PH701/NITK/September 22, 2020

Tensor Algebra
Vectors

Physics is learnt by doing experiments and by trying to explain or even predict the results
of the experiment using theoretical methods. The measurements of many quantities made
in experiments thus play a central role in all these. It is also important that one is able to
reproduce these measurements in experiments performed identical set up elsewhere. Even if
the set up is not identical, one should still be able to learn the vary same lessons provided one
knows how to relate the measurements one gets to the measurements made on an identical
set up. Depending on how its measurement can change from one experimental set up to
another, quantities can be classified. In what follows we will classify physical quantities in
situations where different experimental set ups are related to each other by rotation about
some axis.

We begin by gathering a broad physical understanding of what a tensor is. Consider a

physical quantity Q that is measured using a instruments (A, B, C, . . .) using a particular
method by an observer O. Let another observer O0 measure the value of same quantity as Q0
using identical instruments, using identical method as O. If we can express the value(s) of
Q0 in terms value(s) of Q alone, and vice versa, we say that Q0 is a tensor. More specifically,
we say, Q is a tensor of those transformations that relates the coordinate systems of O and O0 .

We will start with measurements of position. To describe position of physical system, it is

imperative to have a coordinate system. For our purpose, we will choose Cartesian coordinate
system XY Z, being the most familiar one. Usually one specifies the position of a point R
in our three dimensional space by specifying its Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) in the XY Z
cordinate system. However in these notes, we will use (x1 , x2 , x3 ) to refer to the Cartesian
coordinates of the above point. Let us see at what position (x01 , x02 , x03 ) of the same point looks
like in a new coordinate system X 0 Y 0 Z 0 obtained by rotating the XY Z coordinate system in
an anti-clockwise sense about the Z axis through an angle θ as in Figure 1. Rotation about
the Z-axis does not change the Z-coordinate of the point R as the rotation happens only in
the XY plane. Thus we get
x03 = x3 (1)
In addition, note that the origin of the coordinate system also does not change. What we
need to find is how the coordinates (x1 , x2 ) change, ie., how these coordinates are related to
the new set of coordinates (x01 , x02 ). This can be done easily by refering to the Figure(1).

From the figure we can find out the lengths of the line segments OS, SQ, OC, CB, AC, CR,
PS an SR.
x1
OS = = CR ; SQ = x02 tan θ = AC ;
cos θ
x0
OC = 2 = SR ; CB = x1 tan θ = PS (2)
cos θ

1
 Y
Y’

B
R

A C
θ
r
S Q X’
θ
O P X

Figure 1: Anti-clockwise rotation of XY plane about the Z axis through an angle θ.

Now realizing that

x1
x01 = OQ = OS + SQ = + x02 tan θ (3)
cos θ
x0
y = OB = OC + CB = 2 + x1 tan θ (4)
cos θ
The equation (4) can be re-expressed to get

x02 = −x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ

Using the above equation in eqn.(3)

x1
x01 = 1 − sin2 θ + x2 cos θ tan θ = x1 cos θ + x2 sin θ


cos θ
Thus we get the coordinates (x01 , x02 , x03 ) of the point R in terms of the old coordinates
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) as
x01 = x1 cos θ + x2 sin θ (5)
x02 = −x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ (6)
x03 = x3 (1)
Components of position changes in a particular manner when one rotates the coordinate sys-
tem. All quantities (including positions) whose components transform in this fashion when
one rotates a coordinate system sense are called vectors. As is usual let us denote this vector
with r to specify the position of the point R.

We may note that the length of the segment OR, given by the magnitude of the vector, has
to be the same irrespective of which coordinate system you use.
p p
OR = |r| = x2 + y 2 + z 2 = x02 + y 02 + z 02 (7)

Quantities like these that remain unchanged under rotation of coordinate transformation are
called scalars.

2
We can write the same transformation as a matrix equation
 0    
x1 cos θ sin θ 0 x1
 x02  =  − sin θ cos θ 0   x2  (8)
x03 0 0 1 x3

Denoting the square matrix with R̂ and the column matrices on the LHS and RHS with X
and X0 respectively, eqn.(8) can expressed as

X0 = R̂X

It is easy to check that square matrix R̂ has the following properties.

