POROSITY, SPECIFIC YIELD

& SPECIFIC RETENTION

• Porosity is the the ratio of the
voids to the total volume of an
unconsolidated or consolidated
material.

Physical properties of n = porosity as a decimal fraction

Vt = the total volume of a material
Vs = the volume of the solids in the
material
Vv = the volume of the voids
•Primary Porosity: original
porosity in the rocks (i.e., initial
empty space between/within the
particles that make up the rock)
•Secondary Porosity: porosity in
a rock derived from external
processes (i.e., fracturing,
dissolution, etc.)

• Often, porosity is
expressed as a
percentage by multiplying
the ratio by 100.
• Porosity also depends on
the range of grain size
(sorting) and shape of the
subject material, but not
on the size.
• Fine-grained materials
tend to be better sorted
than coarse-grained
materials, thereby
exhibiting greater
porosities.

Source: Kasenow,
1997

Relation between Sp.Yield,
Porosity and Specific retention
Specific yields of different
formations
HYDRAULIC HEAD & GRADIENTS
• water entering an
unconfined or
confined well will
stand at a particular
level. This level is
often termed as the
hydraulic head and
is actually the sum of
three components -
the pressure head,
elevation head and
velocity head. The
velocity head is often
disregarded because
ground water
movement in most
cases is relatively
slow.
 • The direction of ground
•In practical applications, a
depth to ground water
measurement is obtained and
subtracted from the top of the
well casing elevation to
measure total head. Note that
the datum plane illustrated
below is often calibrated to sea
level.
•In the example below,
the hydraulic gradient is
determined to be .00641
ft./ft. (the change in head
divided by the change in
distance). Notice the units
are foot by foot but can be
described in more
inconsistent units such as
foot per mile.
Hydraulic gradient
water movement can be
understood in the fact
that ground water
always flows in the
direction of decreasing
head. The rate of
movement on the other
hand is dependent on
the hydraulic
gradient, which is the
change in head per unit
distance. The change in
head measurement is
ideally in the direction
where the maximum
difference of head
decrease occurs.
Sand Tank Model for
showing Hydraulic gradient
 DARCY'S LAW & HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY (K)

• In the mid-1800s the

DARCY'S LAW & HYDRAULIC
CONDUCTIVITY (K)
French engineer Henry
Darcy successfully
quantified several factors
controlling ground water
movement. These factors
are expressed in an
equation that is
commonly known as
Darcy's Law.

Units for Hydraulic

conductivity
• By rearranging
Velocity of ground water
Darcy's Law and • Another important
solving for factor controlling
hydraulic
ground water
conductivity (K)
in common movement is its
units we can get velocity. The ground
a sense of what water velocity equation
hydraulic can be derived from a
conductivity combination of the
really velocity equation of
represents. hydraulics and from,
Darcy's Law.
Hydraulic conductivity in different rock types
Isotropic and heterogeneous
• The aquifer is homogeneous if hydraulic
conductivity is the same and
heterogeneous if different in different
rock formations.
• If the value of hydraulic conductivity is
the same in all directions, then the
aquifer is said to be isotropic.
• If hydraulic conductivity is different in
different directions, the aquifer is said
to be anisotropic.

Validity of Darcy’
Darcy’s law
• Darcy’s law basically states that
V∞H
V is the average velocity Passing though the area of
cross section and The factor of proportionality is K
which is called as Hydraulic conductivity.

• As V is moving through the entire porous material,

solids as well as pores, the volume rate of flow is
calculated as Q= V * A.
• But the actual velocity in the soil is many times
higher than the obtained at the cross section as
water moves in the pores and can be assumed as
though water is moving through capillary tubes.
 Validity of Darcy’s law
• The relation between the actual velocity vm and
the darcy’s velocity v is as under
– Vm=(A/Acap)*v
• A= Total area normal to the flow
• Acap= sum of the cross sectional areas of
capillarity tubes
• Vm=v/n
– where n= Porosity
• The Darcy’s law is applicable only for laminar flow,
for very small velocities and water molecules travel
smooth paths and more or less parallel to the solid
boundaries of the pores.
• If the velocities are increased, the flow becomes
turbulent, and water moves in irregular manor and
the Darcy’s law is not applicable.
Factors affecting hydraulic
conductivity
• Temperature
– Kt= (µ20/ µt) K20
– Kt= K at temperature t
– µ t= Absolute viscosity at t
– K20= K at 20deg C
– µ 20= Absolute viscosity at 20
• Quality of water
– K also has depends on the water quality
– (SAR= Na/sqrt((ca+mg)/2)
• Rainfall for unconfined aquifers
Validity of Darcy’
Darcy’s law
• Groundwater is normally slow and the
darcy’s law is acceptable except is fractured/
cavernous flow.
• The flow regime is normally expressed as
Reynolds no in fluid mechanics as under
• Nr=ρvD/µ
• v= velocity of the fluid
• D= dimension of conduit ( Diameter of pipe)
• ρ = density of fluid(gm/cm3)
• µ = viscosity of fluid (g/sm-s) or p
• µ/ ρ= kinematic viscosity of velocity
• If Nr= < 2100 the flow is laminar
• If Nr is in between 2100 to 4000, it is intermediate
• If Nr>4000 the flow is turbulent
Intrinsic permeability
• The intrinsic permeability of the porous
medium is the property of the medium
only and independent of the density and
viscosity of the fluid.
– This can be expressed as
– K= K µ/ ρg (cm/sec)
• k= intrinsic permeability (Darcy=0.987*10^-8 cm2)
• ρ=density of fluid(g/cm2)
• g=acceleration due to gravity(cm/s2)
• The preferred units are m/day
– 1 Darcy= 864/m/day
 Intrinsic permeability Hydraulic conductivity of sands
• K=Cd^2
– Where C= Constant depending on temp, packaging, grain
size distribution and shape

