Notes-1, B.

Sc(NS) Sem-VI, Ship Manoeuvring

Ship Manoeuvring: Manoeuvring is an operation during which a vessel

enters or exits coastal waters of a country, crosses several ships on the
way, and proceeds towards or departs from a berth or jetty of a port.
A ship may need to manoeuvre not only while arriving or departing a port
but also while crossing canals and traffic zones. In this process,
maximum number of man power is made available and all unmanned
systems are change over to manual control so that full control of the ship
is achieved. Most of the collisions and grounding of ships are reported
during manoeuvring of the vessels , change of watches and hence
the manoeuvring operation is considered most crucial time a ship faces in
her voyage, both from ship’s and seafarer’s perspective . When entering
or departing a port, a marine pilot, ship pilot, or maritime pilot is called
on the ship, who manoeuvre the ship from a point of entry, known as the
pilot point, up to the berth or vice versa.

Manoeuvering Procedure: It is essential before starting any

manoeuvre, to understand the effects of the wind, tide, state of the ship’s
trim, draft and freeboard, the ship’s equipment and manoeuvring aides
etc. along with the assistance received from tugs.
The master makes an assessment of the ship’s elements and situation
and then devises a plan of action.
The plan of action needs to be flexible and the master should also have
alternate plans in mind in anticipation of any change in the circumstances
as the manoeuvre proceeds.
The pilot of the ship makes an effective contribution towards safe
navigation in confined waters and the approaching port, of which, they
have an up to date local knowledge.
It is very important to note that the responsibility for any vessel’s
navigation cannot be transferred to the pilot. The master and the officer
of the watch shall always remain responsible with regard to navigation
duties and obligation.

The information exchanged between the master and the pilot shall include
but not be limited to:
1-Minimum water depth
2-Tide
3-Current
4-General condition of the berth
5-Use of tug boats during mooring
6-Mooring arrangement (including length of lines, certified bollard
strength,
7-Use of anchors, bow thrusters and/or tug boats in case of
surge or swell)
8-Any special circumstances, which may be experienced.
9-The pilot should indicate his intended passage plan, enabling
 the Master to fully utilise the pilot’s expertise.

Turning the ship: The master when planning his manoeuvre takes into
consideration the above facts and also the effect the wind’s force and
direction has on our ship, relative to its trim, draft, and speed, along with
the factors governing the centre of turn and the positions for securing the
tug and how they can be used in the most effective way. The centre of
turn of a ship is the pivotal point, around which, the ship will rotate as a
result of a turning force.

Berthing the Ship: As the master closes the berth, he does not try to
bring the ship directly alongside the berth, but plans to bring the ship
parallel to the berth and stop just short of the berthing position, clear of
the forward and aft ships (if there are any). It is normally one ship’s
breadth distance between the ship and the berth. Once the vessel is all
stopped off the berth, the master uses the assistance of the tugs
and thrusters to get the vessel in position. He asks the officers in charge
of the mooring stations forward and aft to send the spring lines first (most
commonly used).

Ship Anchoring System (Anchor Work):(Unit-1-Anchor work)

The anchoring system is intended for safely mooring a vessel lying
offshore in reasonable weather conditions. The system must be capable of
keeping the vessel in position as per the holding power of anchor
determined through the calculation of ‘Equipment Number‘. It is of
paramount importance that the system is specified, designed, installed,
operated and maintained in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions,
Class requirements and the owner’s needs.
The holding power of the anchor determined from its EN (Equipment
Number) will not be sufficient to maintain the position of the ship in
severe environmental conditions. The original requirement for anchoring
equipment, as laid down by the Classification Societies, were intended to
provide equipment capable of holding the ship at anchor in sheltered and
semi-sheltered waters in winds of up to gale force but did not consider
the effects of the waves.
Types of Equipment Components
Anchor : Crown, Shank, Flukes, pins, shackles & Swivel
Chain Cable : Links, Kenter (Luggless) Shackles
Hawse Pipe : Hull, Anchor washing system
Anchor Lashing: Wire, Chain, Shackles, Bottle screws & Claws
Chain Stopper: Iron Bar, bow stopper & Locking Pins
Windlass: Cable lifter, gears, bearings, brakes & bar
Drive Unit: Power unit, controls & Local controllers
Spurling Pipe: Spurling pipe sealing arrangements
Chain Locker : Cable self stowing arrangement, draining
facility, bitter end securing & releasing arrangements.
Basic Equipment Arrangement: The anchoring equipment is located on
the forecastle, the most exposed place on board. This requires
an equipment design that is rugged but also ensures safe and relatively
easy operation. Due to its exposed location, adherence to the equipment’s
specified maintenance routines is important to ensure its on going
operational capability. The majority of failures with the anchoring system
can be traced back to the insufficient understanding of its capability
and/or a lack of maintenance. [OCIMF]
Limitations of the Anchoring System: Typically, a windlass is required
to heave in the weight of an anchor and chain from a depth of
between 82.5 and 100 metres, depending on individual Class
requirements. The windlass is not designed to break out the anchor from
the seabed and may not be designed to lift chain lengths in excess of
Class minimum requirements.
Anchors: Ancient anchors consisted of large stones, basketfuls of stones,
sacks filled with sand, or logs of wood loaded with lead; these held the
vessel merely by their weight and by friction along the bottom. As ships
became larger, they required a more effective device to hold them, and
wooden hooks that dug into the sea bottom came into use as anchors.
Iron replaced wood in their construction, and teeth or flukes were added
to help the hooks dig into the bottom. Another major improvement was
the addition of a stock or horizontal arm, that is set at right angles to the
arms and flukes of the lower part of the anchor. The stock ensures that
the arms rest vertically on the seabed, and thus one fluke will dig itself in,
providing maximum holding power. This type, with its two flukes and its
stock at right angles, remained the basic anchor for many centuries. It is
known as a stock anchor.

