AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and for most, thanks to the almighty God for granting me his limitless care, love and
blessing all along the way. Then I would like to forward my great thank to our department for
giving me a chance to accomplish this excitable work.

Next to that I would like to express my thanks to my advisor MSC.KUMERA .A for his
advice to accomplish the work successfully from the beginning to end without saying a tired.
My great thank extends my family and friends who had supported me directly or indirectly
throughout my project.

Finally I would like to thank all members of our physics department students.

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ABSTRACT

This project presents a review on solar cells. The aim of the project is to review the three
generations of solar cell and their working principles and to compare the efficiencies of solar
cell. Generally the first generations solar cell based on Silicon (Si) solar cell. The advantage of
first generation solar cell is broad spectral absorption range and high carrier mobility. The
disadvantage of first generation solar cell is requires expensive manufacturing technologies,
growing and sawing of ingots is a highly energy intensive process. The Second Generation Solar
cells, also called thin-film solar cells, are significantly cheaper to produce than first generation
cells but have lower efficiencies. Some advantages are illustrated below. It has high absorption
co-efficient, Lower cost in comparison of Si based solar cell and the Disadvantages are:
Environmental Contamination starts from fabrication process and Materials are hard to find.
Third generation solar cells are inherently different from the previous two generations because
they do not rely on the p-n junction design of the others. The Advantages of third generation
solar cells are : Raw materials are easy to find Easier fabrication process rather than other
two technology Cost is minimal and the Disadvantages of third generation solar cells are: Liquid
electrolyte (low temperature)and High cost dye .

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Table of Contents
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................................................................i
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................................ii
CHAPTR ONE................................................................................................................................................1
SOLAR CELL..................................................................................................................................................1
1.INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Statement of problem solar cell........................................................................................................2
1.2 Significance or impact of solar cell.....................................................................................................3
1.3 Objective of the study........................................................................................................................3
General objective.....................................................................................................................................3
Specific objective....................................................................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................................4
2. Literature review.....................................................................................................................................4
2.1 Types of Solar Cells and Application..................................................................................................6
2.1.1 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell (A-Si).............................................................................................7
2.1.2. Biohybrid Solar Cell....................................................................................................................8
2.1.3. Buried Contact Solar Cell...........................................................................................................8
2.2 ENERGY PLANNING............................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................................................11
3 .Methodology and material or equipment.............................................................................................11
3.1 Material or Equipment for Solar Cell...............................................................................................11
3.2 Budget break down.........................................................................................................................12
Table 1 Budget break down.......................................................................................................................13
3.3Time break down..............................................................................................................................13
Table 2 Time break down..........................................................................................................................14
CHAPTER FOUR..........................................................................................................................................14
4. CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................................................14
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................16

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 List of tables

Table 1 budget break down…………………………………………………13

Table 2 time break down …..........................................................................14

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 CHAPTR ONE

SOLAR CELL

1. INTRODUCTION

Solar cells are a promising and potentially important technology and are the future of sustainable
energy for the human civilization. PV is world’s fastest growing power generation technology. A
solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of light to
electricity by Photo voltaic effect, which is physical and phenomenon. Also, methods of
conversions of solar energy into electricity working principles and materials used for various
types of photovoltaic technology (Prentice-HallInc, 1982).

There are such a wide variety of applications. Solar is a cleaner, safer investment for our family
and business PV technology offers a number of significant benefits. Solar power is a renewable
resource that is available everywhere in the world. Solar PV technologies are small and Thus, PV
will continue to produce power indefinitely (as long as the sun shines). Photovoltaic are truly a
sustainable and environmentally friendly method of producing energy (Nayfeh, 1929).

Solar cells need to absorb a range of energy, which corresponds to the solar spectrum to be
efficient. The purpose of this paper is to explain different types of PV technology present today
in the world and to provide the achievements in the field of advanced photovoltaic and
photochemical conversion of solar energy into electricity and methods of selection of PV
technology according to different criteria (cost of production, the efficiency of solar energy
conversion, and others…) Rapid technological developments (Minger T .1990).

There are a wide range of PV cell technologies on the market today, using different types of
materials, and an even larger number will be available in the future. PV cell technologies are
usually classified into three generations, depending on the basic material used and the level of
commercial maturity (Aldous, Scott, 1986).