K= 1

[ (
m (1-α^2) θ/100 ∑P/dm)^2]
α ^3

Where
m= packing factor(=5)

θ= Sand shape factor varying from 6 for spherical to 7.7 to angular grains,

P= % of sand held between adjacent sieves

dm= is the geometric mean of rated size of adjacent sieves.

Sand analysis Hazen method

• The Hazen equation was used for sediments with
a uniformity of less than 5 and an
• effective grain size (de, which is equal to d10)
between 0.1 mm and 3 mm.
• The formula for the Hazen equation is:
• K = g/v Ch*f(n)d10^2
where:
– Ch = 6 x 10-4
– f(n) = [1 + 10(n-0.26)] the function of porosity, n.
– g = 9.807 m/s2 Gravity acceleration.
– v = 1.14 x 10-6 the kinematic viscosity.
 Breyer method
Kozeny method
• The Breyer equation is used for poorly
• The Kozeny equation is applicable to sorted samples. The equation can be used
course sand samples with a low uniformity for samples
of less than 2 and an effective grain size
between 0.5 mm and 4 mm. • with uniformity values from 1 to 20 and
effective grain sizes between 0.06 mm and
• The formula for the Kozeny equation is:
0.6 mm.
• K = g/v Ckf(n)d10^2
– where: • The formula for the Breyer equation is:
– Ck = 8.3 x 10-3 – K = g/v Cbde^2
– f(n) = n3/(1-n)2 – where:
– Cb = 6 x 10-4 log(500/U)

Dupuit-Forchheimer
Assumptions
• Darcy’s law can be used to
solve one dimensional flow
equations by assuming
that the flow is purely
horizontal and also
uniformly distributed with
depth. The vertical flow is
negligible.
• These assumptions are
called Dupuit-Forchheimer
assumptions
• One dimension problems
Seepage from open
channels
• Subsurface runoff
• Uniform infiltration and
drainage to a stream
• Recharge rate of Leaky Aquifer parameters
aquifer
• Height of perched water
table
• Effect of river stage on
water table in flood plain
 TRANSMISSIVITY (T)
• Transmissivity (T) is the
volume of water flowing
through a cross-sectional area
of an aquifer that is 1 ft. x the
aquifer thickness (b), under a
hydraulic gradient of 1 ft./ 1
ft. in a given amount of time
(usually a day).
• If we think about our
definition of hydraulic
conductivity, we can conclude
that transmissivity (T) is
actually equal to hydraulic
conductivity(K) times aquifer
thickness (b).
• Or otherwise denoted as T =
Kb. We can also conclude that
transmissivity is expressed as
ft2/day because if T = Kb,
then T = (ft./day)(ft./1).
Storage Coefficient
• The "S" is used to represent the
storage coefficient of an aquifer
which is the volume of water
released from an aquifer per 1 foot/
m surface area per 1 foot /m change
in head.
• Notice that we are not speaking of
water flowing through an aquifer,
rather we are referring an aquifer's
ability to store water.
Mathematically, the storage
coefficient is dimensionless as the
equation below illustrates.

• The size of the storage coefficient is dependent

whether the aquifer is unconfined or confined. In
regards to a confined aquifer, water derived from
storage is relative to;
• (1) the expansion of water as the aquifer is
depressurized (pumped) and,
• (2) compression of the aquifer. In a confined
aquifer setting, the load on top of an aquifer is
supported by the solid rock skeleton and the
hydraulic pressure exerted by water (the
hydraulic pressure acts as a support mechanism).
Because of these variables, the storage
coefficient of most confined aquifers range from
10-5 to 10-3 (0.00001 to 0.001).

• Conversely, in an unconfined aquifer setting, the

predominant source of water is from gravity
drainage and the expansion of water and
compaction of the rock skeleton is negligible.
Thus, the storage coefficient is approximate to
value of specific yield and ranges from 0.1 to
about 0.3.
 Diffusivity = T/S

Specific Capacity
• Specific capacity is defined as the
discharge in cum/day per m
drawdown of a well
• C= Q/s
– Where C= Specific capacity of
well(m^2/day)
– Q= discharge (cum/day)
– s= drawdown (m)
 CONES OF DEPRESSION
• As water is withdrawn from a
well, the water level in the
well begins to decline as
water is removed from
storage in the well. The head
in the well will fall below the
level of the surrounding
aquifer and water begins
moving from the aquifer into
the well. The water level will
continue to decline and the
flow rate of water into the
well will increase until the
inflow rate is equal to
withdrawal rate. Water from
End
the aquifer must converge on
the well from all directions
and the hydraulic gradient
must get steeper near the
well. For this reason the
resultant 3-D shape of water
withdrawal is a called a cone
of depression.