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History of Music
Influences from the west to the east merged into the pre-Christian music of the Greeks and later the
Romans. Musical practices and conventions perhaps conveyed by travelling musicians brought a wealth
of diversity and invention.
Surviving Greek notation from this period of musical history has given scientists and musicologists alike
a vital clue to the way that the music of the time might have sounded. It certainly indicates remarkable
links to the music that would follow, perhaps most notably through the use of modality in Greek music.
In the frescoes and in some written accounts, including the Bible, we have learned about the instruments
that featured in the Roman and Greek times and their significance to the cultures. The trumpet as an
instrument of announcement and splendid ceremony, or the lyre as an integral player in the songs of
poets.
Across Europe from the early part of the first century, the monasteries and abbeys became the places
where music became embedded into the lives of those devoted to God and their followers.
Christianity had established itself and with it came a new liturgy that demanded a new music. Although
early Christian music had its roots in the practices and beliefs of the Hebrew people, what emerged from
this was to become the basis for sacred music for centuries to come. The chants that were composed
devoutly followed the sacred Latin texts in a fashion that was tightly controlled and given only to the
glory of God. Music was very much subservient to the words, without flourish or frivolity.
It was Pope Gregory (540-604 AD), who is credited with moving the progress of sacred music forward
and developing what is now called Gregorian Chant, characterizes by the haunting sound of the open,
perfect fifth.
Some controversy surrounds this claim, but the name has stuck and the music remains distinct and vitally
important as it moves away from plainchant towards polyphony. This, in turn, looked back to earlier
times and customs, particularly in the music of the Jewish people where the idea of a static drone
commonly underpinned a second vocal line.
Medieval Period
As we move forward in musical time, we begin to enter the Medieval Period of music which can be
generally agreed to span the period from around 500AD up until the mid-fifteenth century. By this time
music was a dominant art in taverns to cathedrals, practised by kings to paupers alike. It was during this
extended period of music that the sound of music becomes increasingly familiar. This is partly due to the
development of musical notation, much of which has survived, that allows us a window back into this
fascinating time.
From the written music that survives from the monasteries and other important accounts of musical
practices, it’s possible to assemble an image of a vibrant culture that ranges from the sacred to the
secular. Throughout the Medieval period, the music slowly began to adopt ever more elaborate
structures and devices that produced works of immense beauty and devotion.
Hildegard von Bingen and Perotin pioneered many of the musical forms we still recognise today including
the motet and the sacred Mass. Alongside these important forms came the madrigal that often reflects
the moods and feelings of the people of the time. It’s wonderfully polyphonic form is both mesmerising
and delightful.
Renaissance Period

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Instruments developed in accordance with the composer’s imaginations. A full gamut of wind, brass and
percussion instruments accompanied the Medieval music, although it is still the human voice that
dominates many of the compositions. Towards the close of the high medieval period, we find the
emergence of instrumental pieces in their own right which in turn paves the way for many musical forms
in the following period:
Before leaving this period of music it is important to mention the Troubadours and the Trouveres. These
travelling storytellers and musicians covered vast distances on their journeys across Europe and further
afield into Asia. They told stories, sung ballads and perhaps most importantly, brought with them
influences from far and wide that seamlessly blended with the western musical cultures.
The Renaissance (1450 – 1600) was a golden period in music history. Freed from the constraints of
Medieval musical conventions the composers of the Renaissance forged a new way forward. Josquin des
Prez is considered to be one of the early Renaissance composers to be a great master of the polyphonic
style, often combining many voices to create elaborate musical textures.
Later Palestrina, Thomas Tallis and William Byrd build on the ideas of des Pres composing some of the
most stunning motets, masses, chansons and instrumental works in their own right. Modality was firmly
established as a basis for all harmony, and although strict rules governing the use of dissonance, the
expressive qualities of Renaissance music is virtually unparalleled.
As instrumental pieces became accepted into the repertoire, we find the development of instruments
like the bassoon and the trombone giving rise to larger and more elaborate instrumental groupings.
This gave composers far more scope to explore and express their creative ideas than before. The viol
family developed to provide a very particular, haunted quality to much of the music of the time alongside
the establishment of each recognizable family of instruments comprising, percussion, strings, woodwind
and brass.
Keyboard instruments also became increasingly common and the advent of the sonata followed in due
course. Other popular forms for instrumental music included the toccata, canzona and ricercar to name
but a few, emanating from the Courtly dance.
Towards the end of the Renaissance, what was called the Church Modes began to dissolve in favour of
what is now considered to be functional harmony or tonality based on a system of keys rather than
modes.
Baroque Period
The Baroque Period (1600-1760), houses some of the most famous composers and pieces that we have
in Western Classical Music. It also sees some of the most important musical and instrumental
developments. Italy, Germany, England and France continue from the Renaissance to dominate the
musical landscape, each influencing the other with conventions and style.
Amongst the many celebrated composers of the time, G F Handel, Bach, Vivaldi and Purcell provide a
substantial introduction to the music of this era. It is during this glittering span of time that Handel
composes his oratorio “The Messiah”, Vivaldi the “Four Seasons”, Bach his six “Brandenburg Concertos”
and the “48 Preludes and Fugues”, together with Purcell’s opera “Dido and Aeneas”.
Instrumental music was composed and performed in tandem with vocal works, each of equal importance
in the Baroque. The virtuosity that began amongst the elite Renaissance performers flourished in the
Baroque. Consider the keyboard Sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti or the Concertos that Vivaldi composed
for his student performers. This, in turn, leads to significant instrumental developments, and thanks to
the aristocratic support of Catherine Medici, the birth of the Violin.

