University of Cambridge, Department of Geography

Student, MPhil in Anthropocene Studies

Pei Ling Gan plg25@cam.ac.uk
Word count: 1,913

Hanging by a thread: Could de-extinction science save the Sumatran or Javan rhinos?

Introduction: De-Extinction

Attempts to clone an extinct wild goat in 2003 and an extinct frog in 2013 have generated
considerable interest in the possibility of reversing extinctions (Zimmer, 2013; Sherkow &
Greely, 2013). In 2003, scientists delivered an infant – a clone of the last female Pyrenean ibex
named Celia. Although it died within several minutes of lung failure, during those minutes
when it was alive, its species was temporarily resurrected. It was the sole embryo, out of 154
created with Celia’s DNA and inserted into 44 surrogate mothers, that made that far (TEDx
Talks, 2013a). Its surrogate mother was a hybrid of a domestic goat and another species of
ibex.

A decade later, Australian scientists used the DNA of the extinct gastric-brooding frog to
produce embryos that lived for a few days (Yong, 2013). The frogs were once endemic to
Queensland. None of these experiments have permanently reversed a species’ extinction.
Nonetheless, they have given life to fantasies of once again populating Siberia with woolly
mammals (Mezrich, 2017) or resurrecting extinct bird species (TEDx Talks, 2013b).

Besides cloning, selective breeding and genetic engineering are two other methods touted as
de-extinction techniques capable of resurrecting extinct species (Adams, 2017). Selective
breeding involves breeding animals with the traits and appearance of an extinct animal.
Genetic engineering entails reconstructing missing pieces in the genome of an extinct species
such as the mammoth, then cloning a member of the extinct species (Shapiro, 2015).

An often-overlooked ethical challenge is the use of surrogate mothers, usually the closest
living species to the extinct animal, in such experiments. For instance, an elephant or tiger
might be used to give birth to a cloned or genetically modified mammoth or sabre-toothed
tiger. This is ethically questionable as elephants and tigers are species that are themselves in
need of protection from extinction. Besides that, Sandler (2017) pointed out that there is no
appropriate habitat for many extinct species in today’s world. Searle (2020) saw de-extinction
as a “spectacle”.

Curiously, the rhinoceroses, an iconic species with extinct and threatened subspecies, have
received little attention in current debates on de-extinction. This essay will explore whether
de-extinction technologies could help conserve the critically endangered Sumatran and Javan
rhinos in Indonesia.

Page 1 of 10
An Overview: Rhinos

There are five extant species of rhinoceroses in the world today. They are the closest living
relatives to the woolly rhinos from the Ice Age (Colmenares, 2020) and the last living
descendants of the once-abundant Miocene rhinos that evolved from the perissodactyls of
the Eocene some 55 to 34 million years ago (Hance, 2018b; Baraniuk, 2015).

Two species – the white rhino and the black rhino – are native to Africa. Numbering about
20,000, the southern white rhinos are the only African rhino subspecies that is not critically
endangered or extinct. There are only two known northern white rhinos left in captivity in a
Kenya sanctuary (Gilliland, 2019). Both infertile females, scientists successfully retrieved five
eggs from each last year. They created three embryos with the preserved sperm from a few
northern white rhinos that are now frozen in liquid nitrogen, in the hopes that one day a
southern white rhino surrogate may resurrect their northern brethren.

Another three species of rhinos are found in Asia – the Sumatran, Javan and Indian rhinos.
Both the Sumatran and Javan rhinos are categorized as “critically endangered” on the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)’s Red List of Threatened Species (Ellis
& Talukdar, 2020a; Ellis & Talukdar, 2020b). The Indian or greater one-horned rhino is listed
as “vulnerable” on the IUCN Red List with a small, growing population of just under 3,600 in
northern India and southern Nepal (Ellis & Talukdar, 2019).

Threats to the Rhinos

Various rhino subspecies have been driven to extinction or the brink of it over the past few
centuries primarily due to excessive and often legal hunting for their horns (Rabinowitz, 1995).
Their horns were carved into “beautiful cups, plates, bowls and figurines” in the Ming and
Ching dynasties (Leader-Williams, 2012). Although trade in rhino products was banned in
1975, illegal trade raged on in the 1980s and 1990s to satisfy demand in Asia and the Middle
East (Leader-Williams, 1992).