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The working principle of solar cells is based on the photovoltaic effect, i.e. the generation
potential difference at the junction of two different materials in response to electromagnetic
radiation. Solar cells are usually divided into three main categories called generations up to
recent years (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source#Photovoltaics:

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly
into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon. The
word “photovoltaic” can be divided into two parts: “photo” and “voltaic”

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_mass_(solar_energy)

Nano-structured layers in thin film solar cells offer three important advantages. First, due to
multiple reflections, the effective optical path for absorption is much larger than the actual film
thickness. Second, light generated electrons and Current solar cells cannot convert all the
incoming light into usable energy because some of the light can escape back out of the cell into
the air (N. S. Sariciftci, L,1992).

1.1 Statement of problem solar cell

 Installing solar panels on a house is expensive and requires experienced people. These
systems used fixed solar panels since alignment systems are too expensive for the average
homeowner (see: How to determine the correct angle for solar panels). The initial investment
outlay is a significant factor in why there is a lack of support for solar power from
consumers.
 Giant solar farms have been built in desert regions and have reduced the installation cost
since a larger economy-of-scale is created (parts, material & installation people are in one
location). But these large, inexpensive tracks of lands are found far from cities where the
power is needed. Expensive transmission lines are needed to bring the power to a distant
market.
 Maintenance costs and time can add-up since every inch of a solar panel must be kept clean
and clear of debris for them to operate at their most efficient. Their efficiency drops
drastically even when a small portion is blocked by fallen debris or a film of dust.

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The main problem with solar power that has stifled its use is the fact that energy production only
takes place when the sun is shining. Large storage systems need to be developed to provide a
constant and reliable source of electricity when the sun isn't shining at night or when a cloud goes
overhead.

When solar panels are not producing energy, it takes longer to recoup their installation and
maintenance cost.

1.2 Significance or impact of solar cell

The main significance of this project is:
 To satisfy our customers need.
 To get income from the success of our project.
 It saves on electric bills
  It benefits the environment
 Help the environment and help us all.

1.3 Objective of the study

General objective
The general objective of the project work is to understand working principle of solar cell, Nano
structure based solar cell and compare the generation of solar cell.

Specific objective
The specific objectives of this project work are the following:

 To understand working principle of solar cell.

 To understand the generation of solar cell.
 To compare the generation of solar cells.
 To understand what is solar cell.
 To evaluate the application of solar cell.
 To know each parts of solar cell.
 To know the factors that causes the failure of solar cell.

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  To reduce the time for operation.
 To make in minimum cost.

CHAPTER TWO

2. Literature review
They have presented an experimental investigation to study a semiconductor material used in a
PV cell and its importance in determining the efficiency of the solar cell at various parameters
such as regards to behavior with respect to temperature, weight and as well as other parameters
with which it is used and all those contribute to the deciding factor of efficiency of the PV cell
The inventor has conducted many experimental researchers to devise improvised methods and
apparatus for forming thin film layers of semiconductor materials.
The field of photovoltaics generally relates to multi-layer materials, converts sun light directly
into DC Electrical Power. The basic mechanism for this conversion is “The Photovoltaic Effect”.
Solar cells are typically configured as a co-operating sandwich of P-Type and N-Type
semiconductors, in which the N-Type semi conductor material (on one side of the sandwich)
exhibits an excess of electrons and the P-Type semiconductor material (on the other side of the
sandwich) exhibits an excess of holes each of which signifies the absence of the an electron.
[Ho; Frank. (Yorba Linda, CA) Yeh; Milton Y (Santa Monica, CA) 1995] Has worked on in
improving the efficiency of Solar Cells. They have found that the efficiency of the solar cell
varies from 15% to 22% and innovations are being carried out by changing the combination of
semiconductor material in the PV cell and find out improved efficiency. The inventor has
analyzed the properties of semiconductor material thoroughly and has come out with a
combination of cells- cascaded cell, permits achieving more than overall efficiency of 23%.
Up to the present time it has been proposed to use either Germanium or Gallium Arsenide as the
substrate for solar cell in which the principal active junction is formed of N-Type and P-Type
Gallium Arsenide. Attempts are continuing at developing solar cells that efficiently use as much
of solar spectrum as possible. In order to catch as much as possible protons, the semiconductor
used in the solar cell must be designed for a small band gap, since the semiconductor material is
otherwise transparent to radiation with proton energy less than the band gap.
[Bareis; Bernard F (Plano,TX) and Goei; E Esmond T. (Dublin, CA) 2004]