Anchor Cable: A principal task of the chain cable is to provide enough

weight to ensure that the anchor lies horizontally on the seabed so that it
provides maximum holding force. Anchor chain consists of 27.5-metre
lengths of studded steel links, known as shackles or shots. When the
chain is deployed and placed under tension, the studs prevent distortion
of the links. Each shackle is connected to the other with a Kenter shackle,
which consists of two interlocking halves that are connected by a locking
pin. The Kenter shackles are slightly larger than the normal chain links,
are shaped to fit into the cable lifter and are normally identified by being
painted or clamped.

Hawse Pipe: The main function of the hawse pipe is to guide the chain
from deck level to outside the shell plating. The hawse pipe should be
constructed to a size large enough to accommodate the smooth running
of the chain and to provide secure stowage of the anchor, permitting it to
drop freely when released without jamming or risking damage to the hull
structure.

1-Anchor : It is a device normally made of metal used on board to make

fast a vessel to the bed of a body of water (sea) to prevent it from drifting
/ dragging due to wind, current and wind & current. Anchoring can be of
the following two types either temporary or permanent.

Permanent Anchoring: Permanent anchors are used in the creation of

mooring of rigs, buoys, light vessels, platforms and other such structures,
which are rarely moved and require special AHT and crews to move &
maintain them.

Temporary Anchoring: Normal anchoring of ship is known as temporary

anchoring, which is for few hours or days, ship usually carry one or more
anchors for this purpose. One anchor each on the bow (forward) port and
starboard. Few vessels carry spare anchor or propeller.
Stockless Anchor : A stockless anchor is a streamlined derivation of the
Traditional Admiralty pattern anchor used on board large ships. Though it
did not hold as well as an Admiralty, the trade-off proved acceptable and
the stockless anchor became widely popular and remains so today.
Important Features :
1. Design
2. Performance
3. Action
Design : The stockless anchor is an improved version of the Admiralty
anchor. It has two flukes that pivot on the same plane perpendicular to
the shank. The weight of the shank and accompanying chain and the
angled shank under tension, keep the anchor laying flat on the sea floor
(Bed).

Performance : The stockless anchor is simple in design and with no

unnecessary parts. This makes it comparatively easy to handle and stow.
The simple geometry of its design makes breaking it from the bottom a
relatively easy and reliable procedure. The shank being able to pivot while
the flukes are embedded in the sea floor minimizes wear on attachment
hardware. Another advantage of the pivoting shank design is that the
anchor generally will still hold even if the wind and current changes
direction and causes the vessel to pull on the anchor from a slightly
different angle. Due to the simple design of the stockless anchor, it is
capable of free falling much faster in water than other more bulky
anchors.
In terms of advantages, the stockless anchor is shown to perform
poorly in soft mud cohesive bottom, such as soil or sand compared to
other types made specially for that type of bottom. Having efficiency rate
of 4-6 compared to other types
of anchors with efficiency rates ranging from 15 – 55.
Action : This is the standard anchor for ships that are likely to encounter
all types of sea bottoms. It combines the advantages of dead weight for
holding in very hard bottoms with the ability to bite and hold in mud and
sand. Its features include rugged construction, simple design, with easy
handling and stowing.
Once the suitable place / anchor berth is found, the ship will drop / let go
her port / stbd anchor in the water as per available depth of water.
Suitable length of cable is paid out (3-5 times of depth of water). On
reaching the sea bottom, the ship use stern engine to lay the cable and
make flukes to go in side the bottom.

Anchor is let go from the hawse pipe by two ways:

1- Let go from the hawse pipe (Free fall), control on breaks
2- By walking back with the help of gear, control on gear

Anchoring Procedure :
1- Approach the anchor position heading into wind and tide with speed
around 2 knots at 0.5NM from the position.
2-Lower the anchor with gear to around half shackle off the bottom and
then hold the anchor on brake.
3-Give Stern movement to stop the vessel over the ground once
the vessel is in the anchoring position.

Anchoring Methods
As we know, there are two ways an anchor can be dropped to the seabed.
1-By letting go
2-By walking back.
Each of these ways has its advantages. And in most of the cases, it
is up to the discretion of master how he wants to anchor.

Preparing for Anchoring:

1-Preparing the vessel for anchoring can start days before arrival. This is
when a Master checks the charts for marked anchorage areas days before
arrival.
2-Anchorage area for the vessel could also be suggested in the agent’s
pre-arrival message.  In any case, the Anchorage area must be physically
checked.
3-It is designated for the type of ship.
4-The depths complies with the UKC requirement of the company.
5-Depths are less than the maximum depth ship can anchor is clear of
any cables, pipeline, wrecks or other obstructions.
6-The nature of seabed is appropriate for anchoring.
7-When checking the charts for underwater. obstructions, attention
should be paid to the chart symbol.
Anchor stations
1-Anchor stations should be ready forward well in advance.
2-The anchor party should make the inspection of the anchor windlass.
3-They should also ensure that the drive (Hydraulic power packs or
electric power) is running. The lashing of both the anchors should be
removed even if it is pre-decided about which anchor will be used.
4-It is a good practice to brief anchor party well in advance of some
information about anchoring such as
5-The depth of water at the anchoring position
6-Which anchor to use
7-Anchoring method (Let go or walk back)
8-The number of shackles the vessel will be brought up to.