Today, rhino horns are still coveted in China and Vietnam as a symbol of wealth (Lam et al,
2020). More valuable than gold and cocaine, a rhino horn fetches between US$100,000 and
US$300,000 in black markets (Guilford, 2013). A Sumatran rhino’s horn may be worth more
than other rhino horns (Gunawan, 2015). The international wildlife trade monitoring network
TRAFFIC (2013) found in a survey that educated, wealthy men in Vietnam would purchase
rhino horns as gifts for their superior, business partners, colleagues, government officials,
family, or friends. Other buyers believe rhino horn is a cure for several ailments including
cancer. Rhino horns are made of keratin, the same material that can also be found in human
nails. A Vietnamese doctor told international news wire Associated Press (AP, 2012) he treats
a couple of patients that suffer from rashes after consuming rhino horn powder annually.

In the case of the Sumatran and Javan rhinos, their habitat – lowland forests in Southeast Asia
– had also shrunk rapidly due to logging (Ditti, 2018), agriculture, urbanisation, and other
human development activities. Conservationists have raised the possibility of population
collapse due to small numbers in the wild and a low success rate in captive breeding
(Havmøller et al, 2016).

Page 2 of 10
Case study 1: Sumatran rhinos

(Source: WWF, 2020a)

In 2013, experts estimated that fewer than 100 Sumatran rhinos (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)
were present in four separate locations in Sumatra and Borneo (Braverman, 2015). The sole
two-horn Asian rhino, the Sumatran rhino is slightly woolly and the smallest of its kind. It had
three subspecies, of which only two can still be found in Indonesia today. The first subspecies
Dicerorhinus sumatrensis lasiotis, used to be found in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and
Myanmar, is believed to be extinct.

The subspecies Dicerorhinus sumatrensis sumatrensis is restricted to three locations: the

Mount Leuser National Park in northern Sumatra, the Way Kambas National Park and the
Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park in southern Sumatra (Pusparini et al, 2015).

Another subspecies Dicerorhinus sumatrensis harrissoni is

known as the Bornean rhino. Its footprints and markings were
sighted in East Kalimantan in 2013 (WWF, 2013). A female was
captured in 2016 (WWF, 2016) but later died. When two
Bornean rhinos in captivity in Sabah, Malaysia passed away a
few months apart from each other in 2019, the species was
declared extinct in Malaysia (Bittel, 2019).

Iman, the last Sumatran rhino in Malaysia, died of cancer last November. (Source: Sabah Wildlife Department)

Page 3 of 10
Case study 2: Javan rhinos

(Source: WWF, 2020b)

There were once three subspecies of Javan rhinos (Rhinoceros sondaicus) but today only one
is still in existence. One of the two extinct subspecies, Rhinoceros sondaicus inermis, once
roamed eastern India, Bangladesh and Myanmar but disappeared entirely in the early 20th
century. The other extinct subspecies, Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus, was once common
in Indochina. It became extinct in 2010 when poachers killed the last known individual in the
Cat Tien National Park in Vietnam (Brook et al, 2014).

Now, the remaining living subspecies Rhinoceros sondaicus sondaicus is found only in
Indonesia. All 68 members of the subspecies, including calves, are confined to the Ujung Kulon
National Park in the westernmost tip of Java in 2018. Local experts are concerned that a
tsunami triggered by a volcano eruption on Krakatau island in the national park could wipe
out the entire subspecies (Setiawan et al, 2017).

Similar to the Sumatran rhinos, the sondaicus subspecies is known to be solitary, evasive and
shy. Little is known about the daily and sexual behaviours of this subspecies in the wild
compared to the Sumatran rhinos (Awaliah et al, 2019; Roth et al, 2013).

Page 4 of 10
Discussion

There have been no known experiments that employ selective breeding, cloning or genetic
engineering to resurrect an extinct rhino subspecies. Nevertheless, Malaysia has
cryopreserved the cells of its last three Bornean rhinos in hopes of doing so one day (Sipalan,
2020).

Indonesia and Malaysia have adopted two different approaches to rhino conservation.
Indonesia employed in situ conservation and created protected areas while Malaysia
attempted captive breeding (Ahmad Zafiret al, 2011), an ex-situ conservation method,
without success. All rhino subspecies in Malaysia are extinct. As a result, Indonesia is the last
refuge for both the Sumatran and Javan rhinos.

Concerned with preserving the Sumatran rhinos’ genetic pool, scientists such as Brandt et al
(2018) have proposed mixing the genome of the two existing subspecies to produce a hybrid.
However, they also cautioned that the two subspecies have been separated for over 300,000
years without clarifying the potential complications. Goossens et al (2013) also proposed
hybridisation. US molecular biologist Beth Shapiro (Quill, 2015) suggested it would be possible
to engineer lost genetic traits from museum specimens into current rhino populations. None,
however, discussed the practical and ethical implications of using any threatened rhino
subspecies as surrogate mothers in such experiments, or the ecological consequences of
introducing genetically modified rhino subspecies into the wild, nor the ethical concerns of
constraining genetically modified rhinos to a life in captivity.

