Steel is one of the world’s most important engineering and construction materials.

The metal is
manufactured primarily from iron with the addition of carbon and a number of other elements.

It’s durable while a low amount of energy is used to produce lightweight steel and it can also be
designed into various forms. Household products such as fridges, TVs, ovens and sinks can be
made from steel and cutlery is made from stainless steel. It’s also a metal used for producing
industrial goods such as farm vehicles and machines.

Why Quality Control for Steel is Important

Quality steel is a must in order to avoid steel structure fatigue or failure. Problems that can
arise during manufacturing could result in weakness, particularly when the surface is folded or
moulded.

Inspection is an integral part of quality control; its purpose is to check that the requirements of
the specification are being complied with. Checking the processes, procedures and materials
required for the manufacturing of steel structure is vital as durability can be significantly
reduced if not fully complied with.

A third-party inspection company is an essential step when inspecting the quality of steel. If
issues are not rectified immediately it can reduce the expected timescale to when the first
maintenance of the material will be needed. To specify the various physical and mechanical
properties of the finished product, various tests, both destructive and non-destructive, need to
be performed.

How Can You Tell the Quality of Steel?

A range of tests exist to test the strength and durability of steel. The following are some of the
ways quality control is carried out on the material.

Metallurgical

Metallurgical testing is used to determine the quality of steel by analysing the microstructure of
a sample under a microscope. A section of the sample is firstly polished and then examined and
different characteristics are produced through mixing the steel with other substances.

Hardness

Hardness is not a vital property of a material, but it is related to the elasticity and plasticity. The
hardness value test helps to compare between the materials or treatments. These tests are
usually performed by impressing a test specimen, which is resting on a rigid platform under a
static load.

Hardenability

Hardenability determines the depth and distribution of hardness induced by quenching. Also
known as the Jominy Test. A long sample is heated uniformly to the correct temperature before
the sample is removed from the furnace and placed on a fixture where water contacts the
bottom face of the sample. After 10 minutes, the sample is removed and the results should
show a curve of hardness versus the distance from the quenched end.

Tension

A tension test runs at a constant load and temperature. The strength of the material is tested to
ensure its ability to withstand external forces without breaking. By pulling on something, you
can quickly determine how the material will react to forces being applied in tension.

Ductility

The ductility of a material is indicated by the amount of deformation that’s possible until it
breaks. This can be determined by measuring the area of a sample that has been tested to
failure.

Compression

Compression tests are performed on small cylinders, blocks or strips to determine the ability of
the material and whether it can undergo large plastic deformations and its limits. Samples are
placed between pressure plates and compressed.

Fatigue

This test is used to determine the behavior of the materials when subjected to reparations of
fluctuating loads. Used to simulate stress conditions that’ll be developed in materials under
normal service conditions. The fatigue limit is shown by counting the number of stress cycles
applied in one direction and then another, until the steel breaks.

Impact

Impact tests are used to indicate the behavior of the materials when subjected to high rates of
loading, usually bending, tension or torsion. A swinging pendulum of a fixed weight raised to a
standard height is used to strike the sample and the weight of the pendulum times the
difference in heights helps to indicate the amount of energy absorbed by the specimen.

Wear

Wear resistance is a complex test and usually applied to specific equipment designed to
simulate actual service conditions. Various types of environmental testing are carried out to
witness how the material reacts to actual conditions.

Corrosion

Corrosion tests involve the destruction of a material by chemical, electrochemical or

metallurgical interaction between the environment and material. Various types of
environmental exposure tastings are done to simulate actual use conditions.

Creep
Creep tests are used to determine the continuing change in the deformation of a material at
elevated temperatures when stressed below the yield strength. A creep test is a tension test run
at a constant load and temperature.

Machinability

Machinability is the ease with which metal may be machined and many factors are considered in
arriving at machinability ratings which are expressed as a percentage in compassion with AISI
1112 steel, which is rated at 100%.

