Basics of Fibre Reinforced Concrete

One of the noteworthy features of the last few decades is the several developments taking place in the
construction industry, concrete technology, design techniques and in new construction materials.

Plain concrete possesses very low tensile strength. It has get limited ductility and little resistance to
crack propagation. Micro cracks develop in the material during its manufacture due to its inherent
volumetric and micro structural changes and an essentially discontinuous heterogeneous system. This
exists even before nor external load is applied. It has little resistance to tensile crack propagation and
hence under load virgin micro cracks develop at a low tensile cracking strain of the order of 100 x 10
m/m corresponding to 30 to 40% of ultimate strength in compression which on further loading
eventually lead to uncontrolled growth of micro cracks. This, in turn, results in a low fracture toughness,
limited resistance to impact and explosive loading.

Fibre Reinforced Concrete

Courtesy - theconstructor

So to use concrete as load bearing structural member, it is necessary to impart tensile resistance. The
concrete is reinforced mainly to increase its resistance against crack propagation. This has led to search
for new materials where the weak matrix is reinforced with strong stiff fibres to produce a composite of
superior properties and performance.

For the beam reinforced with steel bar along the tension face and if loaded, the reinforcing action
results chiefly from the higher modulus of elasticity of steel, until the tensile strength of concrete is
exceeded. After the tensile strength of concrete is exceeded, the cracks are initiated on the tensile part
of the beam. At the crack the steel resist the entire tension. If not reinforced, the elongated crack would
have developed collapse.

In recent years, there have been many reports of the progress, through the research laboratories to
change the properties of brittle concrete by inclusion of short discontinuous fibres randomly distributed
throughout the concrete matrix. This work initiated by Romualdi and intensified during the last few
decades rightly continues in centres throughout the world.

To overcome the low tensile strength of concrete in 1963, Romualdi and Batson showed that high
strength and high elastic modulus steel fibres in the concrete increases the strength of concrete
considerably.
The effective reinforcement of the matrix and the effective transfer of stress between the fibre and
matrix depend upon many factors, but the properties of fibre reinforced composites depend primarily
upon the type of fibre. One such fibre that has found considerable application in mortar and concrete is
steel. The fibre reinforced concrete has some unique properties of strength, stiffness and resistance to
crack growth which are not shared by plain concrete. The strength of concrete at first crack is
appreciably increased by the crack arresting mechanism, of the fibres and the ultimate strength is also
substantially increased because extra energy is needed to sense fracture of the fibres reinforcing the
concrete.

Romualdi and Batson showed that the functions of fibre is essentially of crack arrest. They showed that
the stress required to extend a crack beyond the area enclosed by the adjacent groups of fibres is
inversely proportional to the square root of the fibre spacing. It was claimed that the effect of fibres on
tensile strength of concrete becomes quite significant at fibre spacing below about 1.27 cm even when
the fibres are short and randomly oriented.

The low modulus fibres such as nylon, polypropylene, polyethylene are capable of large energy
absorption but don’t lead to strength improvement, however they impart toughness and resistance to
impact and explosive loading. The high strength, high modulus fibres such as steel, glass, asbestos and
carbon which produce strong composites, primarily impart strength and stiffness to the composite and
also dynamic properties to varying degree.

The details regarding the various research experiments, typical properties of different types of fibre
reinforced concrete are reflected in the future articles to come now onwords.

The cost of fibre reinforced concrete is greater than the cost of conventional concrete. However,
economics must be related to the performance and serviceability. Of source, we also believe that it
would be equally wrong to pretend that fibrous concrete will provide as universal panacea for all
concrete problems, nor it is likely to replace conventional structural concrete in toto.

However in just two / three decades, fibre reinforced concrete has developed from a mere laboratory
experiment into a proven construction material for the future.

We believe that despite the remarkable progress achieved in recent times, there is still a vast future
potential for the development of fibre reinforced concrete of all kinds.

Thus, in our opinion, the fibre reinforced concrete is of considerable importance to use in developing
countries. And so if we are to advance further, we must make sure that technology learnt today is put
into the good use of mankind tomorrow.

Polymer Concrete: Its Pros-Cons, Uses & Properties

As you must be aware, the concrete is porous. The porosity of concrete may be due to air-voids, or
inherent porosity of gel structure itself, or water voids. The porosity of concrete is one of the factors
that affect the strength of concrete. When porosity raises, the strength of concrete decreases and when
the porosity reduces, the strength of concrete shoots up. Thus, the various processes of compaction of
concrete such as vibration, pressure and jolting, spinning etc. have been applied to reduce the porosity
after the placing of concrete. These practices are helpful to a great extent, yet none of these helps to
reduce the inherent porosity of gel or the water-voids. Therefore, the latest technique of impregnation
of monomer and subsequent polymerisation is implemented to bring down the inherent porosity of
concrete and that is possible with the polymer concrete.

The development of polymer concrete led to the production of new building materials by combining
modern technology, and polymer chemistry with the age-old technology of cement concrete.

History of Polymer Concrete

The advancement in the field of polymer concrete had started after the 1950’s when these materials
were conditioned as a replacement of cement concrete for some specific applications. The primary
usage of polymer concrete has been reported for building cladding. Later on, this concrete provides
excellent bonding to the steel reinforcement. Effect of curing at the ambient temperature is rapid, thus
it gains strength early. Hence, due to the high strength and good durability, it is now being broadly used
as a repair material.

What is Polymer Concrete?

According to the ‘ACI-CT- 13’, American Concrete Institute – Concrete Terminology-13 – An ACI
Standard, polymer concrete is, “the concrete in which an organic polymer serves as the binder”. In
simpler words, polymer concrete is a complex material where the aggregate is bound together in a
matrix with a polymer binder mixed in it. It reduces porosity and increases the strength of concrete.

Normally, the polymer concrete matrix holds aggregates and fillers more than 75-80% of its volume and
it doesn’t contain a hydrated cement phase. Though Portland cement can also be used as filler, it holds a
unique combination of properties such as strength, good adhesion etc. depending on the concrete mix
design.

Polymer concrete differs from the conventional concrete as the polymer binder is used instead of
cement to bind the aggregates, even though it can be used for construction in the same way as the
conventional concrete. But it has several unique characteristics which makes it more durable than
traditional concrete. Such properties of polymer concrete are as follows,

Properties of Polymer Concrete

01. Rapid Curing:

  Curing effect is rapid at the ambient temperatures from –18 to +40°C (0 to 104°f). According to
‘Raman Bedi and et al (2013)’,polymer concrete develops 70% strength after one day of curing
at room temperature while the conventional concrete gains only 20% strength of its 28-day
strength in one day.

02. Strength:

 Polymer concrete has high tensile strength, flexural strength, compressive strength and good
abrasion resistance as compared to cement-concrete.

03. Good Adhesion:

 Good adhesion to most surfaces improves adhesion to the old surface.

04. Durability:

 Polymer concrete gives good long-term durability of concrete with respect to cycles of freezing

and thawing action and chemical attack, as it reduces the intrusion of chlorides and salts.

05. Low Permeability and Water Tightness:

 Polymer concrete is low permeable to water and aggressive solutions or chemicals.

06. Lightweight:

 Use of polymer in concrete produces lightweight concrete.

Polymer for Concrete

Polymers for Concrete

Polymer plays an important role in binding the organic substrate to each other because of its internal
adhesive nature. Polymer materials are packaged in either liquid or dry form, the liquid form of
polymers (latex) usually is referred to as resin.

There are different types of polymer available in the market, but the selection of the particular type of
resin depends upon miscellaneous factors namely the cost, chemical or weather resistance required,
desired properties etc.

Types of Polymer Materials Used in Polymer Concrete

The most commonly used resins for polymer concrete are as follows:

 Unsaturated Polyester Resin

 Furan Resins

 Acrylics and Styrene-Acrylics

 Vinyl Acetate-Ethylene (VAE)

 Polyvinyl Acetate (PVA)

 Styrene-Butadiene Resin (SBR)

 Methyl Methacrylate MMA

 Styrene and Polyester Styrene

 Methanol

 Epoxy Resins

 Poly Urethane Resins (PUR)

 Urea Formaldehyde Resin and so forth.

Unsaturated Polyester Resins

For the polymer concrete, unsaturated polyester resins are the most versatile polymers used owing to
its cost efficiency, good mechanical properties of concrete and easy availability. Furan resins are also
used to a great extent in European countries.

