European Journal of Behavior Analysis

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Emergence of Printing and Spelling Skills from

Constructed-Response Matching-to-Sample
Instruction (CRMTS)

Silvia de Souza, Celso Goyos, Edwiges F. M. Silvares & Richard R. Saunders

To cite this article: Silvia de Souza, Celso Goyos, Edwiges F. M. Silvares & Richard R. Saunders
(2007) Emergence of Printing and Spelling Skills from Constructed-Response Matching-to
Sample Instruction (CRMTS), European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 8:1, 49-64

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15021149.2007.11434273

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EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 2007, 8, 49-64 NUMBER 1 (SUMMER 2007)
49

Emergence of Printing and Spelling Skills

from Constructed-Response
Matching-to-Sample Instruction (CRMTS)

Silvia de Souza
Department of General Psychology and Behavior Analysis, State University of
Londrina Celso Goyos
Department of Psychology, Federal University of São Carlos, Brazil

Edwiges F. M. Silvares
Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Sao Paulo

Richard R. Saunders
Schiefelbusch Institute for Life Span Studies, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS

Computer-based matching-to-sample teaching procedures were used to establish copying and

spelling skills in preschool children. In Experiment 1, 5 participants were exposed to training with
trigrams that formed familiar words. First, copying was taught followed by spelling the word (on the
 computer). All participants learned to copy and spell the words. They also showed the emergence of
generalized spelling and printing skills on posttests. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1 with
additional participants, but with trigrams that did not form words. Some, but not all participants in
Experiment 2, showed generalized spelling and printing skills. In Experiment 3, 5 children and their
mothers participated in an evaluation of table-top methods similar to the computer-based methods
employed earlier. Following training, the mothers taught word spelling to their children. The teaching
focused on correct spelling of complex morphemes. All children generalized the correct spelling of
those morphemes to untrained word that contained them.
Key words: printing, spelling, reading, conditional discrimination, constructed-response match
ing-to-sample (CRMTS), mothers.
thank the staff of the day care center for Parsons State
Hospital and Training Center for their support with this
project.
the training of some relations can lead to the
emergence of others without specific training.
For behavior analysts, reading and writing For example, if a child learns to relate a
are behaviors that involve several integrated spoken word with a picture depicting the
skills forming one relational network object labeled by the word and also relate the
(Stromer, Mackay, & Stoddard, 1992). In this picture to the word in printed form, then the
network, child might learn to relate the spoken and
printed words without direct training of that
Preparation of this article was supported in part by relationship.
NICHD grants HD02528 and HD18955 to the Schiefelbusch
Institute for Life Span Studies, University of Kansas and
The notion of an integrated relational net
FAPESP grants #96/1200-6 to Silvia de Souza and 98/1730-0 work applied to the study of reading and
Correspondence and requests for reprints writing has been gaining popularity among
to Celso Goyos.
should be sent to Rich
ard R. Saunders, 10212 S. North Lake
stimulus
Ave., Olathe, KS 66061, or email: rrsaun@ku.edu. We wish to

