Activated Sludge - 100 Years

and Counting

Edited by
David Jenkins and Jifi Wanner
 Contents

Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
About the authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
Preface xxxiii

Chapter 1
Ardern and Lockett remembrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
- Gien T Daigger (USA)
1.1 lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Invention of AS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 The context .......... ... ...................... 3
1.2.2 The discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Aftermath of the Invention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Accelerated implementation ............. . ......... 6
1.3.2 The patent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Subsequent Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Future Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 References .. .. ..................................... 15

Chapter 2
Wastewater treatment requlrements through the
years (exemplified by the development in Germany) 17
Hermann H. Hahn (Germany)
2.1 lntroduction - The Emergence of Systematic Wastewater
Treatment (In Germany) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
vi Activated Sludge -100 Years and Counting

2.2 Developing Wastewater Treatment Characteristics - From

Quasi-Aesthetic Considerations to Chemical, Biological and
Health Considerations ................................ 19
2.3 From Consideration of One Specific Point of Discharge
to Integral Analysis of an Entire Water Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 From Corrections of Today's Water Pollution Problems to
Achieving Wholesomeness of Water for Future Generations . . . . 26
2.5 How To Guarantee That Standards Are Met (Operative and
Administrative Instruments) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6 Concluding Remarks - lssues Not Considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.7 References ......................................... 30

Chapter 3
Activated sludge process development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
H. David Stensel (USA), Jacek Makinia (Po/and)
3.1 lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 The Beginning - 1882-1914 ............................ 34
3.3 Rapid Acceptance of AS-1914-1930 ·.................... 35
3.4 The Beginning of AS Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5 Further Process Understanding and Innovation -1930-1970 ... 37
3.6 The Age of the Selector and BNR - 1970-1990 ............ 43
3.7 Smaller Footprint, Higher Effluent Quality- 1990-The
Present ............................................ 45
3.8 The Future of AS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Chapter 4
Microbiology and microbial eco/ogy of the activated
sludge process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Per Halkjrer Nielsen (Denmark), Katherine D. McMahon (USA)
4.1 lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2 Which Bacteria are Present? - Culturing and
Light Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3 ldentity and Function Revealed by the Molecular
Tools - From the Early 1990s .................. . .. . .... 57
4.4 The Modem Tools - The NGS Era - Since Early 2000 . . . . . . . 62
4.5 C~prehensive Ecosystem Model - Where Are
We Today? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.6 The Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4. 7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 67
 Contents vii

Chapter 5
Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Wendel/ 0. Khunjar (USA), Paul A. Pitt (USA),
Charles B. Bott (USA), Kartik Chandran (USA)
5.1 lntroduction ......... . ............................... 77
5.1.1 N in domestic wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2 The N Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.3 Historical Aspects of Biological N Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4 Conventional N Removal ......... . .............. . ... . . 81
5.5 Innovative N Removal Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.5.1 Simultaneous nitrification and denitrification . . . . . . . . . 82
5.5.2 Shortcut N removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.5.3 Deammonification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.5.4 Nitrate-dependent anaerobic methane
oxidation (N-DAMO) ............................ 85
5.6 Emerging Topics in Biological N Removal ................. 85
5.6.1 Nitrogen oxide production and emission during
nitrification and denitrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.6.2 Structure and function of chemoorganoheterotrophic
denitrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.6.3 Refractory dissolved organic N ................... 86
5.7 N Removal in the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Chapter 6
Phosphorus remova/ in activated s/udge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
James Barnard (USA), Yves Comeau (Canada)
6.1 lntroduction ......................................... 93
6.2 Early History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.3 Development of Biological Nutrient Removal (BNR) ......... 94
6.4 Process Configurations for BNR ........................ 96
6.5 Acid Fermentation for Production of VFAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.5.1 Fermentation of primary sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.5.2 Fermentation of MLSS or RAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.6 Secondary Release of P ................ . ............ 100
6.7 Historical and Scientific Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.7.1 Intensive research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.7.2 Microbiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.7.3 Biochemical models ........................... 104
6.7.4 GAO/PAO competition ......................... 105
viii Activated Sludge -100 Years and Counting