Radiography

Radiography of metals involves the use of x-rays and the short-wavelength electromagnetic rays
that are capable of passing through large thicknesses of metal and are typically used to test
casting and welded joints for shrinkage voids.

Magnetic Particle

Magnetic particle inspection is a method of detecting cracks, tears, seams, and inclusions in
steel and iron. This method will detect any discontinuities just below the surface that are hard to
spot with the naked eye.

Ultrasonic

Ultrasonic testing utilizes sound waves above the audible range and this non-destructive test
employs electronically produced high-frequency sound waves to penetrate metals and other
materials. It is used to detect and locate such defects as shrinkage voids, internal cracks,
porosity and large non-metallic inclusions.

Eddy

Eddy inspection is used to inspect electrically conducting materials for defects and variations in
composition. Eddy testing involves placing a varying magnetic field near an electrically
conducting sample. Properties such as hardness, alloy composition, chemical purity and heat
treat conditions can influence the magnetic field and may be measured through the use of eddy
current tests.

What Kind of Steel Products Require Quality Control?

Steel comes in many different forms and the third-party inspection company, HQTS offers
quality control tests for many different products including; bars, chains, containers, ingots,
metallic plates, sheets, strips and coils, nets, fences, section bars, tubes and wires.

Combine this with HQTS’ quality standards and services and you have a powerful, profitable and
productive commercial proposition. HQTS will help ensure your packaging is up to the task and
that your goods are effectively secure and protected throughout the transport process.
Steel

Quality Control

To specify the various physical and mechanical properties of the finished product, various tests,
both destructive and nondestructive, are performed. Metallurgical, hardness, hardenability,
tension, ductility, compression, fatigue, impact, wear, corrosion, creep, machinability,
radiography, magnetic particle, ultrasonic, and eddy current are some of the major tests that are
performed by quality control personnel

Metallurgical testing is used to determine the quality of steel by analyzing the microstructure of
a sample under a microscope. A cross section of a sample is first highly polished and then
examined at a magnification from 100-500 diameters. The microstructure of steel consists of
grains of different compositions and sizes. Generally, a sample of steel with fine grains is
tougher than one with large grains. Different characteristics are produced through alloying the
steel with other substances. It is possible to determine grain size and the size, shape, and
distribution of various phases and inclusions (nonmetallic material) which have a great effect on
the mechanical properties of the metal. Some grains are made of ferrite, or pure metallic iron;
graphite, a crystal form of carbon; pearlite, an alloy of iron of carbon; cementite, also called iron
carbide, a hard compound of iron and carbon and other carbide-forming elements; austenite, a
solid solution of carbon in gamma iron, a nonmagnetic form of iron; and martensite, an
extremely hard constituent of steel produced by heat-treating. The sample can also be etched to
make visible many structural characteristics of the metal or alloy by a preferential attack on the
different constituents. The microstructure will reveal the mechanical and thermal treatment of
the metal, and it may be possible to predict its expected behavior under a given set of
conditions

Hardness is not a fundamental property of a material, but is related to its elastic and plastic
properties. The hardness value obtained in a particular test serves only as a comparison
between materials or treatments. The test procedure and sample preparation are fairly simple
and the results may be used in estimating other mechanical properties. Rockwell and Brinell are
two popular hardness tests that are widely used for inspection and control. These tests are
usually performed by impressing into the test specimen, which is resting on a rigid platform, an
indenter of fixed and known geometry, under a known static load.

Hardenability is a property that determines the depth and distribution of hardness induced by
quenching. The standardized test used is called the end-quench hardenability test, also known
as the Jominy test. A 1-in (2.54 cm) round 4-in (10 cm) long sample is heated uniformly to the
austenitizing temperature (this temperature depends on the material composition, ranging from
1,500–1,900°F [816–1,038°C]). The sample is removed from the furnace and placed on a fixture
where a jet of water contacts the bottom face of the sample. After ten minutes on the fixture,
the sample is removed and two flat parallel surfaces are ground on the sample. Rockwell
hardness readings are taken along the ground surfaces at certain intervals from the quenched
end. The results are expressed as a curve of hardness values versus distance from the quenched
end. Plain carbon steels tend to be hard on the surface, near the quenched end, but remain
relatively soft at the core, or further away from the quenched end. Alloyed steels, in general,
have an increased depth of hardenability which is one of the main advantages of using alloyed
steels.