50
Silvia de Souza, Celso Goyos, Edwiges F. M. Silvares, and Richard R. Saunders
equivalence researchers. Stimulus equivalence
refers to the substitutability of stimuli in
certain contexts. Of particular recent interest
and in vestigation has been the study of
equivalence among stimuli with no perceptual
features in common (see Green & Saunders,
1998, for a general overview). Stimulus
equivalence is typically studied using the
match-to-sample (MTS) paradigm. This
paradigm makes it possible to study emergent
behaviors under controlled laboratory
conditions, but it is also a paradigm that can
be adapted rather easily to applied settings,
such as classrooms. Thus, results in the
laboratory on skill acquisition and problem
remediation often have immediate
application.
The MTS paradigm is used in research on
49
stimulus equivalence because it provides a con
venient way to teach the conditional discrimi
nations necessary for stimulus equivalence to
be inferred from emergent performances. The
MTS procedures used in most stimulus equiva
lence experiments involve at least two
different conditional stimuli (samples) and
two differ ent discriminative stimuli
(comparisons) per conditional discrimination.
Usually, the same comparison stimuli are
presented on every trial while the sample
stimulus is varied unsystemati cally across
trials. Reinforcement contingencies are
arranged so that each comparison stimulus is
discriminative for reinforcement (S+) in the
presence of one, and only one, conditional or
sample stimulus, and is not discriminative for
reinforcement (S-) in the presence of the other
sample stimuli in the conditional discrimina
tion. Thus, the functions of the comparison
stimuli change from trial to trial, depending on
which sample stimulus is present. Acquisition
of at least two conditional discriminations
with some stimuli in common (e.g., AB and
BC) is necessary to test for stimulus
equivalence (e.g., CA).
Recently, the constructed-response match
ing-to-sample procedure (CRMTS) has been
integrated with MTS procedures to engender
reading and spelling performances in the
stimulus equivalence paradigm (de Rose, de
Souza, & Hanna, 1996; Mackay, 1985; Mackay
& Sidman, 1984; Stromer & Mackay, 1992a,
1992b). As an illustration of this procedure, a
word is presented as the sample stimulus and
the participant has to match it. Matching is
accom plished by choosing from among a set
of letters presented below the sample and
constructing an identical word just below the
sample. That is, the participant must respond
to each constituent letter in the order that will
form a word identi
cal to the sample word. Thus, the participant
“constructs” the correct comparison stimulus
rather than choosing among several
comparisons already constructed by the
experimenter. When a printed word is the
sample and its letters are in the comparison
array, as in this example, the task is essentially
one of copying. If the sample is a spoken
word, correct constructions with the letters
demonstrate the performance normally
referred to as spelling.
Emergent Printing and Spelling from
CRMTS
delayed constructed-response identity match
ing on spelling with six of the first graders
who participated in the de Rose et al’s study.
The participants were taught to construct
printed words (copying) using the delayed
constructed response matching to sample
procedure. Then tests were conducted to
evaluate if the partici pants were able to
construct the dictated words. The results
showed that, after training, the chil dren were
able to construct the dictated words
Most research with CRMTS has addressed
improvement in reading skills as its primary
dependent variable. Early on, however,
Stromer and Mackay (1992b) reported that a
student with mental retardation, when taught
with CRMTS procedures on a computer,
showed im
provement on tests of written and oral
spelling. de Rose et al. (1996) also reported
some ancillary improvements in spelling with
CRMTS training to improve reading. Using
tabletop methods, 7 nonreading first-grade
students were taught to (a) match printed
words to dictated words, (b) construct printed
words (copying), and (c) to read the printed
words. All participants learned to read the
training words and for 5, one product of the
training was a change in written spelling on
pencil and paper tests.
For some of de Rose et al.’s (1996) par
ticipants, an increase in the spelling of letter
sequences corresponding to sounds in the
words was observed; for others, increases in
the number of whole words spelled correctly
was the out come. These changes in spelling
performance oc curred both with words
trained in the study and with a set of
generalization words not trained in the study.
Unfortunately, spelling pretests were
conducted with a third, nonoverlapping set of
words. Thus, one cannot conclusively attribute
the post-experimental spelling performances
to the training procedures.
Hanna et al. (2004) studied the effects of
51
and their cursive writing improved. Despite
the interesting results found by de Rose et al.
and Hanna et al., the participants also
continued to attend school throughout the
studies and the experimenters could not
control their in-schooled instruction. de Rose
et al. made a strong case that their results were
not a func tion of the concurrent classroom
instruction, but replications without this type
of potential confound are needed.
In the present study, we sought first to
focus directly on the potential for
 computer-based CRMTS copying and spelling community. (The community was undergoing
instruction to impact spelling and printing a population shift due to the recent closing of
with paper and pencil (Experiments 1 and 2). a large employer.)
Preschool children were chosen as
participants to avoid the greater likelihood of Equipment and Experimental Setting
concurrent instruction with the experimental The research was conducted in a small
words that could be encountered by room operated by the daycare center. A Ma
school-aged children. To further rule out the cintosh computer fitted with a touch-screen
potential for concurrent processes, the ini tial monitor and speakers was used to present the
results with three-letter words that labeled stimuli and record data during some training
familiar objects were replicated with additional and testing phases of the experiment. Pre- and
participants with three-letter, word-like post-experimental tests of spelling and print
trigrams with no referent. Experiment 3 ing with pencil and paper were conducted at
extended the results of the first two a small table. The experimenter programmed
experiments by assessing whether mothers the computer-presented training and testing
could teach their children CRMTS copying sessions using research software specifically
and spelling using a table-top procedure and developed for stimulus control research
the effects of this training in the children (Dube & McIlvane, 1990).
performance on cursive writing.
Experimental Stimuli
EXPERIMENT 1 The stimuli used in this study were three
black-on-white line drawings of familiar
Method objects, 3 three-letter words in printed and
spoken form (car, pig and toy), and the
Participants individual constituent letters comprising the
Nine typically developing preschoolers rang words. The drawings de
ing from 3 years, 9 months to 5 years, 9 picted an ice cream cone, palm tree, and the
months old participated initially. All children sun. The printed words and letters were
attended a local daycare program in the presented in the upper case. In the
United States and experiment, the stimuli were presented by the
participated with permission from their computer in black against a grey-white
parents under a research protocol approved background on the touch-screen monitor.
by a human rights committee. Each child also The stimuli were approximately 3 cm X 3 cm.
served as his or her own advocate and could The spoken words were presented through
withdraw from the study by requesting the speakers by the computer’s speech
withdrawal, nonverbally refusing to attend, or synthesizer.
by exhibiting other behav
ior that could be interpreted as reflecting Pretest for Spelling and Printing
dislike for participation. Ultimately, only 5 A pretest was conducted to determine the