6.8 Development of Mathematical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

6.9 P Removal in Aerobic Granular Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.10 Reliability of EBPR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.11 Resource Recovery ................................. 109
6.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Chapter 7
Micro-pollutant removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Hansruedi Siegrist (Switzer/and), Adriano Joss (Switzerland),
Thomas A. Ternes (Germany)
7.1 lntroduction ........................................ 117
7.2 Fate of Micropollutants in as Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.3 Biological Transformation Products ............ .. . ...... 123
7.4 Measures to be Taken to lmprove Micro-Pollutant
Removal and their Effect on as Treatment ................ 125
7.5 Conclusions and Outlook .............................. 127
7.6 References .......................... ·.............. 128

Chapter 8
Aeration and mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Martin Wagner (Germany), Michael K. Stenstrom (USA)
8.1 lntroduction ......................................... 131
8.2 Development of Modem Aeration and
Mixing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.3 Aeration Systems ................................... 133
8.3.1 Generalinformation ...................... , .... 133
8.3.2 Table of standard values for aeration systems ....... 136
8.4 Approaches for the Optimization of Aeration Systems ....... 139
8.4.1 Dimensioning of different oxygen demand loads . . . . . . 139
8.4.2 Adjustment to seasonal changes in MLSS
concentration ................................. 142
8.4.3 Adjustment AS tank oxygen concentration
according to the treatment goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.4.4 Control of compressed air generation ............. 143
8.4.5 Measures to avoid efficiency reduction ... .. ....... 144
8.5 Aeration Systems in Cold and Warm Climate
Regions ............... . ........................... 145
8.6 Mixing Systems ..................................... 147
8.6.1 Types of mixing systems ........................ 147
8.6.2 Dimensioning of mixing facilities .. .......... .. .... 148
 Contents ix

8.7 Perspectives and Outlook ............................. 149

8.8 References ......................................... 150

Chapter 9
Air emissions ...................................... 155
Jay R. Witherspoon (USA), Michael D. Short (Australia),
Kate Simmonds (New Zealand), Ben van den Akker (Austra/ia),
Ewa Madon (Australia), Richard M.Stuetz (Austra/ia)
9.1 lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.2 Regulations and Legislation ........................... 155
9.3 AS Emissions Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
9.3.1 AS aeration basins overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
9.3.2 Air emissions inventory programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
9.4 Impacts and Treatment of Emissions .................... 162
9.4.1 Odorous emissions ........................... 162
9.4.2 Air toxics and VOCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
9.4.3 GHG emissions .............................. 163
9.5 Techniques Used to Assess Emissions .................. 165
9.6 Conclusions ....................................... 166
9.7 References . ... .................................... 167

Chapter 10
Activated s/udge so/ids separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Jifi Wanner (Czech Republic), Andrea Jobbagy (Hungary)
10.1 Requirements and Measurement of Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
10.1.1 Requirements for good AS separation ............. 171
10.1.2 Basic measurements ........... , .............. 172
10.1.3 Microscopic examination of floc structure . . . . . . . . . . 172
10.2 AS Separation Problems .... .................... . .... 173
10.3 Filamentous Bulking Control Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
10.3.1 Theory and causes of filamentous bulking . . . . . . . . . . 174
10.3.2 Principles of selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
10.3.3 Practical measures for controlling filamentous bulking .181
10.4 Control of Microfloc Formation ......................... 186
10.5 Control ofViscous Bulking ............................ 187
10.6 Control of AS Foaming ............................... 188
10.7 Future Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
X Activated Sludge - 100 Years and Counting