Uses/Application of Polymer Concrete

Polymer concrete is used in the specialized construction projects where there is need to resistant
several types of corrosion and is supported to have durability i.e. to last-long. It can be used similar to an
ordinary concrete. Polymer concrete is used in the followings works,

 Repair to corrosion damaged concrete

 Prestressed concrete

 Nuclear power plants

 Electrical or industrial construction

 Marine works

 Prefabricated structural components like acid tanks, manholes, drains, highway median barriers,
and so forth.

 Waterproofing of structures

 Sewage works and desalination plants

Advantages of Polymer Concrete

 Polymer concrete can be applied in very thin cross sections

 It reduces the intrusion of carbon dioxide, saving concrete from carbonation and hence loss of
alkalinity.

 Polymer concrete offers very good resistance against corrosion and chemical reactivity.

 Polymer binders set very quickly and give resistance to the weathering effect, and thus useful
for repairing existing structures.

 It reduces the shrinkage

Repairing Work with Polymer Concrete

Disadvantages of Polymer Concrete

 Polymer concrete is very expensive than a conventional concrete.

 Polymer concrete needs high skill and precise work while mixing.
  Improper proportioning of two-component materials can occur; thus, the proper mix design is
required.

 The chemicals or resins used in the polymer concrete can be risky; hence using masks and hand
gloves for skin protection is must.

Summary

On a final note, polymer concrete is commonly used in assorted applications like, improved repair
methods, structural applications, and architectural components etc. The properties of polymer concrete
depend on the polymer used in the concrete. Hence choose suitable types of polymer for your concrete.
Therefore, as a user, the knowledge of strengths and weaknesses of the polymer which you use in the
polymer concrete, is of paramount importance. Hence, be careful while selecting the polymer for
concrete to avoid failure, as the right choice will determine the success or failure and durability of the
structure or of repaired structure.

Self-Compacting Concrete | High Performance Concrete

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a mixture of flowing concrete which is able to compact or consolidate
by its own weight. The flow able fluid nature of Self-compacting concrete makes it a good choice for
placing concrete in difficult or under challenging conditions and in sections with congested and narrow
spaced reinforcement. Use of self-compacting concrete can also help minimize hearing-related damages
on the construction site that are produced by the vibration of concrete and Another advantage of Self-
compacting concrete is that the time required to place large concrete sections is considerably reduced.

This concept arose when the construction industry in Japan was suffering decline in the availability of
skilled labor in the 1980s, a need was felt for concrete that has the self-compacting nature to overcome
the problems of defective workmanship. This guided them to develop a self-compacting concrete,
primarily through the work by Okamura. A Team was formed to study the properties of self-compacting
concrete, which was led by Ozawa at the University of Tokyo. The first self-compacting concrete was
produced in 1988 and was named “High-Performance Concrete”, and later on called as “Self-Compacting
Concrete”.

Materials Used in Self-Compacting Concrete

Self-compacting concrete has material requirements which are same as normal/ordinary concrete, but it
requires admixtures to improve its work ability.

Following are the materials of self-compacting concrete:

(a) Cement

All cement type conforming to EN 197 can be used. Selection of the type of cement will depend on the
requirements of concrete parameters such as strength, durability etc., and C3A content higher than 10%
may cause problems of poor workability. The range of cement is between 350-450 Kg /m3 and if used
more than 500 Kg/m3, it can be dangerous and can increase the shrinkage.

(b) Aggregates for Self-Compacting Concrete

Sand: 

All normal concreting sands are suitable for SCC.  Either crushed or rounded sands can be used. The
amount of fines less than 0.125 mm is to be considered as a powder. It is very important for a good
chemical mixture of concrete.

Coarse Aggregate:

All types of aggregate with the normal maximum size is between 16 – 20 mm are used. However,
particle size up to 40 mm more have been used in SCC. Among the different types of aggregate, crushed
aggregate offers good strength improvement but rounded aggregates improve the flow capacity
because of lower internal friction.

(c) Admixtures for Self-Compacting Concrete

The most important admixture in self-compacting concretes are the super plasticizes (high range water
reducers), which is used with a water reduction greater than 20%. The addition of viscosity Modifying
Agent (VMA) gives more possibilities of controlling segregation when the amount of powder is limited.

The mechanism for achieving self-compatibility:

The method for producing self-compatibility involves not only high deform ability of paste or mortar but
also resistance to segregation between coarse aggregate and mortar when the concrete flows through
the narrow- confined zone of reinforcing bars. Okamura and Ozawa have employed the following
methods to achieve self-compacting concrete.

 Limited aggregate content

 Low water-powder ratio

 Use of superplasticizer
The frequency of collision and contact between aggregate particles can increase as the relative distance
between the particles decreases and the internal stress can increase when concrete is deformed.
Research has found that the energy required for flowing is consumed by the increased internal stress,
resulting in blockage of aggregate particles. To avoid this kind of blockage, limiting the coarse aggregate
content, whose energy consumption is particularly intense to a level lower than normal.

The highly viscous paste is also required to avoid the blockage of the coarse aggregate when concrete
flows through obstacles. High deform ability can be achieved by the employment of a superplasticizer,
keeping the water-powder ratio to a very low value.

Self-Compacting Concrete Test

01. After producing the self-compacting concrete, it is required to have the qualities like high-flowability,
resistance against segregation and possibility (an ability that is necessary to pass the space between
reinforcing bars. Therefore, it is essential to test whether the concrete is self-compactable or not and
also to measure the deformability or viscosity for estimating proper mix proportioning and if the
concrete does not have sufficient self compatibility. The trail mixes are repeated to get an appropriate
mix for self-compacting concrete.

Slump Flow Test: (Test for Measuring Flowability)

02. The equipment that is used normally for conventional Slump test, shall be used. The test method
differs from the conventional one in the way that the concrete sample is placed into the mould has no
reinforcement rod and when the slump cone is removed the sample collapses. The diameter of the
spread of the sample is measured and the horizontal distance is measured as against the vertical slump
measured in the conventional test.
While measuring the diameter of the spread of concrete, the time that the sample takes to reach a
diameter of 500 mm (T50) is also many times measured. The Slump Flow test can give an indication
about the filling ability of Self-compacting concrete and an experienced person can also detect an
extreme susceptibility of the mix to segregation.

V-Funnel Test:

The V-funnel test for concrete was developed in Japan and used by Ozawa.  The equipment consists of a
V-shaped funnel as shown in Figure. The funnel is filled with self-compacting concrete and the time
taken by it to flow through the equipment is measured. This test gives information about the filling
capacity (flowability).

L-Box Test:

The L-box test method consists of test apparatus comprising a vertical section and a horizontal opening
into which the concrete is allowed to flow and on release of a trap opening from the vertical section
passing through reinforcing bars placed at the intersection of the two areas of the apparatus. The
concrete ends of the apparatus H1 and H2 measures the height of the concrete at both ends. The L-box
test gives information about the filling ability and passing ability of concrete.
Table Recommended Limits for Different Fresh Properties of SCC(High performance concrete)by
EFNARC(European Guidelines for Self-Compacting Concrete)

SR. TYPICAL RANGE OF VALUES

METHOD  UNIT
NO. MINIMUM MAXIMUM

Slump flow by abram’s

1 mm 650 800
cone

2 T 50cm Slump flow Sec 2 5

3 V-Funnel Sec 6 12

4 L-Box H2/H1 0.8 1

Self-Compacting Concrete Uses

Self-compacting concrete has been used in bridges construction and even on pre-cast sections. One of
the most remarkable projects constructed using self-compacting concrete is the Akashi-Kaikyo
Suspension Bridge. In this project, the SCC was mixed on-site and pumped through a piping system to
the specified point of bridge section, located 200 meters away. On this project, the construction time
was reduced from 2.5 years to 2 years.

This type of high performance concrete is ideal to be used for following applications:

 Drilled shafts concrete

 Columns

 Areas with a high concentration of reinforcement and pipes/conduits

Self-Compacting Concrete Offers Several Benefits and Advantages Over Regular Concrete

 Improved construct ability.

 Labour reduction hence cost reduction.

 Better bond to reinforcing steel with concrete.

 Improved structural Integrity.

 Accelerates project schedules, hence saves finance later.