participants completed the experiment; 1 pre-experimental spelling and printing reper
participant asked to discontinue participation toire of the participants. A sheet of paper and
and 3 participants moved out of the
52
Silvia de Souza, Celso Goyos, Edwiges F. M. Silvares, and Richard R. Saunders
on here (pointing to the paper).” Then the
a pencil were given to the participant and the experimenter dictated the experimental words
experimenter provided the instruction: “I’ll one at a time. The participant was allowed to
say a word and I want you to print this word print or write following the dictation of each
word until he or she stopped and looked to
the experimenter for further instructions.
Each word was dictated once.
Matching and Copying on the Computer
Computer-generated training of identity
matching-to-sample with line drawings. Fol lowing
the tabletop pretest, training with the
computer began. Identity match-to-sample
was selected for the first phase to familiarize
the participants with its operation. In this
phase, a block of 18 trials was presented
initially. The tri als were equally distributed
across three sample stimuli: drawings of the
ice cream cone, palm tree, and sun. On each
trial, the sample stimulus was presented
centered in the upper portion of the
computer screen. When the first sample was
presented, the experimenter gave the instruc
tion, “Press,” with the experimenter pointing
to the sample. If the participant did not touch
the sample stimulus, the experimenter placed
the participant’s forefinger on it. When the
participant touched the sample stimulus, the
comparison stimuli were presented in three
positions (left, middle, and right), below the
sample stimulus. The participant was then in
structed or, if necessary, assisted so that a com
parison stimulus was touched. The procedures
were repeated across trials until the participant
was responding independently.
The position of the correct comparison
stimulus (S+) varied unsystematically across
trials. No particular trial type was presented
more than twice in succession. Responses to
the S+ were simultaneously followed by a
sound produced by the computer, the screen
flashing, stimuli disappearing from the
screen, and ver bal exclamations from the
experimenter (e.g., “good,” ”excellent,”
“great”). Concurrently, the experimenter
placed a plastic token into a cup beside the
computer. The token could be exchanged at
the end of the session for small bits
of candy, some soda pop, or a toy. These
events occurred within
computer-programmed 3-s intertrial interval.
Responses to S- stimuli were followed by the
removal of all stimuli from the screen for a
3-s intertrial interval. Touching outside the
response areas on the touchscreen had no
programmed consequences.
The learning criterion for this phase was
90% correct responses within a block of trials
and, additionally, the final six trials had to be
correct. If the participant did not reach the cri
terion in the first block of trials, an additional
block was presented. Several participants
failed to meet criterion in two blocks of trials
and were exposed to a modified block-trial
training procedure (cf. Saunders & Spradlin,
1989). A block of trials with only the ice
cream cone as the sample and comparison
stimuli was pre sented until responding met
criterion. Similarly, blocks of trials with each
of the other samples (and their corresponding
comparisons) were presented until criterion
was met with each. Next, blocks of 10 trials
each with only two of the three samples (and
two comparisons) were presented, followed
by the original mixed training blocks with
three samples. Participants requiring this
procedure are identified under Results.
Computer-generated training for copying printed
words with CRMTS. This procedure followed
the general outline described by Dube,
McDonald, McIlvane, and Mackay (1991). In
the first CRMTS training step of the present
experiment, the first two letters of the word
were presented as a sample stimulus.
Following a response to the sample, a pool of
letters was presented in a rectangular box near
the bottom of the computer screen. A
response to the letter in the pool that
matched the first letter in the sample resulted
in its removal from the pool and placement
below the corresponding letter in the sample.
Immediately, the third letter in the word
appeared in the sample area, as described
below, prompting another letter selection. A
trial ended when all letters in the word had
been matched in order, or when a response to
a a nonmatching letter occurred. Across trials,
the positions of the letters in the pool varied
unsystematically.
Emergent Printing and Spelling from
CRMTS
Initially, one block of 18 trials with the
printed word CAR was presented as outlined
above, but with only the letters C, A, and R
presented in the pool of letters. Within this
block of trials, a fading procedure gradually
altered the sample presented in each trial, with
respect to the third and last letter of the word
(cf. Dube, 1996; Dube et al., 1991). On the
first presentation of the third letter in the
word (sample), the third letter was presented
in light grey or less “intensely” than the first
two letters. Across trials with correct letter
selections, the sample stimulus on each trial
gradually changed; that is, the intensity of the
third letter increased from light grey to
black—the intensity of the first two letters.
Incorrect letter selections in a trial ended the
trial and backed up the fading sequence one
step. The criterion for moving to the next
training phase was six consecutive correct
trials with three-letter samples following the
final fading increment. Next, across blocks of
trials, the number of letters in the comparison
pool was increased to 4, 6, and 10 letters. The
criterion for advancement across the changes
in pool size was 100% correct matches for the
blocks with 4 and 6 letters and 90% for the
block with 10 letters. Whenever the pool of let
ters contained 4, 6, or 10 letters, the letters not
present in the sample stimulus (e.g., CAR)
were drawn unsystematically from the
remainder of the alphabet and varied from
trial to trial.
Because some participants were unsuccess
ful with this procedure, a remedial procedure
was developed. In this procedure, only the
first letter of the word (C) was presented at
full intensity and the second letter was
presented at low intensity (i.e., light grey in
appearance). Three letters were in the
comparison pool. Within a block of such
trials, a fading procedure gradually altered the
sample presented in each trial. That is, across
trials with correct letter selections, the initial
53
sample stimulus changed from a one-letter
sample to a two-letter sample in four
increments of intensity. Incorrect letter
selections in a trial ended the trial and backed
up the fading sequence one step. Criterion was
met as above, but in a block without the
fading procedure. These participants then
returned to the procedure with two letters in
the sample at
full intensity and one at low intensity. Next,
blocks with the printed word PIG with letter
pools of 4, 6, and 10 letters were presented,
followed by similar blocks with the printed
word TOY, also with 4, 6, and 10 let ters in
the pool. The sample-fading procedure was
not used in these phases. The criterion for
advancement across the changes in pool size
was 100% correct matches for the blocks
with 4 and 6 letters and 90% for the block
with 10 trials. At the end of this phase, 18 trial
blocks were presented with an equal number
of trials with CAR, PIG, and TOY, as
samples. The perfor mance criterion for this
experimental phase was 90% correct matches
in a trial block. When criterion was met in a
block, the participants were exposed to
continued training, but with reductions in the
percentage of trials followed by feedback
(e.g., screen flashes, exclamations, tokens).
Blocks were presented with feedback on
100%, 50%, and 28% of the trials succes
sively as criterion was achieved at each level.
During these sessions with reduced feedback,
and other similar sessions to follow, the
tokens were retained by the experimenter and
delivered to the participant at the end of the
session. In these sessions, the participant was
told: “Today I will keep the tokens until the
end, and when the game is over I’ll give them