Basic Anchoring:
1-The basic anchoring consists of determining the location, dropping the
anchor, laying out the scope, setting the hook, and assessing where the
vessel ends up. The ship will seek a location which is sufficiently
protected; has suitable holding ground, enough depth at low tide and
enough room for the ship to swing.
2-The location to drop the anchor should be approached from down wind
or down current, whichever is stronger. As the chosen spot is approached,
the vessel should be stopped or even beginning to drift back. The anchor
should be lowered quickly but under control until it is on the bottom. The
vessel should continue to drift back, and the cable should be veered out
under control so it will be relatively straight.
3-Once the desired scope is laid out, the vessel should be gently forced
astern, usually using the auxiliary motor but possibly by backing a sail. A
hand on the anchor line may telegraph a series of jerks and jolts,
indicating the anchor is dragging, or a smooth tension indicative of
digging in. As the anchor begins to dig in and resist backward force, the
engine may be throttled up to get a thorough set. If the anchor continues
to drag, or sets after having dragged too far, it should be retrieved and
moved back to the desired position (or another location chosen.)

Date: 07.04.2021
Capt. S. Swaroop

Notes-2, B.Sc(NS) Sem-VI, Ship Manoeuvring

1-Basic Anchoring:
1-The basic anchoring consists of determining the location, dropping the anchor,
laying out the scope, setting the hook, and assessing where the vessel ends up. The
ship will seek a location which is sufficiently protected; has suitable holding ground,
enough depth at low tide and enough room for the ship to swing.
2-The location to drop the anchor should be approached from down wind or down
current, whichever is stronger. As the chosen spot is approached, the vessel should
be stopped or even beginning to drift back. The anchor should be lowered quickly
but under control until it is on the bottom. The vessel should continue to drift back,
and the cable should be veered out under control so it will be relatively straight.
3-Once the desired scope is laid out, the vessel should be gently forced astern,
usually using the auxiliary motor but possibly by backing a sail. A hand on the anchor
line may telegraph a series of jerks and jolts, indicating the anchor is dragging, or a
smooth tension indicative of digging in. As the anchor begins to dig in and resist
backward force, the engine may be throttled up to get a thorough set. If the anchor
continues to drag, or sets after having dragged too far, it should be retrieved and
moved back to the desired position (or another location chosen.)

Securing Anchor for Sea : Securing of anchor for sea is done after departure from
a port for another port. If anchor is not secured properly it may cause damage to
both the bows, structure and accessories due to rolling & pitching. Loss of anchor
also may take place if the securing is not done as per the required procedure.
1-Anchor to be well placed in side the hawse pipe.
2-Bow stoppers are to be well placed to insert the pins.
3-Additional wire lashings taken and tightened with bottle screw slips.
4-Spurling pipe covers placed, secured and cemented.
5-Hawse pipe cover placed and secured.
6-Windlass breaks are to be properly tightened.
7-Both windlass to be detached from the gear system.

Securing/Covering of Spurling Pipe : Covering of spurling is one of the most

important work when securing anchor for sea, after departure from a port. The water
tightness of the spurling, leading to the chain locker from the main deck (upper deck)
is to be ensured. Sea water coming on deck during rough weather conditions and
heavy rain will enter the chain locker and subsequently to the fore peak store, which
may cause flooding in the fore peak area. Responsible officer has to ensure that
proper procedure is followed in securing the spurling pipe, while anchor is being
secured for sea.
1- Placing the spurling pipe cover and securing
2- Making water tight with the cement
3- Putting additional canvas or plastic sheet around the cable to reduce the water
ingress.
4- Check frequently and ensure that securing is in place.

Marking of Anchor (chain) Cable : When vessel is dropping her anchor, the
captain would like to know from officer at the anchor station, how much chain is
being paid out to sea bottom and to determine if there is enough scope available for
this purpose. People have come up with all sorts of systems for marking chain . The
most popular two are using jubilee clip/ wire or paint of chain links.
Anchor chain which has been officially tested under the Anchor and Chain Cable
rules, 1970, is to be marked by two ways :
1-Officially- to indicate S. No. and letters of certifying authority(on every shackle at
each end of cable & 30 mtrs).
2- Generally -by crew, staff or dockyard. All other important details about anchor &
chain will be given in the anchor cable certificate issued by the manufacturer and
certified by the competent authority.

The purpose of marking anchor cable is to show the number of shackles / amount of
cable being paid out to sea. The marking starts from the anchor shackle towards the
chain locker. To indicate the first joining shackle, which will be 27.5 m from the
anchor shackle, the first link on each side of the joining shackle is painted white &
the third stud is bound with seizing wire and lugless joining shackle will be marked
red, and so on for 2nd, 3rd etc. When the cable is running out, even quite rapidly,
white marking on the cable may be seen provided the markings are well painted.

Associated terms & Items- Chain hook, sludge hammer, hanging off an anchor,
breaking cables, connecting a lugless joining shackle, windlass, cable, link, swivel,
joining shackle, bitter end, a-cockbil, anchor aweigh, clear hawse, foul hawse, clear
or foul anchor, anchor dragging, long stay, medium stay, short stay, cable up &
down, weighing anchor, to veer cable, brought up to, yawing and devil’s claw .

