Chapter four

Reversible and Irreversible Processes

(A) Reversible non-flow processes:-

1-Constant volume process:-

For Steam:

Q=(u2-u1)+W
2

W   pd  0
1

Q=u2-u1

For mass; m of the working substance

Q=U2-U1

For Ideal gas:

W=0

Q=u2-u1=cυ(T2-T1)

Note:- All the heat supplied in a constant volume process

goes to increasing the internal energy.

2-Constant pressure process:-

For Steam:
2 2

W   pd  p  d  p ( 2  1 )
1 1

Q  (u 2  u1 )  W
Q  (u 2  u1 )  p ( 2  1 )
Q  (u 2  p 2 )  (u1  p1 )

Q=h2-h1

For mass; m of a fluid ; Q=H2-H1

For Ideal gas:
W  p ( 2  1 )
Q  h2  h1  c p (T2  T1 )

Example(4.1):

A mass of 0.05 kg of a certain fluid is healed at a constant pressure of 2 bar until the volume
occupied is 0.0658 m3. Calculate the heat supplied and the work done:
(i) when the fluid is steam, initially dry saturated;
(ii) when the fluid is air, initially at 130°C.

Solution:

m =0.05kg, p1=p2=2bar, V2=0.0658 m3, Q=?, W=?

(i):

W  p ( 2  1 )
1   g  0.8856 m 3 / kg
V 0.0658
2    1.316m 3 / kg
m 0.05
W  2 *10 (1.316  0.8856)  86080 J / kg
5

Work done by the total mass=86080*0.05=4304 J

Q=h2-h1

h1 =hg=2707kJ/kg at p=2bar

h2 =3072kJ/kg at p=2bar and υ=1.316 m3/kg

Q=3072-2707=365 kJ/kg

Heat supplied =365*0.05=18.25 kJ

(ii): air; T1=130°C

W  p ( 2  1 )
p1V1  mRT1
mRT1 0.05 * 287 * 403
V1   5
 0.0289m 3
p1 2 *10
υ1=0.578 m3/kg

υ2=1.316 m3/kg

W=2*105(1.316-0.578)=147600 J/kg

Total work=147600*0.05=7380 J=7.38 kJ

Or

W  p ( 2  1 )  R(T2  T1 )
2 *10 5 * 0.0658
p 2V2  mRT2  T2   917 K
0.05 * 287
W  mR(T2  T1 )  0.05 * 0.287(917  403)  7.38kJ
Q  mc p (T2  T1 )  0.05 *1.005 * (917  403)  25.83kJ

3-Constant temperature process (Isothermal process):-

A process at constant temperature is called an isothermal process.

For Steam:

W=shaded area

Q=(u2-u1)+W

For Ideal gas:

p  RT
p  cons tan t  p  c
p11  p 2 2  p3 3  ........
2 2 
c 2
d 
W   pd   d  c   p11 ln 2
1 1
 1
 1

2
W  p11 ln
1

2
W  p 2 2 ln
1
2 p
 1
1 p2
p1
W  p1 2 ln
p2
p 1  1  RT
p1
W  RT ln
p2
Q  (u 2  u1 )  W
u 2  u1  c (T2  T1 )  butT 2  T1  u 2  u1

Q W

Example(4.2):

Steam at 7 bar and dryness fraction 0.9 expands in a cylinder behind a piston isothermally
and reversibly to a pressure of 1.5 bar. Calculate the change of internal energy and the
change of enthalpy per kg of steam, The heat supplied during the process is found to be 400
kJ/kg, calculate the work done per kilogram of steam.
Solution:
At p=7 bar, Ts=165°C
At p=1.5 bar and T=165°C is superheated
Because at p=1.5 bar, Ts=111.4°C

u1  (1  x )u f  xu g
u1  (1  0.9) * 696  0.9 * 2573  2385 .3kJ / kg

Interpolation from superheated tables at 1.5 bar and 165°C

200  150 165  150


2656  2580 u  2580
15
u ( 2656  2580 )  2580  2602 .8kJ / kg
50
 u 2  2602 .8kJ / kg