 Reduces skilled labour.

 Flows into complex forms.

 Reduces equipment wear.

 Minimizes voids on highly reinforced areas, hence better durability.

 Produces superior surface finishes.

 Superior strength and durability.

 Allows easier pumping procedure.

 Fast placement without vibration or mechanical consolidation.

 Lowering noise levels produced by mechanical vibrators.

 Produces a uniform surface.

 Allows for innovative architectural features

Conclusion

It can be concluded that Self-compacting concrete helps to improve the environment of the construction
locations by reducing noise produced in the plants and construction fields and reducing the labour
(Reduction manpower) where concrete is being cast. In the other word, the SCC is an ideal type of
concrete that can be used for section which have narrow spaced reinforcement and architecturally
demanding. It can be used for all structural applications which require higher efforts in order to gain
sufficient compaction.
In spite of its short history, self-compacting or consolidating concrete has proved itself as a revolutionary
step forward in concrete technology. SCC is a relatively new form of concrete which can be used for
general applications. The main advantage that self-compacting concrete has over standard concrete is
its high compressive strength and self-compacting properties, including high flowability, workability, and
passing ability. It thus avoids many limitation of conventional concrete.

Green Concrete: Its Application, Advantages & Disadvantages

In this emerging world, the construction industry is at its peak with magnificent structures. The massive
growth in construction industry translates into demand for building materials and concrete is one of the
most significant material used in the construction. The major constituents in the production of concrete
are cement, sand and aggregates.

As we know every coin has two sides. Development of construction provides the luxurious facilities but
also creates an adverse impact on the environment, such as CO 2 emission and exploitation of natural
materials.

Let’s understand how it affects the environment.

 CO2 emission: According to ‘Bambang Suhendro (2014)’ (Published in, Procedia Engineering), 8

to 10 % of the world’s total CO2 emissions comes from manufacturing of cement and 220 kg of
coal is being used to manufacturing 1 tonne of cement. The global warming gas (CO2) is released
when limestone and clay are crushed and heated to high temperatures.

 Reduction in naturally occurring materials: Coarse aggregates are excavated from the rock
mines and sand from rivers. The rate at which concrete is produced, a significant reduction in
these naturally occurring materials is bound to happen.

Since last few decades, our society has become conscious of the deposit problems connected with
residual products and demands. Hence government has also imposed taxes and restrictions to control it.
However, restrictions are not the solution. The solution lies in finding alternatives which are green and
economical. Thus, few alternatives have been explored and “Green Concrete” is one of them.

Green concrete is a recent development in the field of sustainable construction industry. It is a

revolutionary concept in the history of concrete technology. Green concrete was first developed by Dr.
WG. in Denmark in the year 1998.

What is Green Concrete?

Green concrete is an environment centered thinking concept as far as concrete is concerned. It

considers every aspect starting from raw materials to its manufacture, concrete mix design and
ultimately the structural design, construction, and service life

It is made with the use of waste material as one of its components. As per ‘Mannan and Ganapathy
(2004)’ (Published in, Building and Environment), use of agricultural and industrial wastes as
replacement materials in the concrete have dual advantages of a better way of waste disposal and cost
reduction. Also, the production process of green concrete doesn’t lead to environmental destruction
such as using excessive energy in its production and produces less CO 2 than conventional concrete.
Hence, the green concrete is also known as eco-friendly concrete or environmentally friendly concrete.

The List of Waste Materials used in the Production of Green Concrete

01. Substitutes for the Cement:

Materials which can replace the cement content either partially or fully in the concrete manufacturing
and is called substitutes for cement. Two types of alternatives are available for cement, one is usually
derived from industrial waste and the second is from agricultural waste.

(a) Industrial Waste:

These materials are the byproducts you can get from the industries like power plants.

 Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS): GGBS is a by-product which can be obtained
from the blast-furnaces used to make iron.

 Fly Ash: Fly ash is obtained from the powdered coal burning mostly in power plants.

 Silica Fume: This byproduct is produced during the manufacturing of silicon metal or ferrosilicon
alloys.

 Red Mud: Red mud is a by-product which is available during the Bayer’s process of aluminium
production.

(b) Agricultural Waste: 

Following materials are available as a byproduct of agricultural products.

 Rice Husk Ash: Rice husk ash is a byproduct of agricultural waste which is generated in rice mills.

 Coconut Husk Ash: Coconut husk ash is obtained after burning of coconut husk in a controlled
environment inside an electrical furnace at 500, 600 and 700 °C.

 Groundnut Shell Ash: This is obtained from the groundnut shell.

 Sugarcane Bagasse Ash: The fibrous residue of sugarcane after crushing and extraction of its
juice is recognized as bagasse, and is reused as fuel for heat generation which leaves behind ash
which is called sugarcane bagasse ash.

(c) Others:

 Metakaolin: Metakaolin is neither the byproduct nor the entirely natural product. It is produced
by the calcinations of pure or refined kaolinite clay at a temperature between 650℃ to 850℃.

02. Substitutes for Aggregates:

Materials which can be used as an alternative for natural aggregates in the production of concrete are
called substitutes for aggregates. Followings are some green materials which can be used in place for
same,
(a) Recycled Aggregates:

Recycled aggregates are generated from concrete demolition waste. There are two types of recycled
aggregates,

 Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA): Recycled concrete aggregates contain particles primarily

originating from recycled crushed concrete.

 Mixed Recycled Aggregates (MRA): MRA is produced from recycled crushed masonry and
includes brick, mortar, concrete, asphalt and gypsum particles etc.

03. Substitutes for Sand:

Materials which are used a partial or full replacement of natural sand are called substitutes for sand.
Some eco-friendly supplements are mentioned below:

 Manufactured Sand: Manufactured sand is produced during crushing of stone such as hard

granite stone by various crushing equipment like cone crusher, roll crusher etc. It’s a better
alternative to river sand for concrete construction.

 Mining and Quarrying Waste: Quarry dust is a byproduct of the crushing process of rock which
is an intense material to use as aggregates for concreting purpose, particularly as fine aggregate.

 Surkhi: Surkhi is produced by grinding to powder well-burnt bricks, brick-bats or burnt clay.

 Waste Glass: The waste glasses are collected and crushed to the sand size. It could be used a
supplementary material for natural sand as a partial replacement.

 Sawdust: Sawdust are loose particles or wood chippings available as byproduct from sawing of
timber into standard usable sizes.

Fly Ash, GGBS, Silica Fume for Green Concrete

These green concrete materials are used as a partial or full replacement of the relative ingredients in
concrete production. All these green concrete materials that are used as a replacement for cement are
called “Supplementary Cementitious Material”; such as silica fume, fly ash etc. It improves both the
strength as well as the durability of concrete.

Application of Environmentally Friendly Concrete

 Green concrete is used in the mass construction projects like bridges, dams, retaining wall etc.

 It is broadly used in building construction.

 It is also used in the road construction.

Use of Green Concrete in Hungry Horse Dam and Rihand Dam

Advantages of Green Concrete

Green concrete has many advantages over conventional concrete such as:

 Green concrete uses local and recycled materials like fly ash, GGBS (Ground Granulated Blast
Furnace Slag, artificial aggregates etc. in the concrete.

 It reduces CO2

 Green concrete reduces environmental pollution.

 It has good thermal resistance and acid resistance.

 Green concrete reduces the consumption of cement overall.

 It is economical compared to ordinary concrete.

 It has better workability than conventional concrete.

 Environmentally friendly concrete helps in the disposal of industrial waste as it uses waste and
recycled materials from the industries in the concrete. Like fly ash, rice husk ash etc.

 Green concrete not only helps in recycling of industrial waste, but also solve the disposal
problem.

 Green concrete is suitable for mass concreting because the heat of hydration of green concrete
is significantly lower than ordinary concrete. This results in a lower temperature rise in mass
concreting.
  There is not much difference in the preparation of eco-friendly concrete compared to
conventional concrete.

Disadvantages of Green Concrete

 The green concrete has less split tensile strength than the ordinary concrete.

 In the eco-friendly concrete, the cost of the reinforcement increases with the use of stainless
steel.

 A detailed life cycle analysis of green concrete by considering different parameters is must to
understand the resultant concrete properties.

 Water (which is again scarce) absorption is high compared to conventional concrete.