Next to the hardness test, the tensile test is the most frequently performed test to determine
certain mechanical properties. A specifically prepared tensile sample is placed in the heads of a
testing machine and an axial load is placed on the sample through a hydraulic loading system.
The tensile test is used to determine several important material properties such as yield
strength, where the material starts to exhibit plastic or permanent deformation, and the
ultimate tensile or breaking strength.

Ductility of a material is indicated by the amount of deformation that is possible until fracture
and can be determined by measuring elongation and reduction in area of a tensile sample that
has been tested to failure.

Compression tests are performed on small cylinders, blocks, or strips to determine the ability of
a material to undergo large plastic deformations (a mechanical property also known as
malleability) and its limits. Stress-strain relations determined from this testing are used to
predict the pressures and forces arising in industrial forming operations such as rolling, forging,
or extrusion. Samples are placed between anvils or pressure plates and are compressed (friction
is also a factor to consider as the material slides sidewise over the anvils).

The fatigue test is used to determine the behavior of materials when subjected to repeated or
fluctuating loads. It is used to simulate stress conditions developed in materials under service
conditions. The fatigue potential, or endurance limit, is determined by counting the number of
cycles of stress, applied first in one direction and then another, to which the metal can be
subjected before it breaks. Fatigue tests can be used to study the material behavior under
various types and ranges of fluctuating loads and also the effect of corrosion, surface conditions,
temperature, size, and stress concentrations.

Impact tests are used to determine the behavior of materials when subjected to high rates of
loading, usually in bending, tension, or torsion. The quantity measured is the energy absorbed in
breaking the specimen in one blow, two such tests are called the Charpy and the Izod, which use
notched bar specimens. A swinging pendulum of fixed weight raised to a standard height is used
to strike the specimen. Some of the energy of the pendulum is used to rupture the specimen so
that the pendulum rises to a lower height than the standard height. The weight of the pendulum
times the difference in heights indicates the energy absorbed by the specimen, usually
measured in foot-pounds.

Wear resistance is represented by few standardized tests because of its complex nature. One
test is the "pin on disk" method, where a pin is moved against a disk of the test material.
Usually, wear testing is application specific and the equipment is designed to simulate actual
service conditions.

Corrosion involves the destruction of a material by chemical, electrochemical, or metallurgical

interaction between the environment and the material. Various types of environmental
exposure testing is done to simulate actual use conditions, such as salt bath immersion testing.
Zinc coating, or galvanizing, is commonly applied to sheet and structural steel used for outdoor
applications to protect against corrosion.

Creep tests are used to determine the continuing change in the deformation of a material at
elevated temperatures when stressed below the yield strength. This is important in the design
of parts exposed to elevated temperatures. Creep may be defined as a continuing slow plastic
flow under constant load conditions. A creep test is a tension test run at a constant load and
temperature. The percent elongation of the sample is measured over time

Machinability is the ease with which a metal may be machined. Many factors are considered in
arriving at machinability ratings. Some of the more important factors are the rate of metal
removal, quality of the finished surface, and tool life. Machinability ratings are expressed as a
percentage, in comparison with AISI 1112 steel, which is rated at 100%. Metals which are more
difficult to machine have a rating of less than 100% while metals which machine easily have a
rating more than 100%.

Radiography of metals involves the use of x rays or gamma rays. The short-wavelength
electromagnetic rays are capable of going through large thickness of metal and are typically
used to nondestructively test castings and welded joints for shrinkage voids and porosity.

Magnetic particle inspection (also called "Magnaflux") is a method of detecting cracks, tears,
seams, inclusions, and similar discontinuities in iron and steel. This method will detect surface
defects too fine to be seen by the naked eye and will also detect discontinuities just below the
surface. The sample is magnetized and then covered with a fine iron powder. The presence of an
imperfection is indicated by a pattern that assumes the approximate shape of the defect.