Chapter 11
Secondary clarifiers . . ........ . ...................... 195
Denny S. Parker (USA), Wolfgang Günthert (Germany),
Britt-Marie Wilen (Sweden)
11.1 lntroduction ........................................ 195
11.2 Sizing and Rating ................................... 196
11.2.1 Overview ................................... 196
11.2.2 The first 50 years (1913-1963) ........ . .......... 196
11.2.3 The second 50 years (1964-2013) ... .... ........ 200
11.3 Operational Aspects of Secondary Clarifiers ............... 202
11.3.1 Managing mixed liquor with different sludge
settling properties .............. . ............... 202
11.3.2 Operational strategies for dynamic flow rates ....... 203
11.3.3 lnfluences of nitrification and biological
nutrient removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
11.4 Rectangular Secondary Clarifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11.4.1 Overview ................................... 205
11.4.2 Overflow rate and depth ........................ 205
11.4.3 Sludge removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
11.4.4 lnlet st~ucture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.4.5 Outlet structure ................... . ........... 208
11.5 Circular Secondary Clarifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
11.5.1 Overview ......... . . . ................... .. .. 209
11.5.2 The first 50 years (1913-1963) ................... 209
11.5.3 The second 50 years (1964-2013) ............... 211
11.6 Future Trends ....................................... 213
11.6.1 Overview ......... . .......................... 213
11.6.2 CFDmodelsfordesign . ........................ 213
11.6.3 Possibilities to increase capacity ................ . . 214
11.7 References ......................................... 215

Chapter 12
Energy considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Helmut Kroiss (Austria), Yeshi Cao (Singapore)
12.1 Historical Development and Scientific Progress ........... 221
12.1.1 lntroduction ................................. 221
12.1.2 Evolution of treatment efficiency from BOD
Removal only to nitrification, nutrient and
micro-pollutant removal ......................... 222
12.1.3 Recent development of legal requirements for
treatment efficiency (in developed countries) . . . . . . . . 223
 Contents xi

12.2 Energy Content of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

12.3 Energy Consumption of Wastewater Treatmer.t Plants . . . . . . 224
12.3.1 lntroduction ................................. 2~4
12.3.2 Auditing and benchmarking ..................... 226
12.3.3 Economic considerations ....................... 227
12.3.4 Energy consumption of AS process ............... 228
12.3.5 Pre-treatment by upflow anaerobic sludge blanket
(UASB) reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
12.3.6 Other energy consumers (Hardware) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
12.3.7 Wastewater treatment process developments for
reduction of energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
12.4 Energy Production at WWTPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
12.4.1 Anaerobic sludge digestion ..................... 236
12.4.2 lncrease of energy recovery from sludge digestion
by enhanced solids degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
12.4.3 Thermal sludge treatment ...................... 238
12.4.4 Heat recovery and utilization .................... 238
12.5 Showcase of Low Energy Municipal Nutrient Removal Plant:
Strass, Austria (90,000-200,000 PE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
12.6 Future Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
12.6.1 lntroduction ................................. 239
12.6.2 Mainstream anammox ......................... 240
12.6.3 Energy management tools ...................... 240
12.7 Final Statement Regarding Energy Considerations . . . . . . . . . 240
12.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Chapter 13
Automation and control .......... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Gustaf O/sson (Sweden), Zhiguo Yuan (Australia),
Changwon Kim (Republic of Korea)
13.1 lntroduction ................. ....................... 245
13.2 The Role of Control and Automation .................... 245
13.3 Disturbances ...................................... 247
13.4 The Early Years of Automation and Control ............... 248
13.5 The Demand ....................................... 251
13.6 Computersand Information Technology ................. 251
13.7 Observing the Process-Measuring and Monitoring .......... 252
13.8 Controllability- Manipulating the Process ................ 255 ·
13.8.1 Control variables ............................. 256
13.8.2 Actuators ............................. .. .... 256
13.9 Dynamic Modeling and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
xii Activated Sludge - 100 Years and Counting