To sum up, in the manufacturing of green concrete, waste materials are used as partial or full
replacement of natural materials like sand or aggregates. Reuse of such materials gives numerous
advantages over conventional concrete, such as, it reduces the extra load on the landfills for waste
material disposal. It also contributes to the economy as these materials are cheaper than the original
one and charges for the disposal of waste materials are saved. It reduces CO 2 emissions and energy
consumption which is priceless. Apart from these benefits, the durability of environmentally friendly
concrete is also higher in most cases. Hence, it is one of the most essential tools in sustainable
development in the future when natural resources will be on the verge of extinction.

Pervious Concrete – A Sustainable Choice in Construction

Concrete is a vital construction material which is a significant parameter for structural strength. By its
name, we start assuming that concrete has to be impervious, leak proof, damp proof and capable
enough to withstand the load. If concrete is non water it will cause corrosion in steel in RCC structures
and therefore it has to be impervious. Hence the name pervious concrete itself misleading and
confusing. Then why and how the pervious concrete should be used?

Here we are discussing pervious concrete. Concrete and that too pervious, yes, at its first sight it sounds
unacceptable and illogical. But it is one major environment – friendly material used by the concrete
industry as GREEN industry practice for addressing pollution control, stormwater management and
sustainable design. The increased interest in pervious concrete is due to its benefits in stormwater
management and sustainable development.

What is Pervious Concrete?

The pervious concrete is a special type of concrete, which consists of cement, coarse aggregates, water
and if required, admixtures and other cementitious materials. (like silica fume, fly ash etc.) In this type of
concrete, there are no fine aggregates normally used in the concrete matrix. Hence the void content is
more which allows the water to flow through its body. Therefore, the pervious concrete is also called
as Permeable concrete or Porous concrete.
While using porous concrete, the open cell structures allow stormwater to filter through the pavement
and into the underlying soils. In other words, this concrete helps in protecting the surface of the
pavement on which it rests and its environment. The Porous concrete is made up of the same materials
as conventional concrete. 15 -30% of its volume consists of interconnected void network, which allows
water to pass through the concrete. Pervious concrete has the capacity to allow the passage of 11.35-
18.97 litres of water per minute through its open cells for each square foot (0.0929 m2) of surface area
which is far greater than most rain occurrences.

General Properties of Pervious Concrete

 The permeable concrete mixture is very stiff as compared to traditional concrete.

 Slumps are generally less than 20 mm, although slumps as high as 50 mm have been used.

 The normal range of densities and void contents are of the order of 1600 kg/m3 to 2000
kg/m3 and 20 to 25%

 The permeable concrete infiltration rate (permeability) varies with aggregate size and density of
the mixture but will fall into the range of 80 to 720 litres per minute per square meter.

 The typical permeability concrete pavement system has a permeability of 143 litres per minute
per square meter.

 In contrast, the steady-state infiltration rate of soil ranges from 25 mm/hr to 0.25 mm/hr.

 The strength and permeability of concrete are function of the concrete density. Higher strength
can be achieved with greater amount of consolidation but results in lower the permeability.

 Flexural strength of porous concrete generally ranges between about 1 MPa to 3.8 MPa.

 The relationship between the w/c ratio and compressive strength of conventional concrete is
significant. A high w/c can result in the paste flowing from the aggregate and filling the void
structure. A low w/c can result in reduced adhesion between aggregate particles and can result
in placement problems.

Pervious Concrete
Problems with the Permeable Concrete

01. Clogging:

 It might be possible that pervious concrete can get severely clogged due to possibly poor
maintenance. However, it is unlikely that the permeability of porous concrete will get affected.

02. Abrasion and Ravelling:

 Abrasion and ravelling could be a problem. Good curing practices and appropriate w/c ratio (not
too low) is important to reduce ravelling. Some loose stones on a finished pavement are always
expected, but severe ravelling is unacceptable. Use of snow ploughs can increase ravelling.

03. Freeze and Thaw:

 If the pervious concrete is exposed to very low temperature, there is a significant risk that the
concrete would undergo extensive freeze-thaw cycles if the placement were fully saturated.

 The following measures can improve the permeable concrete freeze-thaw resistance:

(a) It can be enhanced by the use of fine aggregates to increase strength and slightly reduce voids
content to about 20%.

(b) By use of air-entrainment of the paste with the use of air entraining admixtures.

(c) By use of a perforated PVC pipe in the aggregate base to capture all the water and let it drain away
below the pavement.

Benefits of Pervious Concrete

Benefits of Pervious Concrete are as follows:

 Enables recharge of underground aquifers

 By allowing rainwater to percolate into the ground, it prevents ponding and flooding problems.

 Prevents storm water runoff from flowing off the site, thus protecting downstream natural
water bodies

 Helps purify storm water by filtering out contaminants, such as sediment, bacteria, and
chemicals

 It may help in reducing the Heat Island Effect often associated with large impervious areas.

 Reduces the need for expensive storm water management practices, such as retention pond,
particularly in an urban area where land is scarce and prohibitively costly.

Major Applications of Pervious Concrete

 Low-volume pavements

 Residential roads, alleys, and driveways

 Sidewalks and pathways

  Parking areas

 Low water crossings

 Tennis courts

 Sub-base for conventional concrete pavements

 Slope stabilization

 Well linings

 Hydraulic structures (where permeability is accepted)

 Swimming pool decks

 Pavement edge drains and Tree grates in sidewalks

 Groins and seawalls

 Noise barriers

Pervious Concrete – Parking Area

Porous Concrete – Swimming Pool Deck

Pervious Concrete Mix Design

Permeable concrete is cast from the same material as conventional concrete, except that there are no or
little fine aggregates. The coarse aggregate size of 3/ inch is used to minimize surface roughness and for
better aesthetics. However, sizes can vary from ¼ inch to ½ inch. W/C ratio should be within 0.27 to
0.34. In the manufacturing of water permeable concrete ordinary Portland cement and blended cement
can be used. Chemical admixtures like water reducing admixture or concrete retarder can also be used
in porous concrete.
Problem Faced in Manufacturing of Permeable Concrete

 It requires long mixing time in the batching plants (about 20 min)

 It gives Poor workability of concrete, very dry mix, hence difficult for placing of concrete.

 In water permeable concrete too, the amount of water used in the mix is as important as
standard concrete

 Addition of too much water results in segregation of concrete. (usually higher than standard
concrete)

 With the use of less water, concrete is difficult to mix and there is a possibility of balling of the
mix.

Design Pervious Concrete to Stormwater Management

Typical cross section of permeable concrete used for the stormwater drain is given in figure:

Cross Section of Permeable Concrete Pavement

 Kerb area: It is provided to retain flood water, usually 6” layer (100% voids)

 Pervious concrete: It is provided generally in 6” layer (20% voids)

 Base or subbase: It is made of compacted metal (stone), usually 6” layer (30% voids)

 Subgrade: It is made of compacted existing soil, usually 24” (15% void)

Stormwater Storage Capacity (without Storage Volume of Sub-Base Soil)

= Voids in Side Kerb + Voids in a layer of Pervious Concrete + voids in a layer of the stone layer

= (6 inch × 100% voids) + (6 inch × 20% voids) + (6 inch × 40 % voids)

= 9.6 inch (244mm)

Considering the Storage Volume of Sub-Base as Well

= Voids in Side Kerb + Voids in a layer Pervious Concrete + voids in a layer of stone layer + Voids in a
layer of sub base

= (6 inch × 100% voids) + (6 inch × 20% voids) + (40% × 6 inch) + (24 inch × 15 %)

= 13.2 inch (335mm)

Pervious concrete pavements are environmentally friendly and offer a very cost-effective solution for
sustainable construction. Its ability to capture storm water and recharge groundwater while reducing
storm water runoff enables porous concrete to play a significant role. This type of concrete is a smart
sustainable option with very high potential. Permeable concrete is an ideal solution to manage storm
water, re-charging of groundwater, flood control at down streams and for sustainable land
management.

Foamed Cellular Light Weight Concrete | Applications & Advantages

Introduction to Light Weighted Concrete

Lightweight concrete or foamed concrete is a versatile material which consist primarily of cement-based
mortar mixed with at least 20% air by volume.  It has high flowability, low self-weight, minimal
consumption of aggregate, controlled low strength & excellent thermal insulation properties.

