CHAPTER -9

Theories of Motivation
Theories of motivation researchers have developed a number of theories to explain motivation. However,each theory is limited
in scope, but as we read through these theories, we may have a clear picture of human motivation. There are at least three
different perspectives to understand motivation.

1.Biological perspective- accounts for the inborn processes that control and direct behavior. Under this perspective, we
have the following theories of motivation:

*Instinct theory-describes how motivations result in automatic behaviors. This theory proposes that people are motivated to
act on certain ways because the process of motivation is built into their body chemistry. There is a long list of human instincts
such as shame,fear,curiosity,laughter,emotional bond,anger,hunger,shyness and love.

*Drive reduction theory- is anchored on the belief that all living organisms have biological needs such as food, air, water,
shelter, and clothing. If we are hungry, our hunger drive motivates us to look for something to eat.if we fail to satisfy our
physiological need,such hunger creates tension.

*Arousal theory- emphasizes the idea that we posses a certain amount of curiosity in which we tend to explore novelty and
complexity of things in the environment.

2. Psychological perspective- accounts for attempt to explain the "whys" of our own actions that describe incentives and
cognition.

*Incentive theory- explains that motivations result in external stimuli that "pull" people in certain directions. As opposed to
drive reduction theory which acts as the "push" factor, the incentive theory refers to the "pull" factor. If we are hungry, our
hunger drives us to eat(drive reduction theory). However, even if we have satisfied our hunger,we tend to eat more.we cannot
resist the aroma or the scent of food on the table (incentive theory)

*Cognitive theory -is concerned with attributions that affects motivation. Attributions refers to perceptions that help us think
about our own actions and those of others.

3. Humanistic perspective - clearly delineates our needs that span from psychological drives to social motives to our
creativity. In his famous heirarchy of needs, ABRAHAM MASLOW proposed that each level of importance develops in a
gradation this hierarchy is composed of five levels:

1. PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS- involved the need for food, air, water, clothing, shelter, sex, and others. These lie at the base of the
pyramid and must be satisfied first before the needs in the higher levels can be fully achieved.

2. SAFETY NEEDS - are concerned with our needs to feel safe and avoid danger. If we are starving , we can risk our physical
safety just for food.

3. BELONGING AND LOVE NEEDS- move us to affiliate ourselves with, be connected to, or be respected and loved by others.

4. ESTEEM NEEDS- involve our needs to express and do what is necessary in order to gain respect and honor.

5. SELF ACTUALIZATION NEEDS- deal with our needs to develop ourselves to the fullest and to the most productive persons we
can be.
1.Dispositional approach- this emphasizes the role of stable behavioral tendencies in understanding the differences why
individuals behave the way they do. Accordingly, the amount of effort displayed by an individual is viewed as a function of his
stable disposotions.

2. Two Factor theory- Herzberg (Mayer 2012) proposed two kinds of factors that affect motivation.

^Hygiene factors- are needed to ensure a person does not become dissatisfied. These factors do not lead to higher levels of
motivation, but without them, there is dissatisfaction. Examples include decent working conditions, security of tenure,
attractive remuneration, fringe benefits(such as health insurance) standardized company policies, and harmonious boss
employee relationship.

3. Alderfer's ERG theory - in an attempt to provide a parallel study, American psychologist Clayton Paul Alderfer further
improved Maslow's heirarchy of needs. He categorized the heirarchy into his ERG theory. According to Alderfer, some of the
levels seem to overlap with each other. This theory is composed of the following requirements:

^Existence deals with the person's physical needs such as food, clothing, and shelter.(Maslow's first two levels)

^Relatedness means a person's needs for human relations( Maslow's third and fourth levels.)

^Growth involves the person's needs for personal or private life development( Maslow's. Fourth and fifth levels.)

4. Goal theories - goals represent basic categories for different achievement situations. Goals guide our behavior and cognition.
From this standpoint, there are two emerging structures that govern academic goals: mastery goals and performance goals.
Mastery goals are otherwise known as learning goals.they develop our intrinsic motivation. When we have mastered a certain
skill, we feel great; we feel that we have personally improved.

Performance goals is the idea that performance of a certain task develops self-worth. Otherwise known as ego goals,
performance are related to achieving success with less effort.

SHAPE MOTIVATION -refers to the hidden force that directs and energizes our behavior. In order to achieve our goals, it is
necessary to direct our actions toward such goals . If we lose our focus, everything will be just overdone in which we tend to be
showy when infact we accomplish nothing. Motivation is a very important aspect in classroom learning in particular and in
academic success in general.

The following are some factors that shape motivation:

EFFECTIVE TEACHERS- are important factors in shaping student performance. Believe that effective teachers have a great
impact on student performance.

The following are the identified effective teacher characteristics at the classroom level (Muijs & Reynolds 2005) :

^Teachers having responsibility for ordering activities during the day for pupils.

^Teachers having responsibility for their work and independence within these sessions.

^Teachers covering only one curriculum area at a time.

^ High levels of interaction with the whole class.

^ Teachers providing sample, challenging work.

^High levels of student involvement in tasks

^A positive atmosphere in the classroom.

^Teachers showing high levels of praise and encouragement.

Pedagogical knowledge - the knowledge of subject matter and the ways to deliver it have something to do with students'
motivation. The aspects of what to teach and how to teach it are important to student learning.

Communication skills - we should communicate ideas in an understandable and simple manner. As we talk, we should posses
the needed knowledge about paralinguistic and metalinguistic techniques in communication.

Leardership- Teaching is a form of empowerment . It is also a form of leadership because we have the ability to lead and guide
the learners.

Human relations - We should know how to deal with our colleagues, subordinates, or superiors . As we show our positive
concern for people at work, we must not allow negative thoughts to destroy our goodwill and the prestige of the teaching
profession.

Technological literacy- We should be adept at the use of technology. There should be no technopobia or digital divide where
we find ourselves awkward at using the modern technology for teaching.

Classroom Management - there are interesting ways of conceiving the task of establishing classroom management(Kain
2003).We picture a triangle, the vertices of which represent the three components of classroom management.

CONDUCT MANAGEMENT- focuses on rules and consequences while COVENANT MANAGEMENT deals with our ability to focus
on relationships between the school and home, teachers and students, and students and among themeselves. CONTENT
MANAGEMENTS symbolized by the way in which the space and all variables in the classroom are controlled.

EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION- is important when we assign students to work in their skill group. No lesson should begin unless we
provide clear instructions and gain students interest.

The following steps should be followed for effective instruction:

^Signal the students when we are about to begin with the lesson.

^Present the material in the simplest way possible

^Teach the material of information in short intervals for not more than 10-15 minutes.

^Stop and allow for application of what we have taught them.

^Give them enough time and opportunities to use what they have learned.

^Allow them for evaluation of their understanding.

^Check their understanding to make sure they are on the right track.

^Provide with practice and later with praxis.

^Encourage them to elaborate their answers for them to see which part of the lesson still needs to be stressed.

^Teach and re teach students until they master the needed skills and knowledge.

^Emphasizes what is important and what is not.

^When we move to another lesson, use a signal to let them know that we are moving from one lesson to another.