Use of Bow Stopper : A device fitted to the deck ahead of the windlass, to prevent
the anchor chain from moving out on its own, or to take the strain off the windlass
when the vessel is riding to its anchor. If windlass breaks are not holding the, weight
of the anchor cable can be transfer to the bow stopper. Usually at anchor when the
vessel has brought up to, the bow stopper is placed and windlass is disengaged
from the gear system to avoid slipping of anchor cable due to wind & current.

Mooring : A mooring refers to any permanent structure to which a vessel may be

secured, such as  quays, wharfs, jetties, piers, anchor buoys, and mooring buoys. A
ship is secured to a mooring to have a free movement of the ship on the water.
An anchor mooring fixes a vessel's position relative to a point on the bottom of a
waterway without connecting the vessel to shore. As a verb, mooring refers to the
act of attaching a vessel to a mooring system.
Types of Mooring :
Running Mooring : This manoeuvre takes relatively short duration compared to
Mediterranean mooring and offers more control of the vessel. The vessel’s starboard
anchor is let go at a position approximately four to five shackles from the final
position of the bow and around 9 shackles paid out while moving ahead on engines.
Then as she falls astern with the tide the port anchor is let go and the starboard
anchor is heaved on to five shackles. This method restricts the swinging room and
reduces the load on windlass.

Standing Mooring : This is practiced during cross winds. As the vessel is stopped
the port anchor is let go and with the tide around 9 shackles are paid out. The
starboard anchor is let go and simultaneously port anchor heaved on. Thus the port
anchor is kept on 4 shackles being generally the flood anchor and starboard on five
as it is the ebb anchor. This vessel takes longer duration and provides less control
over the vessel . The load on windlass is more as compared to running moor.

2- Procedure for Anchoring a Vessel in Deep Water : Face the Wind or current
when approaching the planned anchorage area. Reduce the ship's speed up to or
less than speed of Windlass Walk-back Capacity (which is generally 0.3 kts of ship's
speed). The anchor is then walked back all the way to the seabed. As the vessel
moves astern the cable will grow. Ship's heading on final approaching should be
faced into the Wind and Current which can provide good advantage to control good
ship's pose (heading) when Anchor just Folding and also for Minimizing of Swinging
rate to windward or current-ward. Ship's speed during Walk-back chain must be
controlled as "0" with speed over the ground by GPS and/or Doppler Sonar, or less
than speed of Windlass Walk-back Capacity (Speed).

Having established most likely position for the anchor: confirm safety of actual
anchorage location (length of cable + length of vessel) consider navigation hazards,
tidal factors, other vessels, sea state and swell plot bridge (or radar) swinging circles
create visual clearing bearings/ radar clearing ranges brief the anchor watch.

Swing-way shall be estimated totally with following factors

a) Character of movement while using astern engine  
b) Character that ships heading turns to windward
This factor is remarkable as in ballast condition
c) Drifting value of wind and/or current to lee side
This factor is remarkable while ship's proceeding with low speed.
d) Trend of Wind / Current direction which ship's heading will follow. 
Arriving at the anchoring position: Observe the other anchored vessels. This will give
a good indication of the appropriate heading. Before dropping anchor, ensure that
the charted depth corresponds to the depth shown on the echo sounder is matching
after adjustment for draft and height of tide. The echo sounder can provide a good
indication if set correctly to take into consideration the draft correction. Also ensure
that the position selected is safe for in all respect.

The Anchor Position: Take a position when the anchor is dropped. This will give a
good idea where the anchor is. Use more than one method of fixing the position.
Visual and electronic methods should be used. Verify the vessel's position when she
has brought up and settled down. Draw the estimated swinging circle on the chart.
Check the position frequently by visual and electronic means. Set any alarms fitted
to electronic equipment. If you think the vessel is dragging call the Master and
engine room. Inform other vessels.

Factors to determine the length of cable

1.Position of anchoring defined
2.Depth of water and amount of cable
3.State of tide HW/LW, rise of tide
4.Type of holding ground
5.Prevailing weather and shelter
6.Underwater obstructions
7.Rate of current
8.Swinging room from surface objects
9.Length of time vessel intend to stay
10.Ships draft and UKC
11.Use of 1 or 2 anchors
12.Proximity of other ships in the area.
13.Local hazards outfalls etc.
14.Current and weather expected
15.Position fixing method
16.Distance from shore by launch
17.Types of anchors and holding power
18.Wind direction
Yawing (Yaw) : Yawing involves rotation of the ship around its vertical axis. This
occurs due to the impossibility of steering a ship on an absolutely straight course.
Depending up on sea conditions and rudder deflection, the ship will swing around its
projected course. Yawing is not a cause of shipping damage. A yaw motion is a side-
to side movement of the bow and stern of the ship when ship is in motion at sea.
A yaw rotation is a movement around the yaw axis of a rigid body that changes the
direction it is pointing, to the left or right of its direction of motion.
In a strong wind the vessel will tend to yaw about her heading. At the extremity of her
yaw vessel surges ahead and then drops back on her anchor, jerking the cable. If
during the yaw the wind catches her on the opposite side to that normally exposed to
her natural sheer, she may at the extremity of her yaw, surge rapidly across her
anchor to the other extremity of yaw, nipping her cable round the stem and breaking
the anchor out of its holding position. This is called breaking sheer, if the anchor
fails to re-trip, the other anchor be let go at once.