13.9.1 The lmportance of dynamics .................... 257

13.9.2 Modeling .................................... 258
13.10 Unit Process Control ................................ 259
13.10.1 00 Control .................................. 259
13.10.2 Recycle flow controls .......................... 260
13.10.3 Hedging point strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
13.10.4 Chemical precipitation control ................... 262
13.11 From Unit Process to Plant-Wide ....................... 262
13.12 Conclusions ....................................... 263
13.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Chapter 14
Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
George A. Ekama (South Africa), lmre Takacs (France)
14.1 lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
14.2 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
14.2.1 Growth - Monod kinetics ....................... 272
14.2.2 Reduced yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
14.2.3 Yield coefficient and endogenous respiration rate . . . . . 274
14.2.4 Inert endogenous residue generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
14.2.5 Substrate description - BOD, COD or TOC . . . . . . . . . 275
14.2.6 Wastewater COD fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
14.3 The First AS Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
14.3.1 Empirical models .............................. 276
14.3.2 Kinetic models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
14.4 Extended AS Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
14.4.1 Anoxie yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
14.4.2 Substrate storage ............................. 282
14.4.3 lnfluent colloidal material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
14.4.4 Specific substrates and biomasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
14.4.5 Nitrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
14.4.6 P removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
14.4.7 pH ......................................... 285
14.4.8 Gas transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
14.4.9 Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
14.1 Modeling in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
14.5.1 Whole plant models ........................... 286
14.5.2 Engineering use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
14.5.3 Reseeirch .................................... 287
14.6 Acknowledgements .................................. 287
14.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
 Contents xiii

Chapter 15
Hybrid systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Hallvard 0degaard (Norway), Magnus Christensson
(Sweden), Kim Kelleshoj S0rensen (Franc&)
15.1 lntroduction ........................................ 293
15.2 An Overview of Hybrid Systems ..... . .................. 294
15.2.1 Separated fixed-film, AS systems ................ 294
15.2.2 lntegrated fixed-film AS system (IFAS) ............ 295
15.3 The MBBR IFAS System ............................. 297
15.3.1 Objectives and applications ..................... 297
15.3.2 Nitrification .................................. 298
15.3.3 Denitrification ........... ..................... 301
15.3.4 Biological P removal ........................... 301
15.3.5 Biomass separation in IFAS systems .............. 302
15.3.6 New applications of IFAS ....................... 303
15.4 Modeling of IFAS Systems ............................ 303
15.5 Design of IFAS Systems .............................. 304
15.5.1 Design procedures ............................ 304
15.5.2 Compartment partition ... . .. .. ........ .. ....... 307
15.5.3 Oxygen transfer ........................ . ..... 308
15.5.4 Approach velocity and screen design ............. 309
15.6 Operation of MBBR IFAS Systems ..................... 309
15.6.1 Full-scale MBBR IFAS examples ................. 309
15.7 Conclusions ....................................... 313
15.8 Acknowledgements .................................. 314
15.9 References ......................................... 314

Chapter 16
Membrane bloreactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
George V. Crawford (Canada), Simon Judd (UK),
Tamas Zsirai (UK, Hungary)
16.1 lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
16.1.1 Definition ................................... 319
16.1.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
16.1.3 Commercial status ............................ 322
16.2 Process Description ........... . .... . .... . ........... 324
16.2.1 MBR design ................................. 324
16.2.2 Operation .... ............................... 324
16.3 Process Development ............................... 326
16.3.1 Biological treatment ........................... 326
16.4 Membrane Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
xiv Activated Sludge -100 Years and Counting

16.4.1 Membrane material and configuration ............. 331

16.4.2 The membrane technology ..................... 335
16.4.3 Other design aspects .......................... 337
16.5 Case Study: Traverse City ............................ 339
16.6 References ........................................ 341

Chapter 17
lndustria/ wastewater treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Karl-Heinz Rosenwinkel (Germany), Willy Verstraete (Belgium),
Siegfried E. Vlaeminck (Germany), Martin Wagner (Germany),
Sabrina Kipp (Germany), Nina Manig (Germany)
17.1 History of lndustrial AS Treatment ...................... 343
17.2 lndustrial AS Treatment - State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
17.2.1 lnfluence of industrial wastewater characteristics
and loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
17.2.2 lndustrial AS process technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
17.3 Special Topics in lndustrial AS Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
17.3.1 Selector application and use of chemicals for bulking
control in industrial as plants .................... 354
17.3.2 lndustrial wastewater aeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
17.3.3 Biostimulation and bioaugmentation .............. 356
17.3.4 Partial nitritation/anammox technology . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
17.3.5 AS in aquaculture industry: biofloc technology ...... 359
17.4 lndustrial AS Treatment- Future Developments .. ......... 360
17.5 References ........................................ 361