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Common musical forms were established founded on the Renaissance composer’s principles but
extended and developed in ways that they would have probably found unimaginable. The Suite became
a Baroque favorite, comprising contrasting fast slow movements like the Prelude; Allemande, Gigue,
Courante and the Sarabande. Concertos became ever more popular, giving instrumentalists the
opportunity to display their technical and expressive powers.
Vocal music continued to include the Mass but now also the Oratorio and Cantata alongside anthems
and chorales. Opera appears in earnest in the Baroque period and becomes an established musical form
and vehicle for astonishing expression and diversity.
Increasingly, the preferred harmony is tonal and the system of keys (major and minor), is accepted in
favor of modality. This lifts the limitations of modes and offers composers the chance to create ever
more complex and expressive pieces that combine exciting polyphonic textures and dynamics.
Notation accompanies these developments and steadily we find that the accuracy of composers’ works
becomes more precise and detailed giving us a better possibility of realising their intentions in
performances of today.
Classical Period
From the Baroque, we step into the Classical Period (1730-1820). Here Haydn and Mozart dominate the
musical landscape and Germany and Austria sit at the creative heart of the period. From the ornate
Baroque composers of the Classical period moved away from the polyphonic towards the homophonic,
writing music that was, on the surface of it at least, simple, sleek and measured.
One key development is that of the Piano. The Baroque harpsichord is replaced by the early piano which
was a more reliable and expressive instrument. Mozart and Haydn each wrote a large number of works
for the Piano which allowed for this instrument to develop significantly during this period.
Chamber music alongside orchestral music was a feature of the Classical Era with particular attention
drawn towards the String Quartet. The orchestra itself was firmly established and towards the latter end
of the period began to include clarinets, trombones, and timpani.
The rise of the virtuoso performer continued throughout this period of music as demonstrated by the
many of the concertos and sonatas composed during this time. Opera flourished in these decades and
became a fully-fledged musical form of entertainment that extended way beyond the dreams of the
Baroque composers.
Romantic Period
As the Classical era closed Beethoven is the most notable composer who made such a huge contribution
to the change into the Romantic Era (1780 – 1880). Beethoven’s immense genius shaped the next few
decades with his substantial redefining of many of the established musical conventions of the Classical
era. His work on Sonata form in his concertos, symphonies, string quartets and sonatas, goes almost
unmatched by any other composer.
The Romantic era saw huge developments in the quality and range of many instruments that naturally
encouraged ever more expressive and diverse music from the composers. Musical forms like the
Romantic orchestra became expansive landscapes where composers gave full and unbridled reign to
their deepest emotions and dreams.
Berlioz in his “Symphonie Fantastique” is a fine example of this, or later Wagner in his immense operas.
The symphonies of Gustav Mahler stand like stone pillars of achievement at the end of the Romantic
period alongside the tone poems of Richard Strauss. The Romantic period presents us with a vast array
of rich music that only towards the end of the 19th Century began to fade.