Foam concrete, Aerated Concrete, Lightweight Concrete, or Porous Concrete Cellular, Concrete
whatever you may say is a cementitious paste of neat cement or cement & fine sand with a multitude of
micro/macroscopic discrete air cells uniformly spread throughout the mixture to create a lightweight
concrete.

Foam concrete is a type of porous concrete. According to its features & uses it is similar to aerated
concrete. Foamed concrete has been defined in several ways. Indeed it has a number of synonyms such
as cellular concrete often there is confusion between foamed concrete & similar materials such as air-
entrained concrete. A definition, cited by Jones (2005) states that “Foamed concrete is a cementation
material having a minimum of 20 percent (by volume) of mechanically entrained foam in the plastic
mortar”.

History Cellular Light Weight Concrete

Cellular Concrete was first manufactured in Stockholm, Sweden in the early 1900s. After the Second
World War, this technology quickly spread to different parts of the world, mostly Europe & in the Soviet
Union. These were used in site reconstruction & in low-rise structures. The first comprehensive review
on foamed concrete was presented by Valore in 1954 & a detailed treatment was done by Rudnai, Short
& Kinniburgh in 1963.

The first high scale foamed concrete construction project in the UK was completed in 1980 at the Falkirk
Railway Tunnel in Scotland. Around 4500 m3 of 1100 kg/m³ bulk density foamed concrete was placed in
the annular space surrounding the tunnel. The largest project in the UK required around 70,000 m³ of
500 kg/m³ foamed concrete by utilizing supply pipe & cable in the road foundation at Canary Wharf,
London, where also the first author was involved.

In India, “FOAM CONCRETE INDIA” is a sister concern of Pavertech Constructions (P) Ltd., solely catering
to customers who have requirements of foam concrete (cellular lightweight concrete) in all aspects with
its head office at New Delhi. Concrete design methods are rapidly improved in the last 40 years.

Comparison Between Foam Concrete & Conventional Concrete

Lightweight foamed concrete made with a combination of cement, water, fine aggregate & foam agent
has very fine pore structure, unlike that made with conventional concrete. Foam or bubbling agent in
concrete is used to absorb humidity, for as long as the product is exposed to the atmosphere, allowing
the hydration process of the cement to continue for its ever-continuing strength development. As in a
normal concrete the greater the air content, the weaker is the material, so with foamed concrete
densities ranging from 300 to 1700 kg/m³. it is not surprising that the lower densities produce the lower
strengths & at present, even the densities at the upper limits do not produce strengths much above 15
MPa.

Manufacturing of Foamed Concrete

Foamed concrete is manufactured by entrapping small bubbles of air in cement paste or mortar and the
mechanical foaming can take place in two principal ways:

 By pre-foaming a suitable foaming agent with water & then combining the foam with paste or
mortar.

 By adding a quantity of foaming agent to the slurry & whisking the mixture into a stable mass
with the required density.

To get a high performance & quality foamed concrete, the selection of the material is very important.
The various materials, equipment & procedure are discussed separately below.

01. Raw Materials Used to Get High Performance Foamed Concrete

 Fly ash min. 20% fines

  Cement, Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) preferred

 Water for foam production: Potable

 Foaming Agent Fibre Polypropylene

 Lightweight Aggregates

 Admixtures

The major raw materials of HySSIL(High-Strength, Structural, Insulative, Lightweight) or cellular

lightweight concrete are cement, pozzolanic additives, selected sand, water, extra cement additive &
HySSIL activator compound (air entrained). One of the main differences, when compared to normal
concrete, is that HySSIL concrete does not contain coarse aggregates. Protein-based foaming agents like
Greenford & Kemilite PR are normally used.

(a) Portland Cement

There are many types of Portland cement, high alumina cement, super sulphate & special cement as
masonry cement etc. As per ASTM standard, the type I, II, III are preferred to use, because of its fineness
& chemical composition. However, Ordinary Portland Cement [to BS 12:1996 (IS: 8112:1989) or BS EN
197: Part 1: 2000 (IS 1489-1 (1991))] is usually used as tile main binder for foamed concrete. However
rapid-hardening Portland cement to BS 915:1983 (IS 6452 (B) (1989)) has also been used. Portland
cement is essentially calcium silicate cement, which is produced by firing to partial fusion, at high
temperature approximately 1500 Cº. It has different rheological & strength characteristics, especially
used in combination with chemical admixtures & supplementary cementing materials/mineral
admixtures. Therefore, it is necessary to look at its fitness & chemistry while choosing.

(b) Fine Aggregate

Normally, the fine aggregates consist of natural sand, manufactured sand or combination of them. The
fine aggregate for concrete that is subjected to wetting, exposed to the humid atmosphere, or in contact
with moist ground shall not contain any material that has reactive effect in cement to cause excessive
expansion of cement mortar. Only fine sands suitable for concrete [as per BS 882:1992 (IS 383:1970)] or
mortar [as per BS 1200: 1976 (IS 2116 (1980)] having particle sizes up to about 4 mm & with an even
distribution of sizes should be used for foamed concrete. This is mainly because coarser aggregate might
settle in a lightweight mix & lead to the collapse of the foam during mixing.

(c) Water

The water used for producing a foamed concrete should be potable. This is crucial when using a protein-
based foaming agent because organic contamination can have an adverse effect on the quality of the
foam, & subsequently on the concrete produced. The water/cement (or binder) (w/c) ratio of the base
mix required to achieve adequate workability is dependent upon the type of binder(s), the required
strength of the concrete, & whether or not water reducing or a plasticizing admixture have been used.
In most cases, w/c ration will be between 0.4 & 0.8.

Where the water content of the mix would be inadequate to ensure full hydration of the cement, the
water will be extracted from the foam & might lead to its disintegration. On the other hand whilst high
w/c ratios do not significantly affect the porosity of the foamed concrete, they do
promote segregation & increase drying shrinkage.

 (d) Foaming Agent

In foam concrete, synthetic or protein-based foaming agents (surfactants) are used to produce foam.
Because of the possibility of degradation by bacteria & other microbes, natural protein-based agents are
rarely used to produce foamed concrete for civil engineering works. Group of research is underway on
the use of protein-based agents for developing high strength.

As all surfactants are susceptible to deterioration at low temperatures they should be stored
accordingly. The properties of foamed concrete are majorly dependent on the quality of the foam. There
are two types of foaming agent:

 Synthetic-suitable for densities of 1000 kg/m³ & above.

 Protein-suitable for densities from 400 to 1600 kg/m³.

In this, the protein-based foaming agents come from animal proteins (horn, blood, bones of cows, pigs &
other remainders of animal carcasses).

02. Batching & Mixing of Foam Concrete

Batching & mixing of Foam concrete is similar to that of normal strength concrete. The cement used for
making slurry is usually Type 1 Portland Cement, although other types of cement can be used. If sand is
specified in the mix design ideally it should be fine with 2 mm maximum size & with a grading of 60 to
90% passing through a 600 µ sieve. The water-cement ratio of the slurry is usually between 0.5 & 0.6. If
it is required more water can be added to increase the workability. First of all, the cement mortar slurry
is made at the batching plant, according to the mix design, by either the DRY or WET method.
The process should start with the sand & cement. Dry constituents have to be mixed for a few minutes
& water in stages have to be added & made sure that the mixing is thorough (mortar slurry preparation).
Then preparation is pre-foamed by diluting the foaming agent with water & extracted by using foam
generator & air compressor. After that, the foam is added to the wet slurry & it is ensured that foam has
been completely mixed with the mortar. After mixing is completed the wet density of the foamed
concrete is checked & matched to what is required! There is no chemical reaction involved when the
pre-foam is added to the cement mortar. Introduction of pores is achieved through mechanical means
either by pre-foaming (foaming agent mixed with part of mixing water) or mix foaming (foaming agent
mixed with the mortar) (Yew, 2007). Figure 2 below shows the manufacturing process of foamed
concrete

03. Equipment Used to Get the Foam Concrete

The production of foamed concrete is a fairly easy process which does not involve any expensive or
heavy machinery & in most cases uses equipment that is readily available for normal concrete/mortar
production are used. That include:

 MFG / MFG-A Foam Generator

 Conventional mixers, pan-mixer, truck-mixer (Know the various Types of concrete mixer)

 Conventional conveying system (buckets, concrete pumps, etc.)