R̂R̂T = R̂T R̂ = I (9)

det(R̂) = 1. (10)

where R̂T denotes tranpose of matrix R̂ and I denotes the 3×3 Identity matrix. Equation(8)
shows that the transpose of matrix R̂ is the equal to its inverse. The matrix equation (7)
can be written in terms of the components as
3
X
x01 = R̂11 x1 + R̂12 x2 + R̂13 x3 = R̂1j xj
j=1
3
X
x02 = R̂21 x1 + R̂22 x2 + R̂23 x3 = R̂2j xj
j=1
3
X
x03 = R̂31 x1 + R̂32 x2 + R̂33 x3 = R̂3j xj
j=1

Here j is an index that takes values 1, 2, 3. In what follows all the indices we introduce will
be assumed to take same set of values, unless stated otherwise. From the above equations
we can see that ith component
X3
0
xi = R̂ij xj
j=1

Let us introduce Einstein’s summation convention that any index which appears twice is
understood to be summed and we can drop the explicit summation symbol. Thus the above
equation becomes
x0i = R̂ij xj (11)
Einstein summation convention also requires that an index must NEVER appear more than
twice in any expression. A useful outcome of using component method of writing equations
is that one can write the terms in any order one wants. For instance the right hand side of
the above equation
R̂ij xj = xj R̂ij
Note that this cannot be done with the matrices because

R̂X 6= XR̂

3
Now we are ready to define a vector. A vector is a quantity whose components transform as
given in eqn.(11) under a rotation of coordinate system.

Exercise 1.1
Obtain the matrix equation for coordinate transformations due to rotations about X axis
and Y axis.
Exercise 1.2
Write down eqn.(9) in components using Kronecker delta

1 if i = j;
δij = (12)
0 if i 6= j.

Tensors

There are physical quantities which tranform in ways different from that of vectors, when
the coordinate system is rotated. If a quantity T̂ whose components are represented by an
array of two indices Tkl of transforms as

Tij0 = Rik Rjl Tkl (13)

then we say the quantity is a tensor of rank two or simply a second rank tensor.

One example of such a quantity is

Tkl = vk ul
where vk and ul represents components of a vector. (This is a direct product of two vectors).
Eqn.(14) can be easily checked, for, if vk and ul are components of a vector, we have

vi0 = Rik vk
u0j = Rjl ul

and thus, if Tij0 = vi0 u0j , then

Tij0 = vi0 u0j = Rik Rjl vk ul = Rik Rjl Tkl

proving that eqn.(13) is valid for this.

In general, if a quantity with components Ti1 i2 ...in transform as

Tj1 j2 ...jn = Rj1 i1 Ri2 j2 . . . Rin jn Ti1 i2 ...in (14)

it is a tensor of rank n. From the above definition it is clear that a tensor of rank one is
what we call vector and tensor of rank zero is scalar.

4
As one more example, lets us check that the product of second rank tensors Tkm Qlm with
one index contracted is a second rank tensor.
Since Tkm and Qlm are components of second rank tensors they transform as

Tij0 = Rik Rjm Tkm ; Q0ij = Rik Rjm Qkm

under rotation of coordinate system. Using the fact that the inverse of the matrix R̂ is its
transpose, the above equations can be inverted as
−1 −1 0
Tkm = Rki T
Rmj Tij = Rki T
Rmj Tij0 = Rik Rjm T 0 ij;

and
Qlm = Ril Rjm Q0 ij
If we denote the product of the two using Pkl = Tkm Qlm then under rotation of coordinate
system
Pkl = Tkm Qlm = Rik Rjm T 0 ijRnl Rpm Q0 np
T
Using Rjm Rpm = Rjm Rmp = δjp int he above equation,

Pkl = Rik Rnl Tij0 Q0nj = Rik Rnl Pin

0

or
0
Pin = Rik Rnl Pkl
which proves that Pkl transforms like components of a second rank tensor.

Exercise 1.3
If Tij are components of a second rank tensor T̂, show that Tij δij is a scalar. (This scalar is
called the trace of T̂).
Exercise 1.4
Show that Kronecker delta δij is a second rank tensor and also that its form is the same in
0
all coordinate systems ie., δkl = δkl .
Exercise 1.5
Show that Levi-Civita εijk is a third rank tensor.

 1 if (i, j, k) = (1, 2, 3) or (3, 1, 2) or (2, 3, 1);
εijk = −1 if (i, j, k) = (2, 1, 3) or (3, 2, 1) or (1, 3, 2); (15)
0 otherwise.


Exercise 1.6
Show that determinant of a square matrix is a scalar.
Exercise 1.7
Show that the product of a rank n tensor and a rank m tensor with p of its indices contracted
(where p < m < n) is a tensor of rank m + n − p.

It is useful to keep in mind that whatever we have described above using Cartesian coordi-
nates could have been described in other coordinate systems also, like for instance, spherical

5
polar coordinates (r, θ, φ) or cylindrical polar coordinates (ρ, φ, z). But the mathematical
steps involving them could be a little more tedious and hence the choice of Cartesian coor-
dinates.