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It is hard to conceive of what could follow such a triumphant, heroic time in musical history but as we
push forward into the 20th Century the musical landscape takes a dramatic turn. Echoes of the Romantic
Era still thread through the next century in the works of Elgar, Shostakovich and Arthur Bliss, but it is the
music from France we have title impressionism that sparkles its way into our musical consciences.
Debussy and Ravel are key exponents of this colourful movement that parallels the artwork of Monet
and Manet. What we hear in the music of the impressionists harks back to many of the popular forms
of the Baroque but in ways that Bach is unlikely to have foreseen. The tonal system transforms to include
a wider range of scales and influences from the Orient allowing composers to write some of the most
stunning works ever heard.
Both Ravel and Debussy composed extensively for the piano using poetry for inspiration. Their orchestral
works are amongst some of the most beautiful and evocative pieces ever written.
In parallel, the Teutonic world began to undergo its own revolution in the form of the second Viennese
school, led by Arnold Schoenberg. Disillusioned with the confines of tonality Schoenberg threw out the
tonal system in favor of a new twelve-tone serial system giving each step of the chromatic scale equal
musical validity. The result was serial music that was completely atonal and transformed the musical
landscape almost beyond anything that had happened before.

Different Musical Genre

Rap genre
Rap as a genre began at block parties in New York City in the early 1970s, when DJs began isolating the percussion
breaks of funk, soul, and disco songs and extending them. MCs tasked with introducing the DJs and keeping the
crowd energized would talk between songs, joking and generally interacting with the audience. Over time, it
became common for the MCs (or rappers, as they soon became known) to talk and rhyme over and in sync with
the music. Initially dismissed as a fad, rap music proved its commercial viability in 1979 with the release of The
Sugarhill Gang's "Rapper's Delight," and then again in 1980 with Kurtis Blow's "The Breaks," a Top 5 hit that
eventually went gold.

As rapping as an art form and a technique continued to develop, so too did the DJing. DJ Grand Wizard Theodore
is said to have accidentally invented the method of "scratching," wherein the DJ pushes the record back and forth
as it's played to produce a scratching noise as it brushes against the needle. The scratching technique proved to
be enormously influential, as it was quickly picked up by legends like Grandmaster Flash. Theodore is also
responsible for pioneering the use of the needle drop, where instead of silently cueing up the next record to be
played, the DJ drops the needle onto the exact beginning of the song.

The respective disciplines of rapping and DJing continued to evolve, leading to the mid-'80s era known as the
golden age of hip-hop, in which artists like Run DMC and Rakim pushed the boundaries of the art form and helped
to make rap into the ubiquitous mainstream entity that it is today.

More than a century before rap exploded onto the American music scene, West African musicians were telling
stories rhythmically, with just the beat of a drum for accompaniment. Meanwhile, folk artists from the
Caribbean Islands were also telling stories in rhyme. Indeed, these singing poets from Africa and the Caribbean
lay the foundation for modern-day American rap music.

Rapping essentially involves the speaking or chanting of rhyming lyrics, often set to a beat. The rhyming created
by rappers is considered by many to be one of the most sophisticated styles of poetry. What’s more, these
rhymes often address provocative subjects such as sex, violence and socio-political issues.

Rapping first gained popularity in the U.S. in the 1970s as a kind of street art, especially among African American
teenagers. But it wasn’t until 1979, when the Sugarhill Gang released their breakaway hit, ‘Rapper’s Delight, that
record producers took notice of this emerging musical genre. Once they did, numerous rap acts, including Run-
DMC and N.W.A., surfaced, and rap’s audience began to swell. It wasn’t just African American male rappers

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getting in on the act, either: By the 1980s, white rap bands such as the Beastie Boys and female rap bands such
as Salt-n-Pepa were reaching the top of the charts.

By the 1990s, rap matured from an old-school-style – which was based on relatively simple lyrics – to a new-
school-style, which was louder and included more complex lyrics. Artists such as The Notorious B.I.G., Snoop
Dogg and Tupac ruled the charts during this time, as did Eminem – one of the most popular white rappers of all
time.

Rap has stood the test of time and its popularity rages on with today’s artists such as 50 Cent, Ludacris and Jay-Z
churning out hit after thought-provoking hit. The beat truly does go on.