Rough Weather Condition

The Three Translational Ship Motions: These six freedoms are divided into two
categories: three translational degrees, and three rotational degrees. In this section,
we will analyze.
The three translational ship motions:
1. Heaving (Vertical translation – Z-axis)
2. Swaying (Transverse translation – Y-axis)
3. Surging (Longitudinal translation – X-axis)

The Three Rotational Ship Motions

1. Yawing (Vertical rotation – Z-axis)
2. Rolling (Longitudinal rotation – X-axis)
3. Pitching (Transverse rotation – Y-axis)

Date:10.04.2021
Capt. S. swaroop

Notes-4, B.Sc(NS) Sem-VI, Ship Manoeuvring (Capt. Swaroop)

Unit- 2

General Preparation For Anchoring :

1-Ask engine room for deck and winches power.
2-Anchor party to standby near anchor at forward.
3-Checks of winches to be made for free movement.
4-Switch on power for winches / windlass.
5-Clear away the bow stopper and additional wire lashing.
6-Clear away the securing of hawse pipe and spirling pipe.
7-Lower away the anchor under power and leave the anchor hanging about 1m
above water level.
8-Tighten brakes and disengage the windlass from the gear.
9-Ensure all the moving parts are greased.
10-Check with bridge, method of dropping anchor (let go or walk back).
11- Keep relevant items nearby.(Sem-VI-C,08.04.2021)
12- Ensure all the crew members are in proper dress and PPE.

Precautions For Anchoring :

1-Check that the anchor is well clear of lashing & obstruction.
2-Bow stopper handle is up and locked.
3-Crew members are clear of anchor chain passing area.
4-No fishing boat or any object near the bow.
5-Windlass operator near the windlass brake.
6-Check with the bridge about the amount of cable to be paid.
7-Keep anchor ball/light ready for display as day/night signal.
8-Keep sludge hammer and other items ready in case required
9-Ensure proper communication with the bridge.
10.Keep cluster light ready for checking the anchor cable.

Load on Anchor due to wind, current and waves :The external elements that
affect an anchored vessel are: wind, wave, tides and the currents present in the
anchorage area. The effect of those elements that usually act in combination are
forces transferred to the anchor. The estimation of these factors is not a simple task,
but the force due to the pressure of wind and current on the vessel is relatively
straightforward to approximate, while it is much more difficult to determine the
intermittent load caused by wave action.

Wind :Gusts of wind cause a vessel to sheer back and forth on its rode, falling off
first one way and then the other. The bow is blown off until the rode comes tight,
snubbing the bow back into the wind. The ship them surges forward, responding to
the weight and elasticity of the anchor rode, until the next gust blows the bow off
once more .

The load induced by the force of the wind on an anchored vessel depends on two
factors:
1-The wind speed and the exposed surface area of the vessel. Measuring the wind
speed is straightforward; estimating the effective exposed surface area is more
difficult.
2-The vessel’s length, beam, and height above the waterline, as well as the vessel
design influence the estimate of the exposed surface. Loads caused by wind on
vessels can be estimated by conducting a wind-tunnel test.

Waves :The kinetic energy accumulated by the vessel caused by waves can
generate a peak load on the anchor of up to several tons when the anchor rode
becomes tight. Wave action causes the pitch and roll movement of an anchored
vessel, this continuous action results in a backward and upward movement of the
vessel, and the anchor rode comes tight and slows down the vessel’s surge.
This motion can result in broken anchor-chain & connectors and bent anchor shanks.
To prevent these failures, seamanship guidelines suggest that the energy related
with this type of force be absorbed by catenary in the rode ensuring the presence of
loads on the anchor will be decreased. Hence, having plenty of sag in the rode
decreases shock loads and helps the anchor remain embedded in the sediment by
lessening the angle between the rode and anchor as the loads increases. In severe
situations the angle becomes positive as the weight of the rode is overcome by the
tension. This positive angle creates a force component acting on the anchor to pull it
out increasing until the catenary becomes a straight line, ultimately dislodging the
anchor. If the catenary allows vessels to move a some distance before the chain
tightens, the associated force will be reduced proportionally to the distance achieved

Current :Loads caused by currents are relatively insignificant in many protected

anchorage areas, but deserve consideration when anchoring areas are in river
estuaries or areas subject to significant tidal currents. This is the case especially
during the tidal changes when the anchored vessel will swing successively in one
direction, and then the other.

Causes for Loss of Anchor :The root cause of many groundings and collisions, lost
anchors are among the top five reasons for claims costs. Anchor and chain loss can
often lead to collisions and grounding, which can result in additional damage to a
vessel.
1. Due to rough weather (at sea & harbour)
2. Breaking of cable, due to poor maintenance.
3. Getting fouled in the sea bottom (pipe line, cables, rocks)
4. Due to poor securing of anchor for sea

Precautions to Prevent loss of Anchor

1-Check the anchor carefully when in dry-dock for wear and tear.
2-Check the securing of the D-shackle pin as often as possible.
3-Adjust the brake band when the lining is worn. Please read the instructions.
4-Replace the brake lining when required, without delay.
5-Check the condition of all devices for holding the anchor tight in the hawse pipe.
6-Do not buy second-hand anchors or chains without certificates.
7-Watch out for fake certificates. The price may be an indication.

Anchor Related Terms :

Anchor ‘a’ cock bill: When the anchor is hanging vertically from the hawse pipe
with the flukes turned into the ship’s side, it has been just clear of the hawse pipe
and its weight is taken by the brake in readiness for letting go. In this position, it is
not stowed correctly in the hawse pipe.
Anchor coming home: When the anchor is being drawn towards the ship in the
operation of heaving away, by means of the windlass, the anchor is said to be
anchor coming home.