to you.” Computer-generated tests for identity
matching of whole words. Tests were conducted
next to determine whether generalized
matching with the printed words would be
demonstrated. During test sessions, 18 trials
of identity MTS with the drawings of the ice
 cream cone, palm tree, and sun were with the word stimuli and with no more than
intermixed with nine tri als of identity MTS one error with the picture stimuli.
with the printed words. Twenty-two percent
of the trials with drawings were scheduled to Spelling on the Computer
produce feedback. Responses on trials with Tests for comprehension of computer-dictated
the printed words produced no feedback. words. A test was administered to insure that
Criterion for passing the tests was five correct participants could understand the computer
responses out of six consecutive test trials
54
Silvia de Souza, Celso Goyos, Edwiges F. M. Silvares, and Richard R. Saunders
was conducted in 18-trial blocks with feedback
generated dictation of words. Such compre scheduled on every trial.
hension was a prerequisite for further training. A fading procedure was used in this
In the test trials, the oral names for three line training. On the first trial of the first block
drawings were dictated by the computer. The with each word taught, only the letters that
oral names dictated were “ice cream,” “tree,” would compose the word were presented in
and “sun.” The line drawings of these stimuli the pool. A correct construction led to a trial
were presented by the computer as with an additional seven letters presented in
comparison stimuli. The words were dictated the comparison pool, but faintly so, relative to
with the sample stimulus area on the the intensity of the letters that comprised the
computer screen depicting a blank square. In word. Across correct constructions, the
response to the dictation of an oral name, a intensity of the additional letters increased
touch to the square, which the participants until they were presented at the same intensity
were prompted to emit, produced the as the letters in the word. Four intensity levels
comparisons. Test sessions con were employed. Each incorrect
sisted of a mixture of 18 identity MTS trials construction decreased the intensity of the ad
with the drawings as samples and comparisons ditional letters by one intensity level. When a
and 18 test trials with the dictated samples and participant completed the last six trials of a
picture comparisons. Feedback was scheduled block at the highest intensity level, training
on 22% of the identity MTS trials and none of continued in blocks without the fading
the test trials. Criterion for passing this test procedure in use. Criterion for advancing
was five correct responses out of six from one training stage to the next (e.g., from
consecutive test trials with no more than one training with “car” to training with “pig”)
error on identity MTS trials. required correct construc
Computer-generated training of spelling with tions in the final six trials in a block without
CRMTS. In this training condition, a trial the fading procedure. The criterion for
started with the presentation of the blank completing the final stage was 12 consecutive
square in the sample location and a word correct trials at the end of a block without the
(“car,” “pig,” or “toy”) dictated by the fading pro
computer. A touch to the blank square cedure. Whenever the pool of letters
produced a pool of letters from which the contained 10 letters, the letters not involved
dictated sample could be constructed. As in in the correct spelling of the sample stimulus
training copying with CRMTS, above, first (e.g., “car”) were drawn unsystematically from
one word was taught in isolation, then the the remainder of the alphabet and varied
second in isolation, followed by the third. from trial to trial.
Next, training continued with two of the three Participants who could not meet the
words. Lastly, training occurred with all three criteria in this training were trained with a
words dictated in the same session. Training modified procedure. The modified procedure
mimicked the procedure used in CRMTS with of 12 consecutive cor rect constructions was
printed samples. That is, the fading procedure met (the final 12 trials in a block), blocks
with the comparison pool was used in blocks were presented with reduced probabilities of
of trials with one additional letter faded into feedback until criterion was met in a block
the pool, then three letters faded in, and with feedback scheduled on 22% of the trials.
finally seven letters faded into the comparison Next, a test for the equivalence of the spoken
pool. This modification was employed when and printed words was conducted in blocks
training each of the words in isolation, but consisting of 27 trials. Nine were test trials
not in training thereafter (i.e., in sessions with with no scheduled feedback. Dictated words
two or more different samples). served as samples and an array of the three
printed words served as comparisons. The
Maintenance of Copying and Spelling and remaining 18 trials were CRMTS trials with
Tests for Equivalence of the Spoken and either dictated or printed samples. Feedback
Printed Word In this phase, training with a was scheduled on 22% of these trials.
mix of dictated and printed samples was
conducted in 18-trial blocks. When a criterion
Emergent Printing and Spelling from 55
CRMTS
All participants met the criterion for identity
Posttest for Spelling and Printing MTS with the printed word stimuli in one
As in the Pretest for Printing, the experi session of testing.
menter dictated the word. The participant was On the pretest for comprehension of the
asked to write or print the word on a piece of computer-generated auditory samples, all par
paper provided by the experimenter. ticipants met the criterion for continued
partici pation. Participant 1 required two test
Results sessions to meet this criterion (Table 1 shows
the results of the second session); all other
In the pretest for spelling and printing,
participants re quired only one session. All
some participants created some scribbles on
participants met the performance criterion
the paper provided, but no participant
for establishing spelling in a mean of 270
printed or wrote any form resembling a letter
training trials. Participants 1 and 4 required
of the alphabet. Table 1 presents these
the supplemental training pro cedure involving
results. Inter-rater agree
“fading-in” the 4th through the 10th letter in
ment on spelling and printing performances
the comparison pool. On the test for the
on this pretest was 100%.
equivalence of the computer-dictated words
As shown in Table 1, the participants re
and the printed words, 4 participants
quired between 17 and 137 training trials to
produced 100% correct performances in one
meet the criterion for completing the identity
test session and the 5th was 94% correct. On
MTS training with line drawings. Participants
the posttest for spelling and printing, all
1 and 3 required the supplemental
participants printed some letters. Participant 5
blocked-trial procedure. All participants
printed all three words correctly. Participants 3
learned to copy; that is, to construct words
and 4 printed two of the three words correctly
from the pool of letters that matched the
and Participant 3 would have printed the third
printed word samples. The mean number of
word correctly had she not reversed the letter
training trials to satisfy the criterion was of
P in PIG. Participant 4 printed a form that
269. Participant 2 required the supplemental
was not recognizable as a G in the word PIG.
training procedure involv
Participant 1 printed seven letters correctly,
ing a reduction in the number of letters in the
reversing the G in PIG. Participant 2 printed
sample that were presented at full intensity.
 the word PIG with the P reversed and a
reversed G-like form. Participant 2 was the
youngest of this experiment (4 years and 7
months), his printing of the word CAR
yielded an R as the only clearly recognizable
letter; the remaining two letters appeared to
be fair approximations, but printed in reverse
order. None of the par ticipants added extra
letters to the words and all letters scored as
correct were in their proper