Rhythm and blues

Rhythm & Blues, or R&B describes the genre of music that has derived from the blues music scene and has made
a name of its own. The phrase “Rhythm and Blues” was initially introduced in the American music scene in the era
of the late 1940’s. Billboard magazine originally created the name’s origin, using it as a term to market this type
of music.

In the year of 1949, Jerry Wexler was a reporter for Billboard magazine (later became a famous and popular music
producer). Wexler created the term “Rhythm & Blues” for Billboard in order to describe the popular upbeat form
of music, performed mainly by artists of African-American descent, which had a combination of Blues and also
Jazz.

The History of R&B

The term “Rhythm & Blues” was defined to replace the past description of the musical art form as “race music”.
At this time in history, “race music” was the general phrase used to describe all genres of music that had African-
American roots. The term was labeled as offensive, therefore Billboard started using the “Rhythm & Blues” phrase
defined by Wexler.

During the 1950’s, R&B was stereotyped to be related to African-American youth in clubs defined as “after-hours”
and “honky-tonk.” Along with this social classification, R&B was often seen as a lower form of musical art, in
comparison with Jazz being seen as a more classy and respectful form of African-American expression. When Hip-
Hop music started to hit the scene and dominate most African-American audiences, R&B then got classified as just
a group of love songs.

Moving forward in the future to the 1970’s, the term R&B widened to represent both forms of funk and soul
music. Today the term represents African-American sung music, with subgenres defined under it – soul, funk,
blues, etc.

Dissecting the term “Rhythm and Blues”

In dividing the term of Rhythm and Blues, “rhythm” derives from the music typically being dependent on measures
of four beats or bars, along with the normal use of a backbeat. The “blues” part derives from the melodies and
song lyrics, which were often created with a tone of sadness or the “blues,” sometimes making a listener cry tears.
Through time it has been abbreviated to “R&B” for short.

The Rhythm and Blues genre tells a tale that is derived from deep historical roots, along with the emotional toll
that came as a result of it. Hard times are reflected in the music, but also joyous beats are always accompanying
to give the songs a “good time” resonance, making the song selections a good choice for almost any occasion.
Different industry forms have also shown appreciation for the music genre, whether music, administrative, and
even innovative services like kry medical. The audience of R&B has expanded from mainly African-American
culture to all walks of life around the world. Music is known as the universal language, and Rhythm and Blues is
definitely an upbeat chosen dialect.

Jazz
Jazz is a kind of music in which improvisation is typically an important part. In most jazz performances, players
play solos which they make up on the spot, which requires considerable skill. There is tremendous variety in jazz,

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but most jazz is very rhythmic, has a forward momentum called "swing," and uses "bent" or "blue" notes. You can
often hear "call--and--response" patterns in jazz, in which one instrument, voice, or part of the band answers
another. (You can hear Ella Fitzgerald and Roy Eldridge do "call and response" in Ella's Singing Class.) Jazz can
express many different emotions, from pain to sheer joy. In jazz, you may hear the sounds of freedom-for the
music has been a powerful voice for people suffering unfair treatment because of the color of the skin, or because
they lived in a country run by a cruel dictator.

THE NATURE OF JAZZ

Jazz musicians place a high value on finding their own sound and style, and that means, for example, that
trumpeter Miles Davis sounds very different than trumpeter Louis Armstrong (whose sound you can hear in Louis's
Music Class.) Jazz musicians like to play their songs in their own distinct styles, and so you might listen to a dozen
different jazz recordings of the same song, but each will sound different. The musicians' playing styles make each
version different, and so do the improvised solos. Jazz is about making something familiar--a familiar song--into
something fresh. And about making something shared--a tune that everyone knows--into something personal.
Those are just some of the reasons that jazz is a great art form, and why some people consider it "America's
classical music."

THE GROWTH OF JAZZ

Jazz developed in the United States in the very early part of the 20th century. New Orleans, near the mouth of the
Mississippi River, played a key role in this development. The city's population was more diverse than anywhere
else in the South, and people of African, French, Caribbean, Italian, German, Mexican, and American Indian, as
well as English, descent interacted with one another. African-American musical traditions mixed with others and
gradually jazz emerged from a blend of ragtime, marches, blues, and other kinds of music. At first jazz was mostly
for dancing. (In later years, people would sit and listen to it.) After the first recordings of jazz were made in 1917,
the music spread widely and developed rapidly. The evolution of jazz was led by a series of brilliant musicians such
as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington (listen to Ellington in Duke's Music Class), Charlie Parker, and Miles Davis. Jazz
developed a series of different styles including traditional jazz, swing (listen, for example, to Benny Carter, who
got his start in swing music, in Benny's Music Class) bebop, cool jazz, and jazz, rock, among others. At the same
time, jazz spread from the United States to many parts of the world, and today jazz musicians--and jazz festivals-
-can be found in dozens of nations. Jazz is one of the United States's greatest exports to the world.