Gain in internal energy=u2-u1=217.5 kJ/kg

h1  h f  xh fg  697  0.9 * 2067  2557 .3kJ / kg

Interpolation from superheated tables

15
h ( 2873  2773 )  2773  2803 kJ / kg
50
 h2  2803 kJ / kg
 h2  h1  245 .7 kJ / kg
Q  (u 2  u1 )  W
 W  400  217 .5  182 .5kJ / kg

Example(4.3):

1 kg of nitrogen (molar mass 28 kg / kmol) is compressed reversibly and isothermally from

1.01 bar, 20°C to 4.2 bar. Calculate the work done and the heat flow during the process.
Assume nitrogen to be a perfect gas.

Solution:
m =1kg, N2, M=28, T=C, p1=1.01 bar, T1=T2=20°C
p2=4.2 bar, W=?, Q=?

p1
W  RT ln
p2
R o 8314
R   297 J / kg .K
M 28
1.01
W  297 * 293 ln   124 kJ / kg
4 .2

The work input=124kJ/kg

Q=W=-124kJ/kg
The heat is rejected

4-Adiabatic process (Q=0):-

An adiabatic process is one in which no heat is transferred to or from the fluid during the
process. Such a process can be reversible or irreversible.
For reversible adiabatic non-flow process:-
For Steam:
Q  (u 2  u1 )  W
Q  0
 W  u1  u 2
Note:- For an adiabatic process to take place, perfect thermal insulation for the system must
be available.

For Ideal gas:

dQ  du  dW

For a reversible process, dW  pd 

dQ  du  pd   0
For a perfect gas ; p   RT  du  c dT

d ( p  )  d ( RT )
pd    dp  RdT
 du  pd   0
c dT  pd   0
c
 pd   dp   pd   0
R
R R
c    1 
 1 c
1
 pd   dp   pd   0
 1
pd    dp  (  1) pd   0
pd    dp  pd   pd   0
dp  pd   0   p
dp d
 0
p 
ln p   ln   C  ln p  ln   C
ln( p   )  C
p    e C  cons tan t

p   C Adiabatic process for perfect gas

p1 1  p 2 2

p1 
 ( 2 )
p2 1

RT
p   RT  p 

RT  C
  C  T   1   cons tan t
 R

T  1  C

T1 
 ( 2 ) 1
T2 1

RT
p  RT   
p
RT  T C
p( )  C   1   cons tan t
p p R
  1
T1 p1 ( 
)
( )
T2 p2

The work done in an adiabatic process per kg of gas

Q  (u 2  u1 )  W
 W  u1  u 2  c (T1  T2 )
R
 c 
 1

R(T1  T2 )
W 
 1

 p  RT  p1 1  RT1 , p 2 2  RT 2

p11  p 2 2
W 
 1

**: A reversible adiabatic process for a perfect gas is shown on a p-υ diagram.
2 2 2 2
c d    1  1 1   2 1 
W   pd    d  c    c    c  
1 1  1      1 1   1 
c  p11  p 2 2
p11  p 2 2
W
 1

Example(4.4):

1 kg of steam at 100 bar and 375°C expands reversibly in a perfectly thermally insulated
cylinder behind a piston until the pressure is 38 bar and the steam is then dry saturated.
Calculate the work done by the steam.
Solution:
m =1kg, p1=100 bar, T1=375°C, Q=0, p2=38 bar, W=?
at p=100 bar Ts=311°C < T1(375°C)
the steam is superheated at point (1)
W=u1-u2
From superheated table we find u1
At 100 bar and 375°C
υ =υ1=0.02453 m3/kg, h=h1=3017 kJ/kg
  u  h  p
100 *10 5 * 0.02453
u1  3017   2771 .7 kJ / kg
1000
u 2  u g atp  38bar
 u 2  2602 kJ / kg
W  2771 .7  2602  169 .7 kJ / kg

Example(4.5):