Table 1, Trials to Criterion for Phases of Training,Percentages of Correct Responses in the Test for
Equivalence, and Percentages of Correct Responseson the Pretest and Posttest for Spelling and Printing for
Each Participant in Experiment 1
Tabletop On computer Tabletop
pretest Copying training Identity MTS (words) Oral comprehension Spelling training trials Spelling and printing
Participant Spelling (drawings) training
Identity MTS
trials test pretest Equivalence test posttest
and printing trials

1 0% 116* 172 100% 78% 417* 100% 89% 2 0% 17 428* 94% 100% 210 100% 44% 3 0% 137* 357 100% 94% 203 94% 89% 4 0% 17 176 100% 100% 318*

100% 89% 5 0% 17 210 100% 94% 178 100% 100%

Avg. 0% 57 269 99% 93% 265 99% 78% * denotes training including the supplemental procedure

56
Silvia de Souza, Celso Goyos, Edwiges F. M. Silvares, and Richard R. Saunders
others might have encouraged
position in the words; thus, all correctly “demonstrations” of what the participant was
printed letters were in correct spelling doing in the experi ment. In the absence of
sequences. Nearly every letter printed by the the research computer, the participant might
participants was in the upper case, as they have attempted to dem onstrate the
had been presented on the computer. The production of the words with
horizontal stroke on the T was occasionally pencil and paper. If so, then the performances
made below the top of the vertical stroke. on the posttests might have been shaped extra
Inter-rater agreement on the posttest was experimentally. Similarly, if the participant had
94%. In summary, all participants spoken these familiar words, the audience
demonstrated generalization from copying would have recognized them and might have
and spelling on the computer to spelling and prompted their production with pencil and
print ing with paper and pencil corroborating paper, whereupon their production could be
the results found by other studies (e.g. de shaped. Experiment 2 employed nonsense tri
Rose, de Souza, & Hanna, 1996; Hanna, de grams rather than trigrams that formed words
Souza, de Rose, & Fonseca, 2004). with the intent of eliminating recognition of
the stimuli as familiar words.
EXPERIMENT 2
Method
Experiment 2 was conducted as a replica tion
of Experiment 1, but with a modification to Participants and Procedures
attempt to control for, or limit the likeli hood Nine typically developing preschoolers at
that the performances on the posttests in tending the same daycare center as the
Experiment 1 were not entirely a function of previous participants were recruited. Their
the experimental procedures. Any research ages ranged from 3 years, 7 months to 5
participant may discuss the experimental pro years, 5 months. Ultimately, only 5
cedures with an interested listener outside the participants completed the experiment; 4
laboratory; young children are not exceptions. participants moved out of the community
With words for common objects as stimuli, during the study. The setting, equipment, and
the participants’ parents, older siblings, or procedures for Experiment 2 were the same
 as in Experiment 1. Only the visual and
auditory stimuli involved in the CRMTS
copying and spelling tasks were differ
ent. The children in Experiment 2 were taught
to copy and spell KAD, MUP, and ZOT.
Results
As shown in Table 2, none of the partici
pants in Experiment 2 printed any letters in

Table 2. Trials to Criterion for Phases of Training,Percentages of Correct Responses in the Test for
Equivalence, and Percentages of Correct Responseson the Pretest and Posttest for Spelling and Printing for
Each Participant in Experiment 2
Tabletop On computer Tabletop
Identity MTS trials comprehension trials printing
Participant Spelling
(drawings) training Identity MTS pretest Equivalence test posttest
and printing trials
Copying training (words) test Spelling training Spelling and
pretest Oral

6 0% 17 198 94% 86% 148 89% 67% 7 0% 36 441* 89% 89% 226 66% 56% 8 0% 72 419* 96% 100% 173 100% 0% 9 0% 35 301 94% 94% 185 100%
78% 10 0% 17 238 100%t 78% 193 100% 22%