 Conventional molds, horizontal/vertical

 Formwork (if precast components are required to be produced)

Also Read: In Which Type of Projects We can Use Precast Concrete?

04. Curing of Foam Concrete

Curing is a process of preventing freshly placed concrete from drying at first. During the first day of its
life to minimize any tendency to cracking & allow it to develop concrete strength. Cellular concrete is
generally air-cured. Curing can be accelerated by applying heat, steam or chemicals. A curing compound
prevents excessive loss of water after casting & consequently increases strength.

There are various methods of curing that affect the concrete properties such as: 

 Water curing

 Sheet curing

 Membrane curing

 Air curing

05. De-Moulding of Cast Elements

Depending upon the outside temperature & upon the cement quality used, building elements of cellular
concrete may be stripped 6 -10 hours after casting. Like conventional dense concrete curing on the yard
or on the site it should be facilitated by keeping the demoulded elements, under moisture for a few
days.

06. Ageing of Foam Concrete

Using the same basic components as for dense concrete, viz., sand, cement & water, & considering that
“neopor” foam has no chemical reaction in concrete beside serving as a wrapping material for the air
bubbles embedded, aging of cellular concrete virtually carries on infinitely & as long as the cement used
draws humidity from the air.

Properties of Foam Concrete

Concrete can be distinguished into two distinct phases;

The fresh/green concrete & the hardened concrete.

Three main properties should be controlled in fresh concrete; workability, consistency & cohesiveness.
 Sort of Foam
28 Days Thermal
Type of Foam Concrete
Compressive Conductivity W/m
Concrete According to
Strength (MPa) K
Average Density
Heat Insulated D400 1 0.1
  D500 1.4 0.12
       
Constructional
D600 3.5 0.14
Heat Insulated
  D700 5 0.18
  D800 7 0.21
  D1000 10 0.24
       
Constructional D1100 14 0.34
  D1200 17 0.38

On the other hand, for hardened concrete, the strength is the most important parameter of concrete.
The physical properties of foamed concrete are related to its density, which can be regarded as its main
design criterion. It is also dependent on material mix & the method of he mixing. Several studies
investigated the physical & mechanical properties of foamed concrete cast in different densities, with or
without fine aggregates in the mix as the density of cellular concrete can be varied over a wide range of
320- 1920 kg/m3.

Beneficial Properties Associated with Cellular Concrete Include

 Workability

 Stability

 Durability

 Flow-ability

 Self-compaction

 Thermal insulation

 Fire resistance

 Mold resistance

 Sound absorption

 Seismic resistance

 Permeability
  Energy absorption

 Walk-ability (in roof deck & flooring applications)

 Nail-ability & saw-ability (in pre-cast manufacturing

 Self-leveling

Range of densities: 400-1800 kg/m³

Achievable strength: 1.0-25.0 MPa

Shrinkage behavior: 1200 kg/m³– 0.215 mm m-1 & Dense concrete – 0.145 mm m-1

Thermal conductivity: 0.082-0.555 (W/m K) & Dense concrete – 2.1 (W/m K)

Fire rating: non-combustible DIN 4164

Water absorption: approx. 5 % at a density of 1200 kgm-3 no condensation closed cellular structure.

Recommended usage of Foam concrete based on density:

300-600 kg/m³:

This density is primarily used for thermal insulation or fire protection. It uses only cement (or little fly
ash), water & foam & can be easily pumped. Foam generators enable the production of stiff foam for
appling on roof-tops with slopes.

700-800 kg/m³:

Is also used for void-filling, such as landscaping (above underground construction), to fill voids behind
archways & refurbishing of damaged sewerage systems. It is also useful for manufacturing building
blocks.

900-1100 kg/m³:

Used in producing blocks & other non-load bearing building elements mostly, such as balcony railings,
partitions, parapets & fence walls etc.

1200-1400 kg/m³:

These are the most commonly used densities for prefab & cast in situ walls, load-bearing & non load
bearing. It is also successfully used for floor screeds (sound & insulation, plus weight reduction).

Advantages of Foam Concrete

Foam contributes to the reduction of building dead weight thus resulting in more economical structural
design. Production of more economic structural design will reduce the amount of material used &
eventually cut down the cost of the construction itself resulting in ultimate benefit to the user. Besides
that, other researchers add that the lightness of structure makes it easier to transport & handle. In
addition, it also has a very low thermal conductivity that makes it an excellent fire protection material
for use in property. Some of the advantages are explained below:

01. Reduction of Dead Load

The reduction in foundation loads may result in smaller footing, fewer piles, smaller pile caps, & less
reinforcing etc. Reduced dead loads may result in smaller supporting members (decks, beams, girder, &
piers) resulting in a major reduction in cost & result in larger space availability. The reduced dead load
would mean reduced inertial seismic forces. Lighter & smaller pre-cast elements need smaller & less
expensive handling & transporting equipment.

02. Saving in Other Raw Material

The savings while using CLC are manifold. Continuing with substantial savings in raw material as here no
gravel is required, decreasing a dead load of high-rise structure, say reducing by almost half. Considering
that a substantial amount of steel is necessary only to carry the weight of the structure, the steel
requirement will reduce by hundreds of ton in a high rise, resulting in economy with savings to all.

03. Considerably Lower Weight

Weight reduction is obviously beneficial in transport, as transportation cost is also reduced considerably,
impacting crane usage. Further either larger panels can be erected, or the full capacity in the span can
be used. Alternatively, less relocation of the crane is necessary.

04. Thermal Insulation

Thermal Insulation increasingly turns to be the most important issue in the planning & construction of
buildings. There are many costly materials and method used for insulation on the sandwich structure of
a wall, adding the one or another rigid insulation. Incorporation of thermal insulation in the concrete
mix is the best solution, as offered in air-cured cellular lightweight concrete.

05. Fire Protection

The air-embedded in cellular lightweight concrete (CLC) is also used for the high fire rating. In 1200
kg/m3 density a 13-14 cm thick wall has a fire endurance of 5 hours.

06. Sound Insulation

As the thermal capacity of building members is better the other aspects such as sound insulation is also
good. Sound reflected is experienced as air-borne or foot-fall sound (impact). Being airborne it is the
rule of density & therefore CLC offers superior protection than very light concrete (ACC). For impact
sound, it is superior to conventional concrete. Hitting a wall with a hammer will let you feel the full force
on the other side, whilst the air embedded in CLC dampens the blow to pass through. It will suffer a
small dent & thereby prevent any larger damage.

07. Economical Production

The cost for one m³ of CLC in most cases is less, even than for the equivalent volume of conventional
concrete. Adding all the highly appreciated benefits (comprising CLC) to regular concrete, the cost is
half. Even if you spend double the cost for regular concrete still the overall quality of CLC is unreachable.

 08. Self-leveling/Self-Compacting

Foam concrete is naturally self-leveling & self-compacting, filling the smallest voids, cavities & seams
within the pouring area. In excavations or poor soils, that cannot be easily compacted, foam concrete
forms a 100% compacted foundation over the soft sub-soil. Compaction of regular, granular concrete for
backfill against retaining structures or deep foundations can cause damage or movement to the adjacent
structure. In case of foam concrete with its reduced lateral loading is a safe solution.

09. Speedier Construction

The absence of aggregate creates the ball-bearing effect of the foam and makes cellular concrete of
much higher consistency. It distributes evenly & fills all voids completely ensuring uniform density all
over. In this way full height walls of a complete building (all internal & external walls) can be poured in-
situ in one step/cast, thus speeding-up the construction considerably.

10. Saving Time & Cost

Foam concrete is an economical and cost-effective solution, particularly in large volume applications,
where its use can also have an effect on other aspects of construction.  From the above advantages, it is
clear that all lead to saving money & time.  The longer durability of foam concrete means, lower
maintenance costs.  High volume equipment with rapid installation reduces installed unit costs, Savings
in manpower cost etc. Only limited numbers of workers are needed to produce foamed concrete for
casting, pouring of panels, blocks or even complete walls for houses.