Chapter 18
Planning and design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Burkhard Teichgräber (Germany)
18.1 Biological Process and Translation into Design
Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
18.1.1 The SRT concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
18.2 Nitrogen Removal ................................... 370
18.3 Phosphorus Removal ................................ 371
18.4 Process Modifications ............................... 371
18.5 Configuration ...................................... 372
1~.5.1 Nitrogen removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
18.5.2 EBPR ...................................... 373
18.6 Design Procedures .................................. 375
18.6.1 USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
 Contents xv

18.6.2 Germany A 131 .. , ........................... 376

18.6.3 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
18.6.4 Pilot tests and modeling ........................ 379
18.7 Ecological Footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
18.7.1 Space requirements ........................... 380
18.7.2 Emissions . ............ . . .................... 380
18.7.3 Carbon footprint .............................. 380
18.8 Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
18.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
18.10 References ........................................ 381

Chapter 19
Activated s/udge process economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Norbert Jardin (Germany), Julian Sandino (USA)
19.1 lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
19.2 AS Process Cast Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
19.2.1 Total costs of wastewater treatment . ........... . .. 384
19.2.2 Differentiation of cost elements .................. 384
19.2.3 AS operating costs ............................ 385
19.3 Comparision of AS Costs to other Wastewater
Treatment Processes ................................ 387
19.3.1 Trickling filters ............................... 387
19.3.2 Biofiltration .................................. 388
19.3.3 Membrane bioreactor systems ................... 388
19.4 Cast Control in Planning, Construction and Operation ...... 389
19.4.1 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
19.4.2 Operation ................................... 390
19.5 Options for Decreasing Treatment Costs ................. 393
19.5.1 Alternative treatment concepts .................. 393
19.5.2 Reducing capital costs ......................... 396
19.5.3 Reducing (external) energy consumption ........... 397
19.5.4 Reducing sludge processing and disposal costs ..... 399
19.5.5 Reducing personnel cost ....................... 400
19.6 Conclusions ....................................... 400
19.7 References ........................................ 402

Chapter 20
The next 100 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Mark van Loosdrecht (The Netherlands), Harry Seah (Singapore),
Yuen Long Wah (Singapore), Yeshi Cao (Singapore)
20.1 Wastewater Treatment: A History of Process lntensification . . . . 407
xvi Activated Sludge -100 Years and Counting

20.1.1 History ........... . .......... . . . ..... . ...... 407

20.1.2 Wastewater treatment a history of process
intensification ...... . ............................ 408
20.1.3 General developments for future WWTPs . . . . . . . . . . 409
20.1.4 Performance criteria for future municipal wastewater
treatment plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
20.2 Process lntensification ........... . ............... . ... 411
20.2.1 lmproving SVI or granular sludge ............. . ... 411
20.2.2 Hybrid biological processes ................ . .... 413
20.3 lmproved Effluent Quality ........... . ... . ............. 413
20.3.1 Exploring natural diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
20.3.2 Emerging pollutants ........................... 414
20.3.3 Optimize process design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
20.4 Energy Neutrality/Minimum Climate Impact . . ............ . 414
20.4.1 Energy consumption and recovery ............... 415
20.4.2 Mainstream anammox .. . .... . ................. 416
20.4.3 Energy recovery from low temperature and
thermal treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
20.5 Resource Recovery ................ .. ............... 417
20.5.1 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
20.5.2 P and N recovery ........................ . ... . 418
20.5.3 Organics . . ........ . ...... .. . . ............... 419
20.6 Integration of Functionalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
20.6.1 Water supply and wastewater in an integrated
urban water cycle ........................ . .... 419
20.6.2 Water and energy ........... . . . . . ............. 420
20.6.3 Centralized VS. De-centralized systems ........... 420
20.7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
20.8 References ............................. . .......... 421