Avg. 0% 35 319 95% 89% 185 91% 45% * denotes training including the supplemental procedure
t
required training with trial-by-trial feedback to establish identity matching with word stimuli
Emergent Printing and Spelling from
CRMTS
the pretest for spelling and printing. Identity
MTS met criterion within 17-72 training tri
als. All participants met criterion for copying
the printed words on the computer, requiring
between 198 and 441 training trials. Partici
pants 7 and 8 required the supplemental train
ing procedure. All participants demonstrated
performance on identity MTS with the
printed words in one to three test sessions.
With the exception of Participant 10, all
participants met criterion in the test for
comprehension of the computer-generated
auditory stimuli in one to two test sessions.
Participant 10 ultimately required training
with trial-by-trial feedback before meeting the
criterion in this phase in further test sessions
without feedback. All par ticipants’
percentages of correct trials in their final test
session are shown in Table 2. Between 148
and 226 training trials were required to
produce criterion performances in spelling.
On the subsequent test for the equivalence of
the spoken and printed word, 3 of the 5
participants demonstrated 100% correct
selections in one to three test sessions.
Participant 7 persisted in a pattern of 100%
correct selections to the spoken sample
“kad,” but chance selections with the samples
57
“mup” and “zot.” Thus, his overall
performance on the test, despite repeated test
sessions, was 66% correct.
On the posttest for spelling and printing,
the percentage of correctly printed letters
ranged from 0% to 78%. Participant 6
attempted three letters in response to each
spoken word. Six were correctly printed and
all were printed in the correct position in the
three-letter com
binations produced. Participant 7 printed 5
letters correctly out of 15 letters attempted.
All correctly printed letters were in their
correct positions with three-letter sequences.
Partici
pant 7 spelled MUP correctly and spelled
ZOT with a Z-like first letter that was not
scored as correct. He produced four other
one-, two-, and three- letter-like
combinations, but none contained forms that
could be interpreted as letters. Participant 8
made a few “scribbles” on top of one
another, including one T-like form.
Participant 9 produced seven letters in 3 three
letter sequences. KAD was spelled correctly as
was ZOT, with the exception that the Z was
reversed and S-like in shape. MUP was spelled
in the order P M U, with the P not scored as
a sufficiently close approximation. Participant
 10 produced a three-letter sequence for KAD, in both copying and spelling in Experiment 2,
but only the first two letters were scored as whereas Participant 10 required far fewer.
correctly printed. The spelling of MUP was Nevertheless, few letters were printed by them
not attempted and in response to ZOT, only a in the posttest.
reversed Z was produced. Inter-rater Comparison of the pretests and posttests
agreement on letter production was 98%. In for printing with pencil and paper show that
summary, 4 of the 5 participants showed the CRMTS procedures resulted in the
generalized spelling and printing, but overall, emergence of new spelling and printing
not as extensively as the participants in performances. Participant 8 was unable to
Experiment 1. produce at least one letter on the printing
posttests, but Participant 8 was younger by a
Discussion of Experiments 1 and 2 year than nearly every other participant.
Overall, the participants trained with familiar
All participants who participated in these words outperformed the partici pants trained
experiments learned to copy the training with trigrams that were not words. One
words in the presence of the printed samples hypothesis to explain this difference would
and to spell the words in response to dictated focus on the frequency that the words and
samples. The mean trials to criterion in non
Experiment 1 was roughly the same in both words might have occurred in the participants’
phases. In Experiment 2, fewer trials were environments between training sessions. That
required to establish spelling than to establish is, the familiar words used in this study likely
copying. Within and across experiments, had a higher possibility of occurring outside
however, the trials to criterion did not appear the experimental setting than the nonwords.
to have any systematic relationship to the Also there was a higher possibility for
subsequent posttest performances. For reinforcement,
example, Participant 7 required the most trials
58
Silvia de Souza, Celso Goyos, Edwiges F. M. Silvares, and Richard R. Saunders
are not limited to those children who have
as suggested above, if the words were read or access to computers away from school. The
printed by the participants as opposed to the results also suggest that periodic
nonwords. computer-based drills, which can present
The results of Experiments 1 and 2 clarify many teacher-free trials in a short period of
the role of the CRMTS procedure demon time, might be beneficial in remediating
strated in previous studies (e.g. de Rose, de particular reading related deficits. Also
Souza, & Hanna, 1996; Hanna, de Souza, de computer-based instruction, such as that
Rose, & Fonseca, 2004) and call attention for employed in these experiments, introduces
the familiarity of the words as a possible the capability to provide immediate feedback
aspect that can facilitate the performance in on each response in a stepwise manner, thus
CRMTS procedure. avoiding the practice sessions that may merely
Despite the between-group difference, entrench errors that are repeated many times
both experiments demonstrate that training before detection.
with computers can improve related
performance without computers as cursive EXPERIMENT 3
writing, for ex
ample.. This is an important demonstration be Experiment 3 was designed to assess
cause it suggests that the advantages of instruc whether the generalized performances
tion with computers in school, for example, observed in Experiments 1 and 2 could be
generated with table-top procedures in capital letters printed on them. Other white
environments where computer-based cards measuring 8.5 X 4.5cm had words
instruction was not possible. Experiment 3 printed on them in black capital letters. The
was conducted primarily in the homes of five cards were the stimulus materials provided to
low-income Brazilian children, with their the mothers for in-home use. Thus, the
mothers serving as their trainers. second experimental setting for each child
was his home.
Method
Participant Recruitment
Participants The teachers of the second grade in the
Five children from a brazilian public school met with the experimenter to learn
school and their mothers participated. As about the goals of the research and about the
shown in Table 1, the ages of the children types of students that would be appropriate
ranged from as partici
7 to 10 years and all were reported to have dif pants—those having difficulties in spelling
ficulties with reading and spelling. All mothers and reading. The teachers referred mothers of
had low income and completed only the first such children to the experimenter who
grades of elementary school. invited them to an orientation meeting. After
learning the details of the experiment from
Equipment and Experimental Setting the experimenter, those who consented to
A laptop computer with speakers were participate scheduled their children for
placed on a children’s table in a room in the pretesting. The mothers who participated
school that served as the location for sessions were informed that they would receive a food
for pretesting the children, training the moth basket (equivalent to receiving a gift
ers, and periodic posttesting of the children by certificate from a local supermarket) each
the experimenter. At this location, educational month that they participated in the experi
software (Goyos & Almeida, 1996) was used ment.
to present stimuli in matching-to-sample
format on the computer and to record the Pretest for Spelling and Printing
data on files electronically. All activities taking The teachers of the participating children
place at the school were recorded on video. were asked to provide a list of complex textual
The sessions at the school lasted between 45 word fragments (i.e., morphemes) with which
min and 1 hr. Other materials included white
cards measuring 3 cm X 2 cm with black
Emergent Printing and Spelling from 59
CRMTS
fragments. The list of words tested included
each child was having difficulty in spelling and those with sounds recognized as complex in
reading. Next, the children´s school the Portuguese language, such as CH, NH,
notebooks were examined to confirm that LH, RR, and X. In a test session, the
their perfor mances in spelling in their experimenter dictated approximately 70
notebooks supported the teachers words once each and paused while the child
conclusions. (In Brazilian public schools, spelled the word in cursive form on a paper
students often complete all assignments provided for that purpose. Cursive was the
involving writing in small notebooks.) Third, current medium of writing in the child´s
each child was given a spelling test composed classroom. Two or three sessions were
of words selected by the experimenter that required to test all of the words selected by
contained the identified complex textual word the experimenter. Based on this pretest, a
 subset of words was selected as experi mental
stimuli for each child. For each child, the
selected words were to be drawn initially
from the three complex textual word
fragments most often misspelled by that child
(e.g., RR, NH, and CH). Because no child
spelled any word correctly, the experimenter
chose the three complex textual word
fragments that seemed to be the most
difficult for each child (i.e., poorest
approximations). The children´s teachers were
not informed regarding which complex
textual word fragments, or the words that
contained them, had been chosen for the
experiment.
sample and the child was asked to read the
word. Tests in Experiment 3 were conducted
with no scheduled consequences on test trials.
Hereafter, the tests will be referred to as Tests
for Equivalence of the Spoken and Printed
Word. The rationale for teaching the first
three words with CRMTS on the com puter
was because such instruction established the
children´s skills with the computer. Thus, the
tests for equivalence of the spoken and
printed word following in-home training of
additional words could be standardized via
com puter administration. The mothers
observed the CRMTS training with the
computer.