The Sumatran rhinos do not breed well in captivity and have a shorter life span as captive
animals. The breeding programme in Cincinnati Zoo in Ohio, United States that ended in 2015
and in the Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary are the only two breeding programmes that enjoyed
some degree of success (Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden, 2015). As far as Indonesian
experts are concerned, natural breeding remains the best way for the Sumatran rhinos to
reproduce (Hance, 2018a). There is only one known reproductive success via artificial
insemination with a southern white rhino (Lanese, 2019), but not with any Sumatran or Javan
rhino.

Furthermore, such technocratic debates did not consider the consequences of diverting
limited conservation funding available to Southeast Asia into costly genetic engineering
research. This could include critical funding for training and hiring more rangers to protect
existing rhino habitats in Indonesia, to expand their habitats, to engage local communities to
help protect the rhinos (Purnomo, Herawati & Santoso, 2011) and to combat illegal wildlife
trade in Southeast Asia.

Page 5 of 10
Conclusion

I hope the discussion illustrated the practical challenges and ethical concerns in adopting de-
extinction techniques to conserve critically endangered species such as the Sumatran and
Javan rhinos. Experts need to think through the implications of using any threatened rhino
subspecies as surrogate mothers, confining cloned or genetically modified rhino calves to a
captive life or introducing them into the rainforests.

Some would like to believe that a locally extinct rhino subspecies could live on in cell culture,
and one day brought back to life via in vitro fertilization (Borneo Rhino Alliance, 2020) or
cloning. Others think it is more important to focus on enhancing the genetic pool of the
Sumatran rhinos by mixing subspecies or extracting DNA from museum specimens.

I think Indonesia should focus on protecting and expanding the rhinos’ habitat, cracking down
on poaching, wildlife trafficking and engaging local communities to help conserve the rhinos
(Jaya, 2020). This would benefit other species in the protected habitat too. It would also give
the Sumatran and Javan rhinos a fighting chance of becoming a conservation success story
like the southern white rhinos in Africa. Numbering about 200 in the early 20th century, the
southern white rhinos are considered a conservation success as their numbers increased to
over 9,000 in 2000. Rookmaaker (2000) attributed it to “stringent protection, law
enforcement, personal devotion and far-sighted management on the part of the relevant
authorities in South Africa”.

- end -

Page 6 of 10
References

Adams, W. M. (2017). ‘Geographies of conservation I: De-extinction and precision

conservation’, Progress in Human Geography, 41(4), pp. 534-545. doi:
10.1177/0309132516646641.

Ahmad Zafir, A. W. et al. (2011). ‘Now or never: what will it take to save the Sumatran
rhinoceros Dicerorhinussumatrensis from extinction?’, Oryx, 45(2), pp. 225–233. doi:
10.1017/S0030605310000864.

AP. (2012). ‘In Vietnam, Rhino Horns Costs More Than Cocaine’, CBS News, April 4. Available
at: https://www.cbsnews.com/news/in-vietnam-rhino-horn-costs-more-than-cocaine/
(Accessed: 2 December 2020).

Awaliah, A. T. S. et al. (2019). ‘Daily behavior Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinos

sumatrensis) in Sumatran Rhino sanctuary Way Kambas National Park’, IOP Conference
Series: Earth and Environmental Science. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/399/1/012102.

Baraniuk, C. (2015). ‘The story of rhinos and how they conquered the world’, BBC, 18 May.
Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/earth/story/20150518-the-epic-history-of-rhinos
(Accessed: 2 December 2020).

Bittel, J. (2019). ‘Last Sumatran rhino in Malaysia dies’, National Geographic, 24 November.
Available at: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/05/last-sumatran-rhino-
malaysia-dies/ (Accessed: 29 November 2020).

Borneo Rhino Alliance. (2020). BORA is in the process of reformulating its role. Look out for
new website in January 2021 [Blog post]. Available at:
http://www.borneorhinoalliance.org/author/theoracle/ (Accessed: 1 December 2020).

Brandt, J. R. et al. (2018) ‘Genetic Structure and Diversity Among Historic and Modern
Populations of the Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinussumatrensis)’, Journal of Heredity,
109(5), pp. 553–565. doi: 10.1093/jhered/esy019.

Braverman, I. (2015). ‘Northern White and Sumatra Rhinos’, in Wild Life: The Institution of
Nature. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, pp.51-58.

