as to disconnect faulty line
– Such case occurs in parallel feeders, ring mains, T feeders, interconnected lines
• Current grading is applied when impedance between two sub-stations is sufficient and current
grading can be applied
• Long time delays occurring in graded time lag system can be partly avoided
▪ Employ high speed high set overcurrent relays
b) Fault currents for different types of fault are different → brings a certain difficulty in relay setting
c) For ring mains, T-feeders, parallel feeders etc. → power can flow to fault from either directions →
directional control is needed
Transmission Line Faults
Earth Fault
• Distance relaying used where time-lag cannot be permitted and selectivity cannot be obtained by
overcurrent relaying
• Distance relay measures Z (=V/I) at relay location → gives measure of distance between relay and
fault location
• 3 phase fault-measuring units can cater for all 7 phase faults [a-b, a-b-g, b-c, b-c-g, c-a, c-a-g,
a-b-c]
• 3 ground fault-measuring units can cater for all 3ground faults [a-g, b-g, c-g]
• Insulator will flashover if this transient voltage exceeds its withstand level (back
flash-over)
• Back flash-over voltage generated by multiple reflections along the struck tower
and also along shield wire at adjacent towers
Transmission Line Faults