Initial CRMTS Training on the Computer Teaching the Mothers to Teach

Computer-generated Training for Copying with CRMTS
Printed Words and Spelling with CRMTS and
Tests for Equivalence of the Spoken and During each session of CRMTS training
Printed Word. In sessions subsequent to the with the computer, the experimenter asked
pretests, the experimenter administered the mother to pay particular attention to one
CRMTS training to each child with the specific aspect of the session, such as the num
computer. This initial training involved one ber of different words presented. At the end
word from each complex textual word of each session, that aspect was discussed
fragment group chosen for that child. The with the mother. Other aspects of the training
experimenter conducted the training in a discussed with the mother were what
manner similar to the training described in constituted correct responses during each
Experiments 1 and 2, such that the child training phase, how the experimenter
learned to first construct words from letters reinforced the child for correct responses,
in the pres ence of printed samples and then and numbers of trials in each ses sion.
to construct Next, the mother was introduced to the
the words when the samples were dictated. cards depicting letters and words. Each
Consequences for correct responses, other mother was instructed in how to place them
than those provided by the computer, were on the table, in the oral instructions to use
verbal only, such as “Correct!”, “Great!”, and with her child, how and when to add more
“Very good!” The computer was then used to letters in the letter pool and correction
present tests in which the samples were procedures. The experimenter also provided
spoken words and the comparisons were the instruction regarding the session structure,
printed words. The experimenter then including the number and sequence of trials
conducted a second test with the computer in (reflected on the data sheet). Next the mother
which a printed word was displayed as a conducted
60
Silvia de Souza, Celso Goyos, Edwiges F. M. Silvares, and Richard R. Saunders
needed from the experimenter. The mother´s
a session with the experimenter as participant session with her child utilized stimuli for three
and then conducted a session with her child, new training words from the experimental list;
with feedback, encouragement, and praise as that is, words other than those trained by the
computer.
During the first phase of table-top
CRMTS, the mother was instructed to put
the card with sample word on the table. After
the child touched the card, the mother was
instructed to distribute the cards with the
letters on the table in unsystematic positions.
First, only the letters that formed the word
were presented, with additional letters added
gradually. For each word taught, the
maximum number of letters as comparison
stimuli was 16. In the second phase of
training, the mothers dictated the sample
stimuli. The words were to be dictated once
per trial, but the mother could repeat a
sample if she thought it necessary. When
more than one word was taught in a session,
the mother sequenced the trials according to
the pre-set unsystematic order shown on the
data sheet for that session. In table-top
training, the mother praised correct
responses and provided no feedback
following errors (except for correction
procedures, if ap propriate). In a series of
sessions, each mother conducted her training
at the school in the presence of the
experimenter until the second set of three
words had been spelled to a criterion of 90%
correct with CRMTS methods.
Each mother was then instructed to con
tinue training at home with a third set of
words. Their materials included the stimulus
cards for the new words and data sheets
prepared by the experimenter. They were
instructed to stop training and return to the
school with her child to meet with the
experimenter when the child had learned to
spell all three words with printed words as
samples, but only in sessions with one word
taught per session. Next they trained at home
until the child could meet a criterion of 90%
correct when the words were mixed in the
same sessions, at which point they returned
to the school to meet with the ex perimenter.
Next they trained at home until the child had
learned to spell the words at the 90%
criterion with dictated samples, at which point
the mother and child again returned to school
for follow-up with the experimenter. Once a
mother was completely comfortable with the
task (as indicated by few questions and good
procedural fidelity), the mothers only returned
to the school when all training had been com
pleted with a new set of words and the
mothers could maintain their child´s
performances with a reduced probability of
verbal reinforcement (4/18 trials with
feedback).
Posttests of Spelling and Printing
Whenever a child met the 90% criterion
with both CRMTS performances and could
maintain 90% correct with reduced feedback
with dictated samples, the subsequent return
to the school included not only mother-experi
menter discussions, but also a set of posttests
with the child. First the child was given the
equivalence tests of the spoken and printed
word on the computer involving the three
words most recently trained. Also, the
experimenter dictated the entire list of
potential training words and once again the
child attempted to write the words cursively
with correct spelling. (These tests were also
administered following the CRMTS training
with the computer with the first set of words
and following the training conducted by the
mothers at the school with the second set of
words before in-home train ing began.)
As the spelling posttests were
administered, the word list parsed into words
trained and words untrained. The untrained
words served as opportunities for the child to
show generaliza
tion from the training to words not yet
trained. In these tests, if the child misspelled
a previously trained word, he or she was
prompted to try again. If previously trained
words could not be spelled correctly, the
experimenter created review sessions to be
conducted by the moth
ers with these misspelled words using CRMTS
with dictated samples. If the trained words
were spelled correctly, however, the mother
was given a new set of words to train, one fragments. Dur
word from each type of complex textual word ing spelling posttests, the experimenter did not
Emergent Printing and Spelling from 61
CRMTS
complex textual word fragments for Par
prompt corrections of errors in spelling with ticipant 13 were LH, CH, and NH. Beginning
untrained or generalization words. Training with the 6th posttest, Participant 13 made no
continued with each child until the posttests further errors with these portions of his 69
showed that 90% of the training and words (i.e., he no longer omitted one or both
generaliza of the letters, reversed the letters, or
tion words were spelled correctly. substituted a C for the L, for example). All
subsequent errors were in other parts of the
Results and Discussion words—portions not targeted for generalized
correctness. The ratio of numbers above the
The children’s performances were very
last bar indicates the propor
consistent on computer-based in the test for
tion of generalization words spelled correctly
equivalence of the spoken and printed word
during the final posttest session. For example,
on the three words most recently trained by
for his last posttest, Participant 11 still had 34
the mothers. Each test consisted of 18 trials
of his original 57 words that had not yet been
with 3 trials of the relation between spoken
directly trained. In his last posttest session, he
word
spelled 33/34 words correctly.
printed word and 3 trials of the relation
As Figure 1 shows, all of the participants
between printed word-spoken words by the
spelled some of their assigned words without
child per work. Participant 11 made no errors
direct training of those words. Participant
on either test across his 8 Posttest sessions,
11´s complex textual word fragments were
Participant 12 made no errors across his 16
LH, RR, and Ç. His first training words were
test sessions, and Participant 14 made no
ORELHA, PESCOÇO, and ARREPIO. Ex
errors across his 22 test sessions. Participant
amples of words spelled via generalization are
13 made a total of three errors during his 22
BRINCALHÃO, FORÇAR, and VERRUGA.
sessions test for equivalence of the printed
Participant 12´s complex textual word frag
word and one error in the test for equivalence
ments were RR, CH, and QU. His first train
of the spoken word . Participant 15 made one
ing words were HORROR, CHUPETA, and
error across his 25 test sessions for
QUERIDO. Examples of words that spelled
equivalence of the printed word.
via generalization are CARRO,
Figure 1 shows the results of Experiment 3
CHOCOLATE, and QUINZE. As stated
for all children. As indicated earlier, no child
above, the complex textual word fragments
spelled any words correctly on the pretest.
for Participant 13 were LH; CH; and NH. His
The number in the space for pretest data is
first training words were DINHEIRO,
the number of words chosen for training for
CHUPETA, and FILHO. Without training,
that participant, ranging from 57-78 words.
he spelled CHICLETE and MOLHADO, for
The bars show the percentage of trained and
example. (All words in the original list of 69
generaliza tion words combined that were
words containing NH were exhausted during
spelled correctly on each posttest for spelling
training.) For Participant 14, the complex
in cursive form. The onset of black bars
textual word fragments were consecutive
indicates the point at which the child made
consonants such as GR, Ã or Õ, and X. The
no further spelling errors on the complex
first words trained by his mother were
textual word fragments in either the trained
PLANTA, PRESSÃO, and TROUXA. He
or generalization words. For example, the
spelled FLORESTA, CORAÇÃO, AND
 XAXIM, for example, without direct training.
Participant 15 was taught the same
complexities as Participant 13. His initial
training was with CONHECER, BARALHO,
and CHINELO. He spelled words such as
ESPINHO, ALHO, and CACHO without
training.
Participants 11, 12, 13, and 14 all reached
the target criterion of 90% of all words spelled
correctly during the study. Participant 15 had
62
Silvia de Souza, Celso Goyos, Edwiges F. M. Silvares, and Richard R. Saunders
no further errors in the complex textual word
fragments from the 14th posttest on and he
spelled 12 of his remaining generalization
words correctly in his final posttest. Error
analyses confirmed that Participant 15 was no
longer having difficulty with the complex
textual word fragments originally identified,
but rather was consistently having difficulty
with another