Anchor aweigh: The anchor is said to be aweigh immediately it is clear of the

bottom.

Anchor dragging: The anchor is said to be dragging when it is not held seabed.

Brought up to three in water / four on deck: When the anchor is dropped and third
joining shackle is in water and fourth joining shackle is on windlass (deck).

Bonnet cover: these are the covers of the spurling pipe.

Clear hawse: This term means that the cables are clear of one another when a ship
is riding to two anchors.

Clear anchor: The anchor is reported clear or foul as soon as it is entirely sighted.

To be clear the anchor must be hanging from its ring and clear of its own cable and
of any obstruction such as a bight of the rope or chain picked up from the bottom.

Clearing anchors: Anchors and cables are cleared away when the securing gear on
deck is removed. This may include chain bridles passed through cable and shackled
to the deck, and devil’s claws, which are metal bars hooked through the cable and
screwed up tight by means of a rigging screw chained and shackled to the deck.

Compressor: it is used as a brake.

Come to, Brought up & Got her cable: These terms are used when a vessel is
riding to her anchor and cable, and the anchor is holding.
Devil’s claw: it is with bottle screw nut which is used to stop the cable from running
out.

Foul hawse: This term is used to describe the crossing of the anchor cable when
both cables are being used at the same time.

Foul anchor: Used to describe an anchor which is caught in an underwater cable, or

which has brought old hawsers to the surface with it, or which is fouled by its own
cable.

Gypsy: each anchor chain rides over gypsy and it is just a roller having a cut on it,
where the link of the chain is held. The vertical wheel on the windlass on which the
cable passes over .the cable is held on the segments of the wheel.

Guillotine bar: it is a lever used as a brake.

Growing: The way the anchor cable is leading from the hawse pipe, e.g. a cable is
growing aft when it leads aft.

Hawse pipe: it is the place on the bows where the anchor is stored.
Long stay: The cable is said to be long stay when it is taut, and reaches out well
away from the hawse pipe and enters the water at the acute angle. A cable is at long
stay when it is taut and leading down to the water close to the horizontal.

Lee tide: A tidal stream which is setting to leeward or downwind. The water surface
has a minimum of chop on it, but the combined forces of wind and tide are acting
upon the ship.

Nipped cable: The cable is nipped when an obstruction, such as the stem or hawse-
pipe lip, causes it to change direction sharply.

Open hawse: When both anchors are out and the cables lead broad out on their
own bows. A vessel lying moored to anchors ahead and astern is at open hawse
when she lies across the line of her anchors.
Ranging of cable: To lay out the cable on deck, or a wharf, or in a dry dock floor, etc.

Short stay: The cable is said to be short stay when the anchor is hove in close to
the ship’s side and not over extended. The cable is not up & down in this position. A
cable is a short stay when it is taut and leading down to the water close to the
vertical.

Shortening in cable: To heave in the cable is to bring it to the required position of a

cable, to reducing the scope.

Surge cable: To allow the cable to run out freely, not using the brake or the windlass
motor.

Snub the cable: To stop the cable running out by applying the brake on the
windlass.

Spurling pipe: it is a pipe through which the cable leads to the cable locker.

To veer cable: To pay out cable under power, by walking back the gypsy of the
windlass.

To grow: A cable is said to grow in the direction in which it leads outside the hawse
pipe.

To hang cable: Means it is to hold temporarily with a stopper.

T
ide rode: A vessel is so described when she is riding head to tide.

Cable Up & down: The cable is said to be up & down when the anchor cable makes
an angle of 90 deg with the water surface, usually just before anchor a weigh.
Windlass: it is a combined machine for heaving the chain cable and for mooring
hawsers. It consists of a horizontal athwart ship shaft rotated by an electric motor or
a steam engine.

Walking back the anchor: To lower the anchor under ship’s power.
Warping drum: Warping drum is fitted on both the sides of the horizontal shaft. It is
being used for heaving the mooring hawsers when berthing the vessel along side
/when un-berthing the vessel.

Weighing anchor: Weighing anchor is the operation of heaving in the cable until the
anchor is broken out of the bottom.

Wind rode: A vessel is so described when she is riding head to wind.

Warping: To move the ship by means of hawsers (ropes) and crew, without starting /
use of the engine.

Weather tide: A tidal stream which is setting to windward or upwind. The water
surface is very choppy, but the forces of wind and tide are acting in opposition on the
ship.

Yawing: A vessel is said to be ‘yawing’ when at anchor when she moves to port and
starboard of the anchor position under the influence of the wind and/or tide.

Note: Study this we will discuss on Monday 19th April.

Date:17.04.2021
Capt. S. swaroop

Notes-5, B.Sc(NS) Sem-VI, Ship Manoeuvring

Unit - 3-Ship manoeuvring: Factors affecting Turning Circle & Stopping distances
of a ship:
1- Deadweights
2- Draughts
3- Trim
4- Speed
5- Under keel clearance

1-Deadweights : When fully loaded a vessel will have her way longer, cause her
greater damage, under impact than if she was light, be slow to answer her helm, be
sluggish in gathering way (getting momentum), be affected by wind to a minimum,
have a turning circle generally unaffected by her speed, and will have a larger
turning circle for a given speed than if she were light. A vessel can be handle best
when she is half to two third loaded and trimmed a little by the stern. Generally, the
most awkward type of vessel difficult to handle is one which is low powered, fully
loaded, of large size, having a single screw (propeller) and having poor steering
qualities.