Air at 1.02 bar, 22°C, initially occupying a cylinder volume of 0.015 m3, is compressed
reversibly and adiabatically by a piston to a pressure of 6.8 bar. Calculate the final
temperature, the final volume, and the work done on the mass of air in the cylinder.
Solution:
air, p1=1.02 bar, T1=22°C, V1=0.015 m3
p2=6.8 bar, T2=?, V2=?, W=?
for adiabatic process
 1
T1 p1 ( 
)
( )
T2 p2
 1
( )
p  
T2  T1  2 
 p1 
0 .4
6 . 8 ( 1 .4 )
T2  295( )  507.3K
1.02
The final temperature =507.3-273=234.3°C

p1 V p (1 )
 ( 2 )  V2  V1 ( 1 ) 
p2 V1 p2
1.02 ( 11.4)
V2  0.015( )  0.00387m 3
6.8
W  u1  u 2  c (T1  T2 )  0.718(22  234.3)  152.4kJ / kg
pV  mRT
p1V1 1.02 * 105 * 0.015
m   0.0181kg
RT1 287 * 295

The total work=-152.4*0.0181=2.76kJ

5- Polytropic processes:-

It is found that many processes in practice approximate to a reversible law of the form
p n  C ; where n is a constant. Both vapors and perfect gases obey this type of law closely
in many non-flow processes. Such processes are internally reversible.

For Steam:

For any reversible process, W   pd

p n  c

Where; n and c : constant

2 2
c   n 1  11n   21n 
W   n d  c    c 
1
   n  1  1  n 1 
c  p11n  p 2 2n
p11n11n  p 2 2n 21n
W 
n 1

p11  p 2 2 p1 
W  ( 2 )n
n 1 p2 1

For Ideal gas:

pυ=RT

for polytropic process; p  C

n

RT
p

RT n c
( )  c  T n1   c
 R
T11n1  T2 2n1

T1 
 ( 2 ) n1
T2 1 ………………………….(1)
 RT

p
RT n Tn c
p( )  c  n1  n  cons tan t
p p R
Tn T
c c
p n1 (
n 1
n
)
p
T1 T2
n 1
 n 1
n n
p 1 p 2

n1
T1 p ( )
( 1) n …………………………(2)
T2 p2

Note: It can be seen that these equations are exactly similar to the equations for a reversible
adiabatic process for a perfect gas. This is mean that the reversible adiabatic process for a
perfect gas is a particular case of a polytropic process with the index; n equal to γ.
p11  p 2 2
For polytropic process, W 
n 1

p1 1 RT1  p 2 2  RT2

R(T1  T2 )
W 
n 1

Or for mass; m
mR(T1  T2 )
W 
n 1
R (T1  T2 )
Q  (u 2  u1 )  W  c (T2  T1 ) 
n 1
R R
Q (T1  T2 )  (T1  T2 )
n 1  1
 1 1 
Q  R (T1  T2 )   
 n  1   1
   1  (n  1) 
Q  R (T1  T2 )  
 (n  1)(  1) 
  n 
Q  R (T1  T2 )  
 (n  1)(  1) 

  n  R (T1  T2 ) 
Q( )
  1  n  1 
  n
Q  ( )W
 1

Example(4.6):

In a steam engine the steam at the beginning of the expansion process is at 7 bar, dryness
fraction 0.95, and the expansion follows the law p 1.1  cons tan t , down to a pressure of
0.34bar. Calculate the work done per kg of steam during the expansion, and the heat flow per
kg of steam to or from the cylinder walls during the expansion.

Solution:

p1=7 bar, x=0.95, p 1.1  c , p2=0.34bar, W=?, Q=?

p11  p 2 2
W
n 1
1  x g
 g  0.2728m 3 / kg (at 7bar )
1  0.95(0.2728)  0.259m 3 / kg
2 p 1
p11n  p 2 2n  ( 1) n
1 p2
p1 1n 7 11.1
 2  1 ( )  0.259( )  4.05m 3 / kg
p2 0.34
p 2  0.34bar   g  4.649m 3 / kg

υg> υ2

the steam is wet at point 2

7 *10 5 * 0.259  0.34 *10 5 * 4.05

W  436kJ / kg
1.1  1
Q  (u 2  u1 )  W
u1  u f 1  x1 (u g1  u f 1 )  696  0.95(2573  696)  2479.15kJ / kg
2 4.05
 2  x2 g  x2    0.871
 g 4.649
u 2  u f 2  x2 (u g 2  u f 2 )  302  0.871(2472  302)  2192.1kJ / kg
 Q  (2192.1  2479.15)  436  148.9kJ / kg