Ultrasonic testing utilizes sound waves above the audible range with a frequency of 1-5 million
Hz (cycles per second). Ultrasonics allow for fast, reliable, nondestructive testing which employs
electronically produced high-frequency sound waves to penetrate metals and other materials at
speeds of several thousand feet per second. If there is a flaw in the path of the ultrasonic wave,
part of the energy will be reflected and the signal received by a receiving transducer will be
reduced. Ultrasonic inspection is used to detect and locate such defects as shrinkage voids,
internal cracks, porosity, and large nonmetallic inclusions.

Eddy current inspection is used to inspect electrically conducting materials for defects and
variations in composition. Eddy current testing involves placing a varying magnetic field (which is
produced by connecting alternating current to a coil) near an electrically conducting sample.
Eddy currents are induced in the sample which then produces a magnetic field of its own. A
detection unit measures this new magnetic field and converts the signal into a voltage which can
be read on a meter for comparison. Properties such as hardness, alloy composition, chemical
purity, and heat treat condition influence the magnetic field and may be measured through the
use of eddy current testing.

Additional topics

Steel - Byproducts/waste

Steel - Manufacturing Processes

Raw Materials Quality Control for Steel Manufacturing

Raw Materials Quality Control for Steel ManufacturingPrecise feeding of process materials is
critical to maintaining product quality in steelmaking but measuring and ensuring steel raw
material quality control can be challenging. To overcome some of these challenges, there are
technologies that help monitor raw material feed with conveyor belt scale systems and
weighbelt feeders, online elemental analyzers to analyze the raw material process stream, and
moisture online analyzers to help optimize blast furnace performance.

Here’s an in-depth look at the technologies used for raw material quality control in steel
manufacturing

Online elemental analyzers. Chemical composition is one of the most important parameters for
the efficiency of the sinter process. Online elemental analyzers provide high frequency online
elemental analysis of an entire raw material process stream using Prompt Gamma Neutron
Activation Analysis (PGNAA) or Pulsed Fast Thermal Neutron Activation (PFTNA). The analyzer
delivers consistent material quality, which help improves process efficiency and minimizes
production costs in a variety of different process and mining operations, including: Limestone,
Copper, Iron Ore, Nickel, Phosphate, Cement Production, Iron Ore Sintering and more.

Prompt Gamma Neutron Activation Analysis (PGNAA) or Pulsed Fast Thermal Neutron Activation
(PFTNA) are non-contact, non-destructive analytical techniques used in online analysis systems
to determine the elemental composition of bulk raw materials. Both of these techniques are
known collectively as neutron activation analysis and function by bombarding materials with
neutrons. The neutrons interact with elements in the materials, which then emit secondary,
prompt gamma rays that can be measured. Similar to X-ray fluorescence (XRF), each element
emits a characteristic energy signature as it returns to a stable state.

Belt scale systems. Conveyor belt scale systems monitor steel raw material feed to crushers,
mills, screens, preparation plants, and coal-fired power plants to help ensure precise feeding of
process materials and maintain product quality. These systems help achieve high accuracy in
weighing applications requiring certification by government and regulatory agencies. The
systems are usually comprised of a 4-idler, 4-load cell weighbridge, speed sensor and electronics
to provide stable high-accuracy weighing. Precision belt scale systems let you monitor
production output and inventory, or regulate product loadout, while providing vital information
for the effective management and efficient operation of business.

Weighbelt Feeders. Precise feeding of process materials is often critical to maintaining product
quality. A feeder that weighs accurately and reliably can help accurately control process material
feed rates, reduce material waste, maintain blend consistency, increase profits, and meet
customer specifications.