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They have investigated on the concentrating solar energy receivers. In their study they have
commented that the solar collectors can be classified into focusing type (concentrating type) and
Non – focusing type (non-concentrating type). The inventor has designed the concentrating type
solar energy receiver comprising a primary parabolic reflector having a centre and a high
reflective surface on a concave side of the reflector and having a fixed axis extending from the
concave side of the reflector and passing through a fixed point of the primary parabolic reflector
and a conversion module having a reception surface. Non concentrating type solar collecting
devices intercept parallel un-concentrated rays of the sun with an array of photovoltaic cells. The
output is the direct function of array.
[Britt; Jeffery s. (tucswon.AZ) Wiedeman; Scott (Tucson.AZ) 2009]
They have presented an experimental investigation to study a semiconductor material used in a
PV cell and its importance in determining the efficiency of the solar cell at various parameters
such as regards to behavior with respect to temperature, weight and as well as other parameters
with which it is used and all those contribute to the deciding factor of efficiency of the PV cell
The inventor has conducted many experimental researchers to devise improvised methods and
apparatus for forming thin film layers of semiconductor materials.
The field of photovoltaics generally relates to multi-layer materials converts sun light directly
into DC Electrical Power. The basic mechanism for this conversion is “The Photovoltaic Effect”.
Solar cells are typically configured as a co-operating sandwich of P-Type and N-Type
semiconductors, in which the N-Type semi conductor material (on one side of the sandwich)
exhibits an excess of electrons and the P-Type semiconductor material (on the other side of the
sandwich) exhibits an excess of holes each of which signifies the absence of an electron. They
have worked on thin film solar cells. When an incident photon excides an electron in the cell into
the conduction band, the excited electron becomes unbound from the atom of the semi conductor
creating a free electron, hole-pair. It extends a conductive path between the two sides of the cell.

Electrons will move from N-Type side to P-Type side along the external path, creating an
electric current. Such a photo voltaic structure when appropriately located electrical contacts are
included and the cell is in-cooperated into a closed electric circuit constitutes a PV Cell device.

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One particular type of solar cell that has been developed for commercial use is “Thin Film PV
Cell”. Thin Film Cells require less light absorbing semiconductor material to create a working
cell and thus can reduce processing costs.
[Zhao; Xiaofeng (Guangdong, CN) 2011]

The literature review is carried out mainly on the following areas

-Energy planning in the Indian perspective
-CHAPS systems based on linear PV concentrators
-Techno economics of renewable energy systems
-Life Cycle analysis of PV systems
-Carbon credit mechanism for renewable energy systems
-Market potential estimation and diffusion of the technology into the market

2.1 Types of Solar Cells and Application

Solar cells are typically named after the semiconducting material they are made of. These
materials must have certain characteristics in order to absorb sunlight. Some cells are designed
to handle sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, while others are optimized for use in space.
Solar cells can be made of only one single layer of light-absorbing material (single-junction) or
use multiple physical configurations (multi-junctions) to take advantage of various absorption
and charge separation mechanisms. Solar cells can be classified into first, second and third
generation cells. The first generation cells—also called conventional, traditional or
wafer-based cells—are made of crystalline silicon, the commercially predominant PV
technology, that includes materials such as polysilicon and monocrystalline silicon.
Second generation cells are thin film solar cells, that include amorphous silicon, CdTe and
CIGS cells and are commercially significant in utility-scale photovoltaic power stations,
building integrated photovoltaics or in small stand-alone power system. The third generation
of solar cellsincludes a number of thin-film technologies often described as emerging
photovoltaics—most of them have not yet been commercially applied and are still in the
research or development phase. Many use organic materials, often organometallic
compounds as well as inorganic substances. Despite the fact that their efficiencies had been
low and the stability of the absorber material was often too short forcommercial

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applications, there is a lot of research invested into these technologies as they promise to
achieve the goal of producing low-cost, high-efficient solar cells.
“First generation” panels include silicon solar cells. They are made from a single silicon
crystal (mono-crystalline), or cut from a block of silicon that is made up of many crystals (multi-
crystalline - shown at right).
“Second generation” thin-film solar cells are less expensive to produce than traditional
silicon solar cells as they require a decreased amount of materials for construction.
The thin-film PV cells are, just as the name implies, a physically thin technology that
has been applied to photovoltaics. They are only slightly less efficient than other types but do
require more surface area to generate the same amount of power.
The following are the different types of solar cells.