Heat is supplied

Example(4.7):

1 kg of a perfect gas is compressed from 1.1 bar, 27 °C according to law, p 1.3  cons tan t
until the pressure is 6.6 bar. Calculate the heat flow to or from the cylinder walls.
(i) When the gas is ethane (molar mass 30 kg/kmol), which has cp=1.75 kJ/kg K.
(ii) When the gal is argon (molar mass 40 kg/kmol), which has cp = 0.515 kJ/kl K.
Solution:
(i)/ M=30, cp=1.75kJ/kg.K
 n
Q  ( )W
 1
cp
  R  c p  c
c
Ro 8.314
R   0.277kJ / kg.K
M 30
 c  c p  R  1.75  0.277  1.473kJ / kg.K
1.75
   1.188
1.473
R(T1  T2 )
W
n 1
n 1 n 1
T T2 p2 n p2 n
n 1
c  ( )  T2  T1 ( )
T 1 p1 p1
p n
0.3
6.6
T2  (27  273)( ) 1.3  453.6 K
1.1
0.277(300  453.6)
W   141.8kJ / kg
1.3  1
1.188  1.3
Q  ( )(141.8)  84.5kJ / kg
1.188  1
The heat is supplied

(ii)/ use the same method for argon

8.314
R  0.208kJ / kg.K
40
c  0.515  0.208  0.307kJ / kg.K
0.515
   1.678
0.307
0.208(300  453.6)
W  106.5kJ / kg
1.3  1
1.678  1.3
Q( )(106.5)  59.4kJ / kg
1.678  1
Heat is supplied

Note:- The various processes considered in previous sections are cases of the polytropic
process for a perfect gas.
Where;

n  0, p 0  c  p  cons tan t
1 1

n  , p  c  p   c    cons tan t
 

n  1, p  c  T  cons tan t
n   , p   c

State 1→A (constant pressure cooling; n=0)

State 1→B (Isothermal compression; n=1)

State 1→C (Reversible adiabatic compression; n=γ)

State 1→D (Constant volume heating; n=∞)

State 1→A' (constant pressure heating; n=0)

State 1→B' (Isothermal expansion; n=1)

State 1→C' (Reversible adiabatic expansion; n=γ)

State 1→D' (Constant volume cooling; n=∞)

Note:- (γ) is always greater than unity, then process 1→C must lie between processes 1→B
and 1→D similarly, process 1→C' must lie between processes 1→B' and 1→D'.

Note:- A vapor may undergo a process according to a law pυ=c. In this case the process is
not isothermal because the characteristic equation of state, pυ=RT , does not apply to vapor.
Therefore tables must be used to find the properties at the end states, making use of the fact
that p11  p 2 2 .

Example(4.8):

In the cylinder of a steam engine the steam expands from 5.5bar to 0.75bar according to a
hyperbolic law. If the steam is initially dry saturated, calculate the work done per kg of
steam, and the heat flow to or from the cylinder walls.

Solution:

p1=5.5 bar, p2=0.75bar, p  c , , W=?, Q=?

 2 2
c 2
 pd    d  c ln ]
2
W 1  p11 ln
1 1
1
1   g  0.3427m 3 / kg  p1 5.5bar
2 p
p11  p 2 2   1
1 p 2
p1 5.5
W  p11 ln  5.5 *10 5 * 0.3427 ln  375.5kJ / kg
p2 0.75
Q  (u 2  u1 )  W
u1  u g  2565kJ / kg  p1  5.5bar
p1 5.5
 2  1 ( )  0.3427( )  2.513m 3 / kg
p2 0.75
p 2  0.75bar , 2  2.513m 3 / kg   g  2.217m 3 / kg

υ2 > υg the steam is superheated at point 2

2585  2510 u  2510

2.588  2.271 2.513  2.271
u 2  2567.3kJ / kg
Q  (2567.3  2565)  375.5  377.8kJ / kg

(B) Irreversible processes:-

1-Unresisted, or free expansion:

Q  (u2  u1 )  W
Q0
W 0
u2  u1  0

 u1  u 2

**: In a free expansion process, the internal energy initially equals the internal energy
finally.

(For ideal gas

u  c T
c T 1 c T2

T1  T2
2-Throttling:

A flow fluid is said to be throttling when there is some restriction to the flow, such as, partly
open valve, an orifice or any sudden reduction in the cross section of the flow.