Brook, S. M. et al. (2014) ‘Lessons learned from the loss of a flagship: The extinction of the
Javan rhinoceros Rhinocerossondaicusannamiticus from Vietnam’, Biological Conservation,
174, pp. 21–29. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2014.03.014.

Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden. (2015). Last Sumatran Rhino in Western Hemisphere is
Leaving the Cincinnati Zoo [Press release]. 25 August. Available at:
http://cincinnatizoo.org/news-releases/last-sumatran-rhino-in-western-hemisphere-is-
leaving-the-cincinnati-zoo/ (Accessed: 2 December 2020).

Page 7 of 10
Colmenares, C. C. (2020). ‘Why did the woolly rhino go extinct?’, Mongabay, 30 November.
Available at: https://news.mongabay.com/2020/11/why-did-the-woolly-rhino-go-extinct/
(Accessed: 2 December 2020).

Ditti, M. (2018). ‘UBS in the Jungle, REPUBLIK, 26 March. Available at:

https://www.republik.ch/2018/03/26/ubs-in-the-jungle (Accessed: 2 December 2020).

Ellis, S. & Talukdar, B. 2019. Rhinoceros unicornis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species 2019: e.T19496A18494149. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-
3.RLTS.T19496A18494149.en (Accessed: 2 December 2020).

Ellis, S. & Talukdar, B. (2020a). ‘Dicerorhinussumatrensis’, The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species 2020. Available at: https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-
2.RLTS.T6553A18493355.en (Accessed: 29 November 2020).

Ellis, S. & Talukdar, B. 2020b. Rhinoceros sondaicus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
2020: e.T19495A18493900. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-
2.RLTS.T19495A18493900.en (Accessed: 1 December 2020).

Goossens, B. et al. (2013) ‘Genetics and the last stand of the Sumatran rhinoceros
Dicerorhinussumatrensis’, Oryx, 47(3), pp. 340–344. doi: 10.1017/S0030605313000045.

Gilliland, H. C. (2019). ‘Bold effort to save rhino complete critical step’, National Geographic,
23 August. Available at: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/08/plan-save-
northern-white-rhino-ivf/ (Accessed: 2 December 2020).

Guilford, G. (2013). ‘Why does a rhino horn cost $300,000? Because Vietnam thinks it cures
cancer and hangovers’, The Atlantic, 15 May. Available at:
https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/05/why-does-a-rhino-horn-cost-300-
000-because-vietnam-thinks-it-cures-cancer-and-hangovers/275881/ (Accessed: 29
November 2020).

Gunawan, G. (2015). ‘Greedy poachers, consumers put Sumatran rhinos on the line’, The
Jakarta Post, 3 October. Available at:
https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/10/03/greedy-poachers-consumers-put-
sumatran-rhinos-line.html (Accessed: 29 November 2020).

Hance, J. (2018a). ‘Geneticists: It’s time to mix the Sumatran rhino subspecies’, Mongabay,
29 May. Available at: https://news.mongabay.com/2018/05/geneticists-its-time-to-mix-the-
sumatran-rhino-subspecies/ (Accessed: 30 November 2020).

Hance, J. (2018b). ‘Face-to-face with what may be the last of the world’s smallest rhino, the
Bornean rhinoceros (insider)’, Mongabay, 4 November. Available at:
https://news.mongabay.com/2018/11/face-to-face-with-what-may-be-the-last-of-the-
worlds-smallest-rhino-the-bornean-rhinoceros-insider/ (Accessed: 29 November 2020).

Page 8 of 10
Havmøller, R. G. et al. (2016). ‘Will current conservation responses save the Critically
Endangered Sumatran rhinoceros Dicerorhinussumatrensis ?’, Oryx, 50(2), pp. 355–359. doi:
10.1017/S0030605315000472.

Jaya, T. P. (2020). ‘Forest fires set by poachers threaten a refuge of the Sumatran rhino’,
Mongabay, 21 August. Available at: https://news.mongabay.com/2020/08/forest-fires-set-
by-poachers-threaten-a-refuge-of-the-sumatran-rhino/ (Accessed: 29 November 2020).

Lam, S. S. et al. (2020). ‘Sumatran rhinoceros on the brink of extinction’, Science. Edited by J.
Sills, 368(6494), pp. 958–958. doi: 10.1126/science.abc2202.

Lanese, N. (2019). ‘Southern White Rhino Born After Artificial Insemination’, The Scientist,
31 July. Available at https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/southern-white-rhino-
born-after-artificial-insemination-66217 (Accessed at: 3 December 2020).

Leather-Williams, N. (2012). ‘Regulation and Protection: Successes and Failures in

Rhinoceros Conservation’, in Oldfield, S. (ed.) The Trade in Wildlife: Regulation for
Conservation. London: Earthscan, pp. 89-99.