Reggae

The term reggae was derived from rege-rege, a Jamaican phrase meaning “rags or ragged clothing,” it is used to
denote a raggedy style of music. The reggae genre came into to being in the 1960’s as an evolution of the
Rocksteady and Ska musical styles. Reggae music is a soulful entertainment in Jamaica. It expresses in words the
pain, struggle, hope and emotion that is felt by the average person.

Reggae music is recognized by its lament-like chanting and emphasizes the syncopated beat. It is distinguishable
from other genres in the heavy use of the Jamaican vernacular and the African nyah-bingi drumming style.

When it started out in Jamaica around the late 1960s, reggae music was considered a rag-tag, hodge-podge of
other musical styles, namely Jamaican Mento and contemporary Jamaican Ska music, along with American jazz
and rhythm & blues, something like what was coming out of New Orleans at the time. Most listeners didn’t even
distinguish reggae from Jamaican dancehall music or the slowed down version of ska music known as Rocksteady,
until possibly when the band Toots and the Maytals came along. There songs served as a sort of public notice that
a new style of music had been born and was staking its claim on the musical frontier.

Besides its sound, reggae music is frequently associated with the common themes in its lyrics. The earliest reggae
lyrics spoke mostly of love, specifically romantic love between a man and a woman. But as the music and the
musicians making it made their way into the 1970s, reggae started taking on a heavy Rastafarian influence. Now
the love being sung about was not just romantic love, but cosmic, spiritual love, the love of one’s fellow man, and
of God, or “Jah”. And when reggae singers weren’t singing about love, they were singing about rebellion and
revolution against the forces impeding that love, like the extreme violence, poverty, racism, and government
oppression they were witnessing or experiencing on a regular basis.

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Reggae began to rise to international acclaim as the 1970s progressed. A seminal moment for the genre was the
release of the 1973 movie The Harder They Come starring Jimmy Cliff. The movie soundtrack consisted of only
reggae hits; this contributed in elevating the music to an internal platform.

Of course, Bob Marley is the world’s best known and loved international Reggae ambassador. Marley’s career
spanned more than a decade, beginning in 1963 with Rocksteady band, the Wailers, and culminating in the release
of his 1977 solo album, Exodus, which achieved international acclaim. Marley was not only a Reggae singer, but a
committed Rastafarian and a political activist. Through his music, his words and his actions, he earned forever a
place in Reggae fans hearts around the world. Marley’s music was first popularized in the Wes by Eric Clapton
performing a cover of Who Shot the Sheriff.

Since the 60s and 70s, Reggae music has spread and developed in many different ways around the world. Reggae
is still going strong in its pure form around the world too, with many modern Reggae bands achieving success in
the mainstream.

When reggae music reached more popular international acclaim was after singer Jimmy Cliff released a movie
called “The Harder They Come” with a powerful socio-political storyline and an equally strong reggae soundtrack.
This sudden global attention and interest in the music paved the way for possibly reggae’s biggest superstar, Bob
Marley, to become a worldwide legend, and the name most associated with the genre. Today reggae music has
spurred the innovation of a whole new range of musical styles, like modern Jamaican Dub, and been infused into
many other popular genres, like hip-hop and rap. Yet still you can find bands in every corner of the world playing
that authentic, roots reggae like it was when it started out in Jamaica over 50 years ago.

Pop music
Popular or “pop” music started in America several decades back, when the term “popular” was not be as cool as
what modern people perceived it to be. The fact that the pop genre originated as a combination of various music
styles–from jazz to country, be-bop to hip-hop, and even rock and roll to rap–is little known.