2- Draught :As a ship's trim by the stern increases, she becomes more stable and
her tactical diameter increases. The steering characteristics of a ship on an even
keel vary depending on the ship's hull form. A ship with a large block coefficient
steers poorly, tending to be directionally unstable.
 As the hull moves through shallow water, the area which it displaces is not so
easily replaced by surrounding water, therefore, leading to a state of partial vacuum
as the propeller and rudder are still working. The vessel take-ups longer to answer
her helm, and response to engine movements becomes sluggish.

Effect of Draught on Manoeuvring include:

1-Bow wave increases.
2-Manoeuvering becomes sluggish.
3-The engine load increases.
4-The ship speed over water reduces.
5-Stopping distance and time increases.
6-The turning circle increases to a great extent.
7-Rolling and Pitching reduces.
8-The ship may start to vibrate.

3- Effect Of Trim :
A vessel trimmed by stern
Has her pivoting point farther aft than if she were on even keel.
Has a larger turning circle.
Will develop maximum power.
Will steer well
Will turn more readily downwind.

A vessel trimmed by head

Her pivot point farther forward, than on even keel.
Has smaller turning circle
Does not develop full power
Will turn slowly, once started turning difficult to control.
Will turn more quickly to windward
Will be difficult to manage / control the vessel

4- Speed : The turning circle will therefore not increase by any considerable margin

with an increase in speed, because the steering effect is increased over the same
period. (The rudder steering effect will increase with the square of the flow of water
past the rudder). Increase in speed while turning will cause heeling opposite to the
turn, more helm may also cause capsizing of the vessel.

5- Under Keel Clearance : Shallow water affects the manoeuvrability

of ship considerably. The manoeuvrability decreases which, amongst other things,
manifests itself in a substantial increase in the turning circle of the vessel or the
required bend radius, e.g. on a river. The under keel clearance is a vertical distance
between the deepest underwater point of the ship's hull and the water area bottom or
ground. That clearance should be sufficient to allow ship's floatability in most
unfavorable hydrological and meteorological conditions

Manoeuvring Data of ship :

1- Advance
2- Transfer
3- Drift Angle
4- Tactical Diameter
5- Track reach
6- Head reach
7- Side reach
8- Turning Circles of a ship
9- Directional Stability .

Stopping Distance: Stopping distance is the distance, which, a ship will continue to

move after action is taken to stop engines and till the ship comes to rest. Stopping
distance details may be provided for sea speed, harbour speed, half speed etc. It
may also be provided for loaded & light conditions.
Other Variable factors affecting ship handling.

1-Human factor – A delay in time between your given order and the execution of the
order will affect how you intend to move your ship. This is caused by human factors
because the individuals you are ordering may have different responses depending
on their training and ability to perform the job, or that orders have to be relayed by an
officer to the helmsman, which is a bad practice that should be avoided so that the
conning officer should be able to give his orders directly to the helmsman.

2-Sudden breakdown or failure of the ship’s equipment.

3-Mode of communication failure from the bridge to engine room or vice-versa, or to
the fore and aft stations.
4-Language problems between nationalities.
5-Ship’s Momentum (loaded / ballast).

Factors & forces that commonly constitute a change in a vessel’s behavior while
being maneuvered:
1-Tide.
2-A sudden change in wind velocity and direction (gust).
3-Set and drift.
4-The proximity of other vessels.
5-The depth of harbours.
Vessels also have other behaviors depending on the type of propeller, a ship
with a single propeller when run ahead from stop cants to either port or starboard;
when to put astern from stop the stern cants at a fast rate to port or starboard. When
a ship has headway and the rudder is put over to one side, the bow turns to the
same side where the rudder is turned. Thrusters, on the other hand, move the
vessel’s end sideways. Thrusters, depending on its design increase its effectiveness
as the vessel slows down.

Turning Circle Manoeuvre: It can be explained briefly as:

1-First, it is ensured that the vessel is heading forwards in a straight line with a
steady approach speed
2-Then rudder is turned in the specific direction, i.e. for starboard turn rudder is
turned towards starboard side
3-For best achievable performance, maximum rudder angle applied is 35 degrees
within design limits (as exceeding that would gradually lead to less-efficient lift and
finally stall).
4-The ship initially has a tendency to deflect towards the port. Then it takes a large
turn to starboard.
5-After sometime, it makes a complete turnaround (like a U-turn of a car) with an
180-degree change in heading direction.
6-After some time it takes the trajectory of a circle with a Steady Turning Radius.
7-The turning circle has to be done both ways, i.e. port and starboard by deflecting
the rudder to the same extent both ways

Manoeuverability: Maneuverability is defined as the inherent ability of a vessel to

change its course/path. Understanding the factor of manoeuvrability of a vessel is
extremely important to a designer or a seafarer, along with other aspects such as
structural design, machinery, propulsion, stability and sea keeping.
As a ship has to endure long voyages through different weather conditions, it
is important that the performance of a vessel during the day-to-day instances of its
voyage are not compromised on Turning about an obstruction such as landmass or
any other marine vehicle
1-Circling about a desired point of interest
2-Surging, stopping and accelerating
 3-For maintaining/varying its course or direction
4-To maintain a desired path/trajectory
5-To promptly veer about an object/ship without much delay.

1-Advance: Advance is the distance surged by the ship forward after the rudder
angle is applied. As mentioned earlier, a ship has to manifest all the hydrodynamic
effects associated with it while performing any change in its motion. Unlike a car, it
can’t just turn right-away after the rudder deviation is applied. After traversing some
distance, it gradually does so. However, proper sea-handling characteristics demand
faster response to an operator order.

