Kantian Ethics, Rights, and Vite \-A’Kantian Foundation for Rights Kant himself did « ve a great del of atcotion torghts,butsubsequent hilo Phers in the Kantian tradition have developed a number of justifications Lenct He ONCepIs of rational agency and respect for persons, Rights are founded te Kant on his conception of humans as rational agents, that is beige ula oo, sabable of acting autonomously. In order to be agents ofthis kind, it merece y ic uble be five from limitations imposed by the will of others. Complete festa i impossible, however, because one person can be free only if omhen we on vented Fane way. Weare free to speak, for example, only if everyone ese sere, Trace fom interfering, Being rational, autonomous agents requires therchoce, Our rights must be in accord with universal law, however, That is, we have pais that justify our timiting the freedom of others only tothe eatent thar awh sare nese same rights to limitus. (hiss the requirement of universality convened fan carmulation of the categorical imperative) I fllows that theres only ene fundamental inate right according to Kant and that isthe right to be hee hag ane sriatraint ofthe will of others insofar as thisis compatible with a similar heeds ee Gi From this fundamental right follow several subsidiary rights including the right ‘o-equal weatment, equality of opportunity and the ownership of property One criticism of the Kantian foundation for rights is that the fusdamental reich tupporis—-namely,the righ wo freedlom—is excessively narrow” In past verracg artes primarily for negative rights to nonimterference and notforpechive pans to welfare. A further difficulty is that Kantian theory provides few recaes for determining what rights we do have. Without a doubt, slavery and torneo Tong Pecause the violate the minimal conditions fr rational action or digit sol Fespect. But the minimal conditions in other instances are less clear Feeuht font tnuch freedom and well-being must we have to be rational, o autonomous, agen VIRTUE ETHICS Jead successful, rewarding lives—the kind of lives that we would call “the good life.” he good life in Aristotle's sense is possible only for virtuous persone thee pei Sons who develop the traits of character that we call the virtues, Aristotle not only made the ease forthe necessity of virtue for good living but also deseribed. Particular virtues in illuminating detailKantian Ethics, Rights, and Vinue What Is a Virtue? Defining virtue has proven to be lfc, fteement" Aristotle described wrtne wy Manual action. Honeay, for example canoe Celling the truth once: itis sheets "ail ofa person who tells the ene Beneral prac ese nn People over period of timecan ne seas ee whether d Mere feelings, ike hunger are not wstoen 0 cording to Aristotle, Ii Anne cen ats. & person mum becouse through proper uphring. ing. Av e tat ee aly prac Honenyisnotainghy ee od vena a ows habit teting the wauh eer Ueling de acto Fatt re a a wate of charmer en alfferent from a feeling inal hat we admirein a persone cA skill ike {ryis useful for bu Honesty, by contra ncompassing, because ust have certain kinds of feelingeot tha pou, reasoned judgments n coming oo their aid. Virte, Wy telated to what he ealls practeal misiny Which may be described roughiyas ihe at) needs in orde Vell. Being wise about how ts line are ultimately insepa, ntin a complete theory is essential for leading 4 our genuine accom arrogant me More significantly, Aristotle lists justice an not only has a sense of fair tre, ca ME CORCEptiON of justice as.a vitae led Pan i2t kinds of justice and a complen theer, ext chapter,Kantian Eties,Righs, and Vite Defending the Virtues Defencling any lisof the virtues requires consideration of the contribution that each character trait makes to a good life. In particular, the virtues are those traits that everyone needs for the good life no matter his or her specific situation. Thus, courage isa good thing for anyone to have, because perseverance in the face of dam ers will mprove our chances of getting whatever itis we want, Similarly, Aristotle's defense of moderation as virtue hinges on the insight thata person given to excess Will be incapable of effective action toward any end. Honesty, too, is a trait that serves everyone well because it creates rust, without which we could not work coop. eratively with others In defending a life of virtues, we cannot consider merely their contribution {0 Some end, however; we must alo inquire into the end itself. our conception of a successful life is amassing great power and wealth, for example, then would not ruth lessness be a virtue? A successful life of crime or lechery requires the character of x Fagin ora Don Juan, but we scarcely consider their tats to be virtues—or Fagin and Don Juan to be virtuous characters, The end of life—that at which weall aim, accord ing to Aristotle—isthappiness, and Aristotle would claim that no despot or criminal or Iecher can be happy, no matter how successful such a person may bein these pursuits. Defending any list of virtues requires, therefore, that some content be given to the idea of a good life. What is the good life, the end for which the virtues are needed? ‘The virtues, moreover, are not merely means to happiness but are them- fees constituents oft. Thatis, happiness does not consist solely of what we getin life but also includes who we are. A mother or a father, for example, cannot get the joy that comes from being a parent without actually having the traits that ne ‘good parent. Similarly, Aristotle would agree with Plato that find of person who could be a successful despot would thereby become incapable of being happy because that person's personality would be disordered in the process. To summarize, defending a list of the virtues requires both that we deter- imine the character traits that are essential to a good life and that we give some con. tent to the idea of a good life itself. Virtue ethics necessarily presupposes a view about human nature and the purpose of life. Itneeds some context, in other words, This point is worth stressing because the possibility of applying virtue ethics to bus ness depends ona context that includes some conception ofthe nature and purpose ics in Business Virtue ethics couldbe applied to business directly by holding that the virtues of a 00d businessperson are the same as those ofa good person (period), Insofar as busi. ness isa part of life, why should the virtues of successful living not apply to this realia a8 well? However, businesspeople face situations that are peculiar to business, and so they may need certain business-related character traits. Some virtues of everyday life,