Applications of Foam

Typical cellular concrete applications are as below:

 Insulating cellular concrete for roof decks with 2-hour fire ratings (UL-listed)

 Insulating roof deck fills

 Composite insulated roof decks

 Floor/ceiling fill systems

 Cast-in-situ affordable housing

 Cast-in-place walls, floors & roofs

 Pre-cast, reinforced-concrete wall, floor & roof panels

 Air-cured, cast-in-situ lightweight concrete blocks & pre-fabricated elements

 Permeable pavement underlayment & recharge beds

 Firewalls

 Slab-on-grade insulation & sub-base fill

 Underground thermal conduit linings

 Pipeline & culvert installation (bedding & backfill)

 Roadway rehabilitation

 Retaining wall backfill

Conclusion
Recent studies and analysis have shown that the foam concrete has a desirable strength and is an
alternative construction material for the industrialized building system. The strength of foam lightweight
concrete is low for lower density mixture. It offers a significant reduction in the overall weight of
structural frames, footing or piles and provide rapid and relatively simple construction. The density of
concrete is reduced due to the introduction of voids throughout the sample caused by the foam and
hence the decrease in the compressive strength of the concrete. Foam concrete requires, no
compaction, vibration and it fill all cavities, voids, and seams over a long distance. It offers quick and
settlement-free construction with good heat, sound insulation and air content. Foam concrete has good
thermal insulation; good freeze/thawing properties and has excellent fire resistance properties.

Cold Weather Concreting | Precautions & Effects

The myriad of seasons which Mother nature presents has inspired the greatest poets of all times.
However, it comes with its own troubles especially for the construction business. Each season has its
own levels of humidity, temperature and day hours.  Therefore, if you are in the construction business,
you need to know what stays and what doesn’t in this line.

In this article, we will be discussing the features, do’s and don’ts of cold weather concreting.  The
knowledge about cold weather concreting is essential in countries like America, Russia, Canada, et
where the inhabitants experience near zero and sub-zero temperatures and when it comes to India –
the Himalayan regions and when compared with the warmer climate, the concreting procedure in cold
weather is different and difficult.

Concreting refers to the procedure of concrete batching, mixing, transporting, placing, compacting and
finishing etc. which is the most essential procedure for each construction project. Some of the specific
concreting procedures such as batching of concrete, mixing of concrete, transportation of concrete and
placing of concrete, etc. have been described in our previous articles.

What Temperature is too Cold for Concreting?

According to The American Concrete Institute under ACI 306R- 16, the conditions of cold weather
concreting exist when the air temperature has fallen to, or is expected to fall below, 40°F (4°C) during
the protection period. The protection period can be defined as the amount of time recommended to
prevent concrete from being adversely affected by the exposure to cold weather during construction.
Cold Weather Concreting

How the Low Temperature Can Affect the Concrete?

It is known that concrete gets transformed from semi-liquid to solid or plastic state and further into
hardened state due to a chemical reaction known as hydration. The rate of hydration depends on the
temperature i.e. the rate of hydration increases or decreases according to the rise and fall in
temperature. If hydration is low than the process of transforming from semi-liquid to a solid is delayed
and this in turn affects the quality of concrete as well as the economy of construction. Thus, it is
essential to ensure that the temperature is maintained during the placing of concrete and it should be
above 4°C or 40°F. Cold weather can have a detrimental effect on concrete for various reasons which are
as follows.

Effects of Cold Weather on Concrete

(a) Delay in Setting and Hardening of Concrete

The setting of concrete is a stage in which concrete gets stiff to acquire the shape and hardening of
concrete is a stage of where its strength is developed so that the concrete can carry the intended load.
Both depend on the rate of hydration and rate of hydration depends upon the temperature. If the
temperature is low, concrete takes longer time to set as well as to harden. The delay in setting time
makes concrete vulnerable to frost attack and other disruptions. This delay can also prevent the removal
of formwork in a short time period due to which the rate of work progress slows down and affects the
economy of the construction in general.

(b) Freezing of Concrete at an Early Age

Freezing of concrete is the development of solid water i.e. ice within the paste that disrupts the
hardening process and causes frost lenses to develop in the paste. Wondering how it happens? Read on
to know the process.

In the fresh concrete, pores are filled with water. When the temperature goes below the freezing point,
the free water contained in the plastic concrete freezes. When water freezes into ice, it occupies almost
9% more volume than the water. Freezing of water also prevents the hydration of cement and makes
the concrete expand. This expansion accelerates the deterioration of concrete.

(c) Repeated Freezing and Thawing of Concrete

Climatic condition varies in the cold weather regions due to which fresh concrete or hardened concrete
gets exposed to freezing and thawing cycles and will continue throughout successive winter seasons
resulting in repeated loss of concrete surface and its qualities such as durability of concrete. Freezing
and thawing may also exert fatigue in the concrete.

Freezing and Thawing Effect

(d) Stresses Due to Temperature Differentials

In the cold weather, large temperature differentials are likely to occur at the time of removal of form
insulations. Such temperature differentials within the concrete member may promote cracking which
can harmfully affect the durability.

Points to be Remembered during Cold Weather Concreting

General precautions and recommendations are given below which may help you in the cold weather
concreting:

01. Pre-Preparation of Cold Weather Concreting

 Prior preparation of the concreting and as precautions for cold weather concreting work
strategies should be taken. Such as erecting windbreakers to protect the mixing and batching
plant, materials, forms, plastic sheets and other covering and insulating materials are available
at the site.

 Well-defined temperature record chart including concrete temperature and exterior

temperature should be kept on site.

 Before placing of concrete, all frozen materials like ice, snow and frost should be cleaned from
the ground and never place concrete over frozen subgrade or on something that contains frozen
materials.

 Freshly excavated earth should be covered with insulated blankets to preserve the natural
warmth of the subsoil and keep the concrete blankets on till you begin pouring the concrete.

02. Ingredients Used for Cold Weather Concrete

  It is recommended to have a low slump and nominal water-cement ratio in cold weather
concrete to reduce the bleeding and decreasing setting time. Don’t seal freshly placed concrete
until it has bled and the setting process has begun.

 Air entraining admixtures can also be used in cold weather concrete and it should have the
correct amount of air entrained voids that will resist freezing and thawing

 Concrete accelerator may also help to reduce the effect of freezing and thawing.

 High-early-strength cement can also be used.

 When there is no other option, adding cement to the mix will help to a certain extent for
maintaining the concrete temperature.

03. Concrete Covering Material

 During the cold weather, surface of the concrete should be covered to preserve the heat and
help in the prevention of freezing. You can use concrete covering material such as expanded
polystyrene, plastic sheets and waterproof paper etc.

 Heated enclosures or insulation blankets are commonly used for protecting concrete when air
temperatures are near or below freezing point. Ensure that enclosures or insulation blankets all
windproof and weatherproof.

 Enclosures may be heated by steam, steam pipes and other types of heaters. It can also be
made of wood, canvas, fibre insulation board, plywood etc.

04. Formwork

 Insulating material should be placed against any formwork before concreting and the same can
be used as protection after the formwork has been stripped.

 Forms should not be released until the concrete has achieved the strength of at least twice the
stress to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of removal of formwork.

05. Cold Weather Concrete Curing

 In cold weather concrete curing, water curing is not necessary because of the loss of moisture
from the concrete through evaporation is greatly reduced in cold air conditions.

 One can use the concrete curing blankets in cold weather concrete curing to prevent freezing
and keep the concrete at an optimum curing temperature.
Curing Blanket

06. Inspection During Cold Weather Concreting

 When pouring concrete in cold weather, keep some personal inspection data such as a record of
the date, time, external air temperature, temperature of concrete at the time of placing and
general weather (calm, windy, clear, cloudy, etc.)

This knowledge is helpful and essential to homeowners and businesses who hire concrete contractors
and deal with such kind of weather condition as in the cold weather concreting, concrete will develop
sufficient strength and durability to satisfy the proposed service recommendations only when it is
properly proportioned, produced, placed, and protected. Thus, it’s essential to increase the degree of
protection as the ambient temperature decreases.

We hope this article will help you to clear your doubts regarding the cold weather concreting. stay tuned
to know more facts about houses and construction.

Hot Weather Concreting | Precautions & Effects

Concreting is the process of concrete batching, mixing, transporting, placing, compacting and in place
etc. and it’s the most essential procedure for each and every construction for its quality and durability.
The concreting procedure is affected by the temperature, humidity and other environmental factors.
Different precaution needs to be exercised when you are concreting it or in the hot weather concreting.
If you want to work in such situations or condition than you have to take precautions.