2-Transfer: It is the transverse distance travelled while a ship makes a 90-degree

change in heading. More definitely, it is the distance between the original direction
vector of the ship and the point when it has completely headed starboard in its
second phase of turn.

3-Tactical Diameter: It is measured as the distance of separation between the

original direction vector of the ship at steady heading to that in the final phase of its
turn when steady state is achieved, that is the ship has changed its heading by 180
degrees. In other words, the distance negotiated in a complete turnaround at a
constant rudder deflection is determined by this length. 

4- Drift Angle :The drift angle is the angle between the ship's fore-and-aft line and
the tangent to the turning circle.
5- Track Reach : Track Reach is defined as a distance along the vessel's track that
the vessel covers from the moment that the “full astern” command is given until
ahead speed changes sign.

6- Head Reach-Head Reach is defined as a distance along the direction of the

course at the moment when the   “full astern” command was given. The distance is
measured from the moment when the “full astern” command is given until the vessel
is stopped dead in the water.

7- Side Reach : It is the distance travelled to the side, opposite to the side to which
the vessel is altering her course, initially by a vessel when turning / altering her
course.

8-Turning Circles of a ship : When a vessel alters her course under helm through
360 degrees she moves on a roughly circular path called a turning circle. Throughout
the turn her bow will be slightly inside the circle and her stem a little outside it. The
circle will be in the path traced out by her centre of gravity. At any instant during the
turn a line drawn from the centre of curvature of the path, perpendicular to the ship's
fore-and-aft line, meets the latter at a point called the pivoting point. This is about
one-third of the length from forward. For practical purposes, it may be taken as being
just forward of the bridge. When the vessel moves under stern way the pivoting point
moves aft, very close to the stem

9-Directional Stability: A ship is said to be directionally stable if a deviation from a

set course increases only while an external force or moment is acting to cause the
deviation. On the other hand, it is said to be unstable if a course deviation takes
place. A directionally unstable ship is easy to maneuver, while a stable ship requires
less energy expenditure by its steering gear in maintaining a set course. A
compromise between extremes is therefore desirable. In a rough sense, directional
stability or instability can be determined by examination of the ship’s underwater
profile. If the area of the hull and its appendages is concentrated toward the aft end,
then the ship is likely to be directionally stable.

Date: 24.04.2021
Capt. S. swaroop

Notes-4, B.Sc(NS) Sem-VI, Ship Manoeuvring (Capt. Swaroop)

Unit- 3

Ship Handling / Manoeuvering: The most basic thing to be understood in ship

handling is to know and anticipate how a ship behaves under all circumstances and
what orders should be given in order to make the ship behave and move
exactly the way you want it to.
Forces to keep in Mind when handling Ship: These forces include wind, waves,
currents, tides, interactions between vessels, shallow water effects and bank effects.
The magnitude of the influence that these forces have on ship handling is dependent
upon ship size, speed and draft, and upon the condition of the sea.

Effect of Wind and Current on Ship Handling

Effects of external forces:
The effects of external forces may become advantageous or disadvantageous to the
ship handler. It is best that these effects are foreseen beforehand so that necessary
steps to counter or make use of them during the manoeuver are made. As some
experts put it; “ the art of ship handling involves the effective use of the forces under
one’s control to overcome the effects of external forces”.
Among the external forces, the effects of the wind and current are the most
important. These forces greatly affect the movement of the ship. When there is wind
blowing on one side of a high sided ship moving ahead, she will not move along the
line of the intended course line but rather drift towards the lee side of the ship
Likewise, if a current is acting on one side of a ship, she will behave in the same
manner, that is, she will be moving diagonally in the direction where the current is
setting although her heading is on the course steered. To attain the desired track we
make allowance for set to compensate for a current and allowance for leeway to
compensate for the wind. Always bear in mind that currents affect ships more than
the wind and allowances made to compensate for these factors are called set
because generally it is not possible to separate the difference. If a ship steers a
course of 270 degrees, and the current is setting north, she will deviate considerably
towards the north from the course line. The angular difference between the ship’s
heading and the course made good is called the drift angle.

Effect of Wind : When a vessel is light, a gentle breeze can have the same effect
upon her as a gale force wind would have on a heavy vessel. When a vessel is
stopped she adopts a position such that the wind is roughly on her beam. When a
vessel is underway her pivoting point moves right aft, all her windage area is
forward of this point. Under headway, a vessel’s movement in a wind are very much
dependent upon the amount of windage forward or abaft her pivot point, and the
relative direction of the wind . In general, wind is of great assistance provided it is not
too strong for the condition of loaded, and judgment does not need to be so exact as
when manoeuvring in calm.
To appropriate the later work on practical ship handling, one must take careful note
of the average of the vessel’s (3) three tendencies in a wind.

Three tendencies of wind :

1- To lie across it when stopped
2- To run across it under headway
3- To stern bore into it under sternway

Effect of Current : Currents which are known, and not too strong, may be used to
advantage. They do not affect a ship's handling qualities and affect a ships equally,
regardless of trim or loading. When handling a vessel in a current due allowance
must be made for the downstream drift of the ship; the amount of which depends
upon the strength of the stream and the period of time during which the ship is
subjected to its influence. A vessel stemming the stream at slow speed may
complete the first part of her turning circle almost within her own length, as the
stream runs against the vessel broadside.