C12 C2
h1   Q  h2  2  W
2 2
Q  0,W  0
C12 C 22
h1   h2 
2 2

When the velocities C1 and C2 are small, or when C1 is very nearly equal to C2, then the
kinetic energy can be neglected.

h1  h2

Therefore for throttling process, the enthalpy initially is equal to the enthalpy finally.

(For ideal gas

h  c pT
c pT 1 c pT2

T1  T2

3- Adiabatic mixing:

The mixing of two streams of fluid is quite common in engineering practices, and can
usually be assumed to occur adiabatically.

Q0
W 0
Neglecting change in kinetic energy.

H1  H 2  H 3
m1 h1  m2 h2  m3 h3

m1 h1  m2 h2  (m1  m2 )h3

(For ideal gas

h  c pT

m1 c pT1  m2 c pT2  (m1  m2 )c pT3

m1T1  m2T2  (m1  m2 )T3

Example(4.9):

Air at 20 bar is initially contained in vessel A as shown in figure below, the volume of this
vessel is 1m3. The valve is opened and the air expands to fill vessels A and B. Assuming that
the vessels are of equal volume ,calculate the final pressure of the air.
Solution:
Air is a perfect gas
The process is free expansion

u1  u 2
 T1  T2
p1V1  p2V2
V2  2V1  2 * 1  2m 3
p2 V1 V 1
  p2  p1 ( 1 )  20( )  10bar
p1 V2 V2 2

Note:- The point 1 and 2 lie on isothermal line, but the

process between 1 and 2 cannot be called isothermal, since

the intermediate temperatures are not the same throughout the

process.

Example(4.10):

Steam at 19 bar is throttled to 1 bar and the temperature after throttling is found to be 150°C.
Calculate the initial dryness fraction of the steam.

Solution:

The process is throttling,  h1  h2

Point 2 at superheated, at p=1bar Ts= 99.6°C

Ts < T
From superheated table at p=1bar and T=150°C.

h=2777kJ/kg

h1  h2  2777 kJ / kg
h1  h f  xh fg
2777  897  x(1901)  x  0.989

Note:- States 1 and 2 are fixed but the intermediate states are indeterminate, therefore for a
vapor, throttling can be used as a means of finding the dryness fraction of wet steam, as in
example.

Reversible Flow Processes:-

C12 C2
h1   Q  h2  2  W  Q  0
2 2
C  C 22
2
W  ( h1  h2 )  ( 1 )
2

If the kinetic energy terms are negligible small;

W  (h1  h2 )

For ideal gas: W  c p (T1  T2 )

Note:- The work done in a reversible adiabatic flow process between two states W  (h1  h2 )
is not equal to the work done in a reversible adiabatic non-flow process between the same
states W  (u1  u 2 )

Example(4.11):

A gas turbine receives gases from the combustion chamber at7 bar and 650°C, with velocity
of 9 m/s. The gases leave the turbine at 1 bar with a velocity of 45 m/s. Assuming that the
expansion is adiabatic and reversible in the ideal case, calculate the work done per kg of gas
, For the gases take γ= 1.333 and cp= 1.11 kJ/kg K.
Solution:
C12 C2
h1   Q  h2  2  W  Q  0
2 2
C12  C 22
W  ( h1  h2 )  ( )
2
For gas; h  c pT

C12  C 22
 W  c p (T1  T2 )  ( )
2
 1  1 0.333
T1 P  p  1
( 1)  T2  T1 ( 2 )  (650  273)( ) 1.333  567.7 K
T2 p2 p1 7
1 2
 W  1.11 * 10 3 (923  567.7)  (9  45 2 )  393.4kJ / kg
2