Material is fed onto the feeder through an inlet feed section equipped with a manually
adjustable vertical slide gate to control material height. The scale carriage/ weighbridge
assembly measures the gravitational force of the material and converts this force measurement
into an electrical output signal proportional to belt loading. A digital speed sensor continuously
monitors the belt speed. The microprocessor-based electronics integrate the two signals to
produce and display a true rate and a total weight fed. The electronics also provide an output
signal for control and monitoring purposes.

Moisture Online Analyzers. These non-contacting stainless steel analyzers used for reliable
moisture measurement, can help optimize blast furnace performance by accurately determining
the moisture content in metallurgical grade coke and/or iron ore pellets. Moisture on-line
analyzers can accurately and reliably measure the concentration of hydrogenous material in a
process vessel.

Optimizing blast furnace performance is the key to improving operations and increasing
profitability. Moisture analyzers are engineered to help steel mills effectively manage the most
pressing process issues, including variability in coke size, differing amounts of surface moisture,
harsh environmental conditions at the point of measurement and high coke volume.

Steel is the most commonly used and recycled metal in the world with over 3,500 recognized
grades. It is literally everywhere in; cars, appliances, buildings, pipes, etc. Steel manufacturers
are constantly challenged to develop steel with superior characteristics that meet a customer’s
exacting specifications. To maintain market share, with mounting competition to produce more
material faster, it is essential that steel manufacturers do not lose sight of quality.

Consistent Quality KPI

It’s not always about improving quality—think “consistency”

For many industrial organizations, one key performance indicator (KPI) is often “improve
quality.” But, in steel manufacturing, it’s not necessarily about arbitrarily improving quality, it’s
about delivering consistency. For specialty steel manufacturers in particular, who manufacture
materials for construction projects or transformers, the end product must meet specific
standards or regulations across the entire order.

The construction steel holding up the tallest buildings in the world has different characteristics
than the steel used in jet engines. So, for steel producers, it’s not about improving the quality of
those materials, it’s about making sure each order is fulfilled with steel that meets quality
standards—every time, whether we are creating new peaks in a city skyline or helping improve
aircraft efficiency. If it doesn’t, the result can be costly, both to the manufacturer and their end
customer.

Many steel manufacturers produce on demand. So, there are precise quality and chemical
specifications for each order. It’s crucial that this chemistry make-up is tracked from beginning
to end—again to make sure quality standards are precise. If at any point in the manufacturing
process a variation occurs the entire batch must be re-manufacturered or sold as a less
profitable grade.

Challenges

How to address the challenge of traceability

So, how do you avoid this variability in the production process? Traceability is challenging for
sure, but it can be done effectively. As you can imagine there is a lot to track in the
manufacturing of steel materials. From the raw or recycled materials that come into a facility, to
the melting at temperatures as hot as 1700°C (that’s hotter than volcanic lava) in blast furnaces,
to miles upon miles of rollers, casting equipment, and ultimately fabrication, there are a myriad
of variables to track and manage throughout manufacturing process. Being able to track the
exact chemistry and specifications of each production run, the state of the equipment
processing the materials, and the end-customer’s order request, is a requirement to drive
business performance and remain competitive in today’s market.

Cost of Downtime in Steel Industry Graphic | GE Digital

Industrial Applications

Implementing APM and MES to transform steel manufacturing

With an aging workforce and aging equipment, the status quo will continue to be a challenge for
organizations looking to gain market share and improve their bottom line. By implementing
industrial applications, like asset performance management (APM) and manufacturing execution
systems (MES), data can become the differentiator in your business process.

APM can help make sure your mill systems are delivering differentiated performance, avoiding
unplanned downtime and optimizing your maintenance spend by shifting from reactive to
proactive maintenance culture. While MES can help improve on-time delivery performance,
optimize your operational costs, and ensure order specifications are met with consistency.
These two industrial applications enable your organization to make informed decisions, in near
real-time, on the mill floor to optimize the manufacturing process and yield. And for executives,
these industrial apps help provide improved visibility into production and performance data.

Using data as the differentiator enables steel producers to deliver the exact product requested,
on time, and with consistent quality; which is now an expectation of world class suppliers.