Mid- to Late 19th Century

Pop music started with the publishing of sheet music. During this period, many Americans turned to their pianos
for entertainment. Families gathered during celebrations and let their children play their piano pieces. Hence, just
as music sheets were transcribed for symphonies and orchestras, so too, sheet music for popular songs became a
phenomenon throughout the country. Even those who did not have pianists within their families had the chance
to listen to music by inviting friends who played into their homes.

In addition, to meet the demand for sheet music, publishers set up their own companies. They would look for
talented composers, printing their music for sale, which was the start of the music publishing industry as we know
it today.

When phonographs took center stage in the beginning of the 1900s, popular versions of music also followed.
Instead of depending on piano music for entertainment, families had the means to enjoy the exact duplication of
performances. Recordings on phonographs allowed anyone, whether rich or poor, to savor music from the
comfort of his or her own home. This also resulted in new markets in the music industry as well as its expansion.

Mid 1920s to 1940s

During this period, another music form started to make its way in America. Apart from “pop” music and surfacing
through church hymns, ballads, and classical music, “jazz,” the so-called new music of the times, was known to be
“daring” and even “shocking” for many.

This music genre has a unique African beat that was developed by Black musicians in the mid-west, south, and
east. This, together with the “blues,” another African-derived art form, helped transform music.

Multi-cultural Music

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With the expansion of the music genres came diversity. Due to the popularity of jazz and blues with African
Americans, these genres received the label of “race music.” The genre “rhythm and blues” was later attributed to
the Black community. Meanwhile, what was considered as “pop” was referenced to whites.

1950s to 1960s

Amid the roadblocks to pop music, the industry continued to grow and soon, the barriers between races blurred.
Those considered as “pop” musicians started borrowing rhythms from jazz and blues musicians. By the early
1950s, this musical blend gave birth to “rock and roll.”

Indeed, pop music as it is today would not be what it is today without that evolution. Pioneers of rock music
include Muddy Waters, Ike Turner, Louis Jordan, Little Richard and Bo Diddley. They served as the role models of
later artists such as Carl Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis, Elvis Presley, Bill Haley, and lots more who made it big. From
then on, more superstars rose through the ranks and made pop music like no other–superstars and worldwide
icons like The Beatles, The Yardbirds, The Rolling Stones, The Who, Led Zeppelin, Manfred Mann, Cream, etc.

1970s to 1990s

During this era, pop music diversified into many other related genres such as Acid Rock, Disco, Techno, and Dance–
and we can't forget Rap.

Rap music, part of the inner-city cultural move known as “Hip-Hop,” started in the 1980s. During its birth,
mainstream companies still did not accept it as just another trend. However, when America embraced Rap, it soon
took over the scene.

Since then, for more than 25 years already, this genre has outsold Gospel, Country, Rock, R&B, and even Jazz.
Today, Rap ranks second to pop when it comes to appeal, marketability, and profits. This genre has produced such
stars as Eminem, Pink, Beck, Rage against the Machine, and others.

Pop Music Today and Beyond

With the birth of lots more genres of pop music today–from Post-Grunge, Hard Rock and Heavy Metal, Pop Punk,
Emo, Electronic Music, K-Pop, and others–pop music continues to be a huge part of culture. Although times have
changed, the history of pop music has left its mark on generations of music lovers, with more generations to come.

OPM's History
Original Pilipino Music or more commonly known OPM refers to original Philippine songs varying from the
traditional to modern original music compositions.

Through the years, OPM has been recognized not just in the whole country but is now slowly making its name
internationally because of its wide, original music selection. Born to have passion in music, Filipinos are dedicated
in composing music which has made them known as great musicians worldwide.

Filipino music started out with the early settlers like Malays, Indonesians, Arabs, Chinese, Japanese and Hindus
great music influence. Since then, music has become the sound of their lives playing a vital role in every
community. Early Filipino music is used for religious activities and social forms like the most common ‘Harana’ as
one way of courting to own a woman’s heart.

Awit and Kurido or Corrido, a musical show of dances and songs replacing the ancient epics during the conversion
of the early Filipinos to Christianity, reigns as one of foreign-influenced Filipino entertainments. Kundiman, with
romantic and mellow tunes was another hit way back early OPM breaks which commonly interpreted in songs
composed in expressing feelings and admiration for the special someone.

References

https://www.britannica.com

www.emeraldpinoyradio.com

https://www.pressreader.com/philippines/philippine-daily-inquirer-1109/20180102/281539406337452

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