Leather-Williams, N. (1992). The Trade in Rhino Horn: A Review. Cambridge: TRAFFIC

International.

Mezrich, B. (2017). Woolly: The True Story of the Quest to Revive One of History’s Most
Iconic Extinct Creatures. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Purnomo, H., Herawati, H. & Santoso, H. (2011). ‘Indicators for assessing Indonesia’s Javan
rhino National Park vulnerability to climate change’, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies
for Global Change, 16(7), pp. 733-747. doi: 10.1007/s11027-011-9291-0.

Pusparini, W. et al. (2015). ‘Rhinos in the Parks: An Island-Wide Survey of the Last Wild
Population of the Sumatran Rhinoceros’, Plos One, 10(9). doi.org:
10.1371/journal.pone.0139982.

Rabinowitz, A. (1995). ‘Helping a Species Go Extinct: The Sumatran Rhino in Borneo’,

Conservation Biology, 9(3), pp. 482-488.

Rookmaaker, K. (2000). ‘The alleged population reduction of the Southern White Rhinoceros
(Ceratotherium simun simun)’ and the successful recovery’, Mammalogical information,
45(2), pp. 54-70.

Roth, T. L. et al. (2013). ‘Sexual maturation in the sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus

sumatrensis)’, Zoo Biology, 32. p. 549-555. doi: 10.1002/zoo.21089.

Sandler, R. (2017). ‘De-extinction and Conservation Genetics in the Anthropocene’, Hastings

Center Report 47(4), pp. S43-S47. doi: 10.1002/hast.751.

Page 9 of 10
Searle, A. (2020). ‘Anabiosis and the Liminal Geographies of De/extinction’, Environmental
Humanities, 12(1), pp. 321-345. doi: 10.1215/22011919-8142385.

Setiawan, R. et al. (2017). ‘Preventing global extinction of the Javan Rhino: Tsunami Risk and
Future Conservation Direction’, Conservation Letters, 11(1), p. e12366. doi:
10.1111/conl.12366.

Shapiro, B. (2015). How to Clone a Mammoth. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Sherkow, J. S. & Greely, H. T. (2013). ‘What If Extinction Is Not Forever?’, Science, 340(6128),
pp. 32-33. doi: 10.1126/science.1236965.

Sipalan, J. (2020). ‘Back from the dead? Stem cells give hope for revival of Malaysia’s extinct
rhinos’, Reuters, 12 August. Available at: https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-malaysia-wildlife-
rhino/back-from-the-dead-stem-cells-give-hope-for-revival-of-malaysias-extinct-rhinos-
idUKKCN2580WM (Accessed: 2 December 2020).

TEDx Talks. (2013a). The First De-extinction: Alberto Fernandez-Arias at TEDxDeExtinction.

Available at: https://youtu.be/5eMqEQw9Fbs (Accessed: 1 December 2020).

TEDx Talks. (2013b). Bringing Back the Birds of Our Dreams: Susan Haig at TEDxDeExtinction.
Available at: https://youtu.be/KChjQvXjk1g (Accessed: 2 December 2020).

TRAFFIC. (2013). Rhino horn consumers, who are they? Available at:
https://www.traffic.org/site/assets/files/8094/rhino-horn-consumers-who-are-they.pdf
(Accessed: 29 November 2020).

World Wildlife Fund. (2020a). Sumatran Rhino. Available at:

https://www.helpingrhinos.org/Sumatran-Rhino/ (Accessed: 29 November 2020).

World Wildlife Fund. (2020b). Javan Rhino. Available at:

https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/javan-rhino (Accessed: 1 December 2020).

WWF. (2013). Footprints of Sumatran Rhinos Discovered in Borneo [Press release]. 28

March. Available at: https://www.worldwildlife.org/press-releases/footprints-of-sumatran-
rhinos-discovered-in-borneo (Accessed: 1 December 2020).

WWF. (2016). New hope for Sumatran rhino in Borneo[Press release]. 22 March. Available
at: https://wwf.panda.org/?264130/New-hope-for-Sumatran-rhino-in-Borneo (Accessed: 2
December 2020).

Yong, E. (2013). ‘Resurrecting the Extinct Frog with a Stomach for a Womb’, National
Geographic, 15 March. Available at:
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/phenomena/2013/03/15/resurrecting-the-
extinct-frog-with-a-stomach-for-a-womb/ (Accessed: 2 December 2020).

Zimmer, C. (2013). ‘Bringing Them Back to Life’, National Geographic, April.

Page 10 of 10