2.1.1 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell (A-Si)

Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the non-crystalline form of silicon. It is the most well
developed of the thin film technologies having been on the market for more than 15
years. It is widely used in pocket calculators, but it also powers some private homes,
buildings, and remote facilities. United Solar Systems Corp. (UniSolar) pioneered
amorphous-silicon solar cells and remains a major maker today, as does Sharp and Sanyo.
Amorphous silicon panels are formed by vapor-depositing a thin layer of silicon material –
about 1 micrometer thick – on a substrate material such as glass or metal. Amorphous silicon
can also be deposited at very low temperatures, as low as 75 degrees Celsius, which
allows for deposition on plastic as well. In its simplest form, the cell structure has a single
sequence of p-i-n layers. However, single layer cells suffer from significant degradation in
their power output (in the range 15-35%) when exposed to the sun. The mechanism of
degradation is called the Staebler-Wronski Effect, after its discoverers. Better stability
requires the use of a thinner layers in order to increase the electric field strength across the
material. However, this reduces light absorption, hence cell efficiency. This has led the
industry to develop tandem and even triple layer devices that contain p-i-n cells stacked one
on top of the other. One of the pioneers of developing solar cells using amorphous silicon is
Uni-Solar. They use a triple layer (see illustration below) that is optimized to capture light
from the full solar spectrum)As you can see from the , the thickness of the solar cell is just 1
micron, or about 1/300th the size of mono-crystalline silicon solar cell. While crystalline

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silicon achieves a yield of about 18 percent, amorphous solar cells’ yield remains at around 7
percent. The efficiency rate is partly due to the Staebler-Wronski effect, which manifests
itself in the first hours when the panels are exposed to sunlight, and results in a decrease
in the energy yield of an amorphous silicon panel from 10 percent to around 7percent.The
principal advantage of amorphous silicon solar cells is their lower manufacturing costs,
which makes these cells very cost competitive.

2.1.2. Biohybrid Solar Cell

A biohybrid solar cell is a solar cell made using a combination of organic
matter(photosystem I) and inorganic matter. Biohybrid solar cells have been made by a team of
researchers at Vanderbilt University. The team used the photosystem I (a photoactive protein
complex located in the thylakoid membrane) to recreate the natural process of photosynthesis
to obtain a greater efficiency in solar energy conversion. These biohybrid solar cells are a
new type of renewable energy.
Multiple layers of photosystem I gather photonic energy, convert it into chemical energy and
create a current that goes through the cell. The cell itself consists of many of the same non-
organic materials that are found in other solar cells with the exception of the injected
photosystem I complexes which are introduced and gathered for several days in the gold
layer. After days the photo system I are made visible and appear as a thin green film. It is this
thin film that helps and improves the energy conversion. The bio hybrid cell however, is
still in the research phase.The team from Vanderbilt University began conducting research on
the photosynthesis when they began to see and focus on the photo system I protein. After
seeing how widely available and efficient the protein was at solar conversion they began
to look to incorporate and improve different technologies. The team used spinach as their
source for the photo system I. Thylakoid membranes were isolated and then went into a
purification process to separate the Photo system I from the thylakoid membrane. Their
research resulted in a greatly improved electrical current (1000 times greater) compared to
those previous made by other solar cells. The team has been gathering a group of
undergraduate engineers to help build the first prototype of the biohybrid solar cell. The team
has also come up with a second design of the protein complex the photo system

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2.1.3. Buried Contact Solar Cell
The buried contact solar cell is a high efficiency commercial solar cell technology based
on a plated metal contact inside a laser-formed groove. The buried contact technology
overcomes many of the disadvantages associated with screen-printed contacts and this allows
buried contact solar cell to have performance up to 25% better than commercial screen-
printed solar cells.