Here we are going to describe the hot weather concreting. The knowledge about hot weather concreting
is most essential in the areas with extremely high ambient temperatures, such as in the Arabian
Peninsula. It may be necessary to cool the concrete prior to placing it, for example by replacing part of
the water in the mix with flaked ice or in many other ways.

If you want to know a general procedure such as batching, mixing,

transportation, placing and compaction, than you can get the information in our previous articles.
Hot Weather Concreting

What Temperature is too Hot for Concreting?

Hot weather conditions are commonly encountered in summer, but it’s also a combination of other
climatic factors such as high wind velocity, low humidity and solar radiation which can occur at any time
or in any season especially in arid and tropical climate.

The definition of hot weather may change from nation to nation depending upon local codal provision,
which are defined after study of local conditions.

According to Indian code (IS: 7861 (Part I): 1175), hot weather condition arises when any of the
operations of concreting is done at atmospheric temperatures above 40°C or 104°F and any of the
operation of concreting (excluding steam curing) where the temperature of concrete at the time of its
placement is expected to be beyond 40°C or 104°F.

According to Australian standard (AS 13791), hot weather condition arises when placing of concrete is
done at air temperature above 30°C and the maximum concrete temperature is above a 35°C.

According to the National Ready-Mix Concrete Association (USA), “Hot weather, as define by ACI 305R,
is any combination of the following conditions that tends to impair the quality of freshly mixed or
hardened concrete by accelerating the rate of moisture loss and rate of cement hydration, or otherwise
causing detrimental results due to.

 High ambient temperature

 High concrete temperature

 Low relative humidity

 Solar radiation

How the High Temperature Can Affect the Concrete?

You read in a previous article named “Cold Weather Concreting”, how low-temperature effect concrete.
Similarly, high temperature also has effect on concrete. In the fresh concrete, high atmospheric
temperature increases the temperature of concrete. Due to this the rate of hydration increases and it
leads to accelerated setting. High temperature leads to rapid evaporation of moisture from exposed
surfaces and it may cause plastic shrinkage cracking and crazing, and subsequent cooling of hardened
concrete can introduce tensile stress. Thus, the special attention has to be paid to curing in the hot
weather concreting than under normal ambient conditions. In the hot weather concreting water
demand increases which will increase water-cement ratio and in turn lower potential strength. It also
tends to accelerate loss of slump or workability of concrete and make it difficult to place and will affect
finish of concrete.

Effects of Hot Weather on Concrete

01. Early Setting or Stiffening of Concrete

As discussed above, In the hot weather concreting due to the higher temperature, the setting time of
concrete will be reduced and will result in the early stiffening and loss of slump or workability. It gives
the poor quality of hydration and will suffer a certain loss of long-term strength. Partially set concrete
may reduce the bond between the consecutive lifts more than anticipated and also give an adverse
effect on placing and finishing of concrete.

02. Evaporation of Mixing Water

Hot weather concreting is normally associated with lower relative humidity. Due to this, the water
mixed with the concrete to give the required workability will be lost. With the result, concrete turns in
to unworkable and therefore an excessive amount of compaction is required to compact concrete fully.
If this is not done, large voids will remain in the concrete, which are responsible for all the ills and
problems in concrete.

03. Workability or Sump of Concrete

Loss of workability or slump due to high temperature is the major difficulty that arises with hot weather
concreting. It affects the concreting operations like placing, compaction and finishing. Addition of extra
water to improve the workability or slump of the concrete mix decreases the strength and increases the
permeability, and ultimately affect the durability of the concrete.

04. Compressive Strength

Hot weather concreting increases the water demand due to high temperature. Both can reduce the 28-
days strength of concrete. By adding more water to maintain workability, it increases the water-cement
ratio and results in loss of strength and durability. It may also increase the drying shrinkage of the
hardened concrete.

05. Less Time for Finishing

Finishing of concrete work must be done as early as possible after placing of concrete particularly in the
hot weather concreting. In certain cases, if early finishing is not possible due to faster stiffening or
setting and quicker evaporation of water, the quality of finishing will be of poor standard. Generally,
extra fresh mortar is required to be applied for finishing which results in poor performance.

06. Absorption of Water

In hot weather regions, the sub grade or formwork is normally dry and absorptive. Thus, the sub grade
or surface of formwork is required to be wetted before placing the concrete. If this is not done carefully
and with proper concern, the water in the concrete may be lost by absorption by the surface in contact
with concrete making the contact zone poorer in quality

07. Curing of Concrete

For the hot weather concreting, early curing becomes necessary because hot weather requires a
continuous effort for curing of concrete. If there is any interval or interruption than it makes concrete
surface dry fast and interrupts the continuous hydration which gives an adverse effect on the
development of its full strength.

08. Plastic Shrinkage Cracking

In the hot weather concreting, hot weather accelerates the loss of moisture from the surface. If the
evaporation rate is greater than the bleeding rate, it makes the surface dry resulting in shrinkage of the
concrete. Cracking occurs when the shrinkage stresses exceed the tensile capacity of the concrete.
Plastic shrinkage cracks may be quite deep and continue to widen until the shrinkage stresses are
relieved.

Plastic Shrinkage Crack

09. Thermal Cracking

Thermal cracking is a result of the thermal gradient. When concrete is placed, the heat of hydration
increases the interior temperature of the concrete. On another side, due to rapid changes in the
temperature of the external concrete surface i.e. when concrete slabs, pavements or walls are placed on
a hot day followed by a cool night, it may lead to thermal gradient between the hot interior of concrete
and the colder external surface of the concrete. The hotter interior provides a restraint to the colder
external surface, which wants to contract, which will lead to thermal cracks.

Points/ Precautions to Remember While Hot Weather Concreting

01. Pre-Preparation of Hot Weather Concreting

 Make a proper schedule for hot weather concreting. The concreting can be done in time when
the temperature is not high such as it can be scheduled in the early morning in the day time or
in late afternoon when the ambient temperature is low.

 For hot weather concreting, provide sufficient labour and machinery to minimize the time
required to place and finish the concrete, as hot weather conditions has considerably short time
for initial and final set of concrete.

 Erect temporary windbreakers to limit wind velocities.

 Erect sunshades to reduce the temperature of the concrete surface.

 Keep all the stocks (ingredient like fine and coarse aggregate) as cool as possible by making the
shades on the stocks and the sprinkling of water on the stocks. (See that water-cement ratio
does not increase.)
  For the hot weather concreting, moisten the sub grade, steel reinforcement, and formwork
before concrete placement to reduce water absorption from concrete mix.

02. Material and Mix Proportions for Hot Weather Concreting

 For hot weather concreting, use material and mix design proportion having good weather
resistance i.e. select sand having low specific heat and so on.

 Use concrete having adequate consistency that allows rapid placement and consolidation.

 To reduce the initial temperature of concrete, use cool aggregates and cool water/ice in hot
weather concreting. (Take care to see that water-cement ratio does not increase.)

 In the hot weather concreting, aggregate temperature can be maintained by watering or

keeping them covered.

 Use of low heat cement is preferable for hot weather concreting.

 Use of retarding admixtures to counter premature stiffening or setting of the fresh mix for hot
weather concreting.

03. Pouring Concrete

 During the hot weather concreting, protect the concrete surface with plastic sheeting or use
evaporation retarders to maintain the initial moisture in the concrete mixture.

 Hot weather concreting might be done in a covered environment.

 Use cooling containers, pipelines, chutes, etc. during the transportation of wet concrete.

 During hot weather concreting, complete the concreting operations like transporting, placing
and finishing of concrete as fast as is practicable or possible.

 During the hot weather concreting, immediately follow the initial finishing, spraying a fine film
of aliphatic alcohol over the exposed concrete for reducing the evaporation of water.

Plastic Sheeting

04. Curing
  In hot weather concreting, consider fogging the area above the concrete placement to raise the
relative humidity and satisfy moisture demand of the ambient air.

 For hot weather concreting, provide appropriate curing methods as soon as possible after the
finishing of concrete.

 You can use the more efficient way for curing than the water curing in hot weather concreting
such as curing blankets, plastic sheets and concrete curing compounds.

Knowledge about hot weather concreting provides guidance on the effects of hot weather conditions on
the properties of concrete and the precautions that are to be taken to minimize any potential adverse
effects when placing concrete and maintain the quality and durability of construction under such
conditions.