100 80

60

40

20

0
P 11

57
33/34

100 80

60

40

20

0
P 12

78
21/21
 t
Pretes 2468

100
P 13
Pretest1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

24/24

80 60 40 20 0

69
 Pretest1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

20/23
100

80 60 40 20 0

P 14

78
 Pretest1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22

100
12/13
P 15
80 60 40 20 0

64

*
 Pretest1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Fugure 1 Shows the percentage of trained and generalizationwords spelled correctly (in their entirety) on
posttests following the training of each set of words.Following the pretest, the first bar reflects performance
following the words taught with the computer. The next bar shows the test results following the first set trained
by the mothers in the laboratory with experimenter supervision. The third and subsequent bars reflect the
performance following training by the mothers at home. The onset of black bars indicates the point at which,on
posttests, there were no further errors on the language complexities targeted for training. The number above the
Pretest label is the number of words selected fortraining for that participant. The ratio above or next to the final
bar indicates the proportion of words spelled correctlyin their entirety by the end of the experiment.
Emergent Printing and Spelling from 63
CRMTS
that mothers could be effective teachers of
sound contained in several of his previously spelling using table-top CRMTS methods.
trained words. Thus, his training was Moreover, the training of some words led to
suspended after the 25th posttest, during the correct spelling of numerous other words
which he spelled 80% of his words correctly. without direct training. The generalization of
Overall, the results of Experiment 3 show spelling occurred both within and outside of
 the complex textual word fragments that estab
lished the word list for each child. Also, as the
training was conducted with capital letters and
the spelling posttests were completed by the
children in cursive writing, the results show
that the procedure was successful across
printing and writing modes. For behavior
analysts, reading and writing are behaviors
that involve several integrated skills forming
one relational network. These skills may be
initially independent but, as they are taught,
they tend to integrate one relational network
with new ones being added to the network
without direct training.
Although the children were not given pre
tests for equivalence of the spoken and
printed word, the computer-based posttests
clearly indi cate that the children could
recognize and read the words they had
learned to spell. Thus, im portant skills were
confirmed by the computer tests, but it is
unknown whether the CRMTS instruction
established or enhanced them. The children´s
performances on the spelling pretests (0%
correct) cast considerable doubt, however, on
whether they could read, especially lengthy
and complex words such as BRINCALHÃO
and FLORESTA.
General Discussion
The three experiments here described have
successfully demonstrated that the teaching of
copying and spelling through computer-based
matching-to-sample procedures can engender
emergence of generalized spelling and printing
skills in preschool children and generalized
spelling of complex morphemes in school-age
children. Experiment 3 in particular, showed
that the procedure can be conveniently and
successfully taught to mothers to the benefit
of their children’s academic repertoire. This
sug gests that the procedure could also be
taught to teachers and siblings in order to
extend the child’s repertoire with multiple
teachers. Teach ers taught this procedure
might generalize to other aspects of their
64
teaching practices. Thus, it appears to be a
good example of translational research or a
good basic to applied research interface
(Epling & Pierce, 1983).
The experiments altogether showed that
the procedure may lead to an important
practical impact in the development of basic
academic skills by children but also raised a
few questions which deserve further
investigation. First, given the breadth of the
results coming from test
ing with CRMTS procedures, more extensive
research over large segments of curriculum is
warranted. One particular instance is to what
extent can mothers generalize the trained skills
to the teaching of other words? Because the
pro
cedure can reinforce some traditional
practices while, on the other hand, introduce
new ones, it would be important to subject it
to social validation. Data collection on
mothers’ and teachers’ perceptions of the
technique could be a beginning. Also, it is still
unclear whether this procedure could be
useful to sequencing performances in
addition to spelling.
Experiment 3 focused on the
generalization of the spelling of the complex
textual word fragmentsor morphemes. In so
doing, we did not pretest for word
recognition or reading with the lists of words
chosen as experimental stimuli. As mentioned
above, the data cast doubt on notion that the
children could read or recognize most of the
experimental words. No doubt, however, the
study would have been strengthened had we
conducted the pretests. Nevertheless, the data
are clear on the fact that the children could
recognize and read the words in each training
set upon reaching criterion for spelling
accuracy.
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