2.2 ENERGY PLANNING

Energy consumption is one of the most reliable indicators of development and quality of
line in a country. World Energy council defines
Energy planning as “that part of economics applied to energy problems, taking into
account the analysis of energy supply and demand, as well as implementation of the
means for ensuring coverage of energy needs in a national or international context”
(World Energy council 1992). Energy planning considers three major aspects namely
political, social and environmental based on past data and previous energy models if any.
There are three categories of Energy planning namely
1. Planning by models
2. Planning by analogy and
3. Planning by inquiry
 The first method comprises of econometric and optimization models, of which the
econometric one relies upon mathematical and statistical methods. In general the
method stresses the empirical testing of theoretical models as well as the
derivation of quantitative statements about the operation of economic aggregates.
The optimization model is more or less a prescription by a model than a
description of the model. This is the key approach in this study as the real time
energy system of a regional level planning model prescribes the levels up to which
renewable energy especially photovoltaic systems can contribute in the near
future.
There are some standard Energy models that are described

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1) BESOM – Brookhaven energy system optimization model that attaches all costs to
energy flows and minimizes their sum over one year.
2) TESOM–Time stepped energy system optimization modelmakes consecutive BESOM
type optimizations for single year.
3) MARKAL – Market allocation model is a successor of
BESOM and is a large scale, technology oriented activity analysis model which
integrates the supply and demand side sectors of an economy.
4) MENSA – Multiple Energy systems of Australia is an improved and recognized
version of MARKAL that chooses the combination of demand side and supply side
technologies which delivers energy at a least cost, averaged over a specified time period.
5) EFOM – Energy flow optimization model provides an engineering oriented bottom up
model of a national energy system and has been developed under the approval of the
commission of the European communities. The EFOM describes the energy system as a
network of energy flows, by combining the extraction of primary fuels, through a number
of conversion and transport technologies to the demand for energy services or large
energy consuming materials.
 The second method of energy planning is by planning based on analogy that
allows the simulation of the same quantity, with a time lag, in a less developed
country, through the use of leading case as a reference and the knowledge of the
time behaviour of a quantity in a more developed country.
 The third and the last method emphasizes on inquiry methods like Delphi
questionnaires to expert members and evaluating their answers for an accurate
chart of the future (Cormio et al 2003).
Energy models can also classified as optimization models, resource allocation models,
models based on artificial intelligence techniques and forecasting models. In addition to
MATLAB various tools can be used to formulate and run the models in computers like
LINDO, LINGO, TORA and GAMS which are primarily optimization packages. Energy
models are broadly classified into two types as Bottom up model and top down model.

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The former model is an “engineering type model” that typically includes description of
given energy related tasks which are to be accomplished at minimum costs given by a
given menu of technologies and also finds out the reasons about how emission reduction
task be accomplished at minimum costs. On the contrary the top down model considers
energy demand in the form of functions that depends upon sectoral economic product and
on energy prices (Leo 2005).

CHAPTER THREE

3 .Methodology and material or equipment

We have successfully controlled the polymer orientation by carefully tuning the length and shape
of the solubilizing alkyl side chains. With the ideal polymer orientation, charge carriers
generated upon sun light absorption can effectively travel through the polymer films, which
resulted in the significant improvement of the power conversion efficiency in polymer-based
solar cells. This methodology would pave the way towards the practical use of polymer-based
solar cells.

3.1 Material or Equipment for Solar Cell

A typical silicon solar cell consists of a photoactive p/n junction formed on the surface, a front
ohmic contact stripe and fingers, a back ohmic contact that covers the entire back surface, and an
antireflection coating on the front surface.

For silicon solar cell production either poly-crystalline or mono-crystalline material is used.
Poly-crystalline silicon for photo-voltaic applications is normally produced by casting methods
while mono-crystalline silicon is prepared in a Czochralski growing process.

The poly-crystalline or mono-crystalline ingots are cut to wafers. Poly-crystalline material is

mostly cut to square wafers, while mono-crystalline material is used to produce round wafers. In
many cases square material with rounded edges is prepared from round wafers in order to get a
denser packing of the solar cells in the solar module.

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 Manufacturing of solar cells can be divided in 4 sections:

 Manufacturing of pure silicon, starting from reduction of quartz sand with carbon,
cleaning of the raw silicon by transfer to trichlorosilane and distillation of it and finally
deposition of poly-silicon under hydrogen atmosphere.
 Manufacturing of mono or poly-crystalline crystals or blocks and cutting it to silicon
wafers.
 Manufacturing of the solar cells.
 Manufacturing of solar modules from the solar cells.

3.2 Budget break down

On average the total cost of solar installation can be between $15,000 to $29,000 for average
sized systems sized between 4kW and 8kW. The source my project is the government.

No Items unit quantity unit price total price

Birr Cents

1 Laptop Piece 1 12500 12500 00

2 Notebook Piece 1 30 30 00

3 Pen Piece 4 6 24 00

4 A4 paper Ream 1 1 150 00

5 Soft ware training Hr 30 200 6000 00

6 Telephone expense Card 4 100 400 00

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7 Secretary expense Piece 90 10 900 00

8 Printing Piece 400 1 400 00

9 Binding Ream 5 30 150 00

10 Internet expense Hr 200 30 6000 00

11 Flash disc (16GB) Piece 1 250 250 00

12 CD-Re-writable Piece 2 50 100 00

13 Scientific calculator Piece 1 300 300 00

14 Bag Piece 1 400 400 00

Sub total 26304 00

Contingency (10%) 3400 00

Grand total 29704 00

Table 1 Budget break down

3.3Time break down

The time break down of my project depends up on the source or budget of project. Means that
when the government/source gives the budget in very time that I want it takes maximum one
year or below. But the government doesn’t give the budget when I want it takes more than two
years.

No Activity month of Period Delivery

years(2010)

Start End

1 Problem identification &title selection April April 5 days

20 25

2 Introduction and literature review part writing April April 2 days Chapter 1$2
24 26

3 Methodology writing April April 2 day All chapters

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 26 28

4 Proposal submission April April 1 All chapters

30 30

5 Proposal defense 1

6 Approval proposal May May 1 day

29 29

7 Data collection April May 16 days Field survey

28 14

8 Analysis April May 16 days Analysis

30 16

9 Report writing April May 30 days Report

20 20

10 Submission of first draft paper May May 2 days

3 2

11 Research submission May May

29 30

12 Final research defense Based Department

on schedule

Table 2 Time break down

CHAPTER FOUR

4. CONCLUSION
Photovoltaic (PV) is the field of technology and research related to the application of solar cells
for energy by converting sun energy (sunlight, including sun ultra violet radiation) directly into
electricity. Solar PV is one of the very few low-carbon energy technologies with very high
potential to grow to very large scale. Many solar cell technologies exist for the direct conversion
of light into electricity, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Solar technologies use
the sun to provide heat, light, electricity, etc for domestic and industrial applications. The term

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“photo” comes from the Greek word for light. A “volt” is a unit of measure for electric current.
Thus “photovoltaic” literally means “electricity from light.” And that’s exactly what the word
describes: capturing solar energy in the form of light and transforming it into electricity.

Solar cells can be classified into three such as; First generation cells, Second generation cells and
third generation solar cell. The advantage of first generation solar cell is broad spectral
absorption range and high carrier motilities. The disadvantage of first generation solar cell is
requires expensive manufacturing technologies.

The Second Generation Second generation cells, also called thin-film solar cells. The advantage
of the second generation of solar cell is lower manufacturing costs, lower cost per watt can be
achieved and reduced mass. The disadvantage of the second generation of solar cell is increased
toxicity.

Third generation solar cells are the cutting edge of solar technology. The Advantages of Third
Generation Solar Cells is low Energy and Low material cost. The disadvantage of the Third
Generation Solar Cells is efficiency is lower compared to silicon (wafer-based) solar cell.

all proposed nanostructures for solar cell applications using the following five fundamental
physics-based criterions.(1) Interactions between charge carriers (electrons and holes) and
phonon cannot be neglected.(2) For all the known semiconductors, hot carriers (due to ultra-short
value of thermalization time) generated in one layer of the solar cell cannot be transported to the
other side of the solar cell and collected at the other electrode.(3) The phenomenon of
photoluminescence has no direct relationship with solar cell operation(4) Intermediate band gap
recombination center will reduce solar cell performance.(5) For nanostructures, the thermal
conductivity is lower than the bulk values. For practical applications of nanostructures, the
material must have high thermal conductivity to transport heat from the device.

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[2]Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, 1997.

[3]D. K. Schroder, "Lecture notes: Solar cells,"IN1970

[4]Michel Carrara, 2000.

[5]M. S. Lundstrom, "Numerical Analysis of Silicon Solar cells," 1980.

[6]http://cnx.org/content/m41217/latest/

[7]Solar cell - generations. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell#Second_Generation.

[8]http://www.altenergy.org/renewables/solar.html

[9] M. A. Green, "Third generation photovoltaic: solar cells for 2020 and beyond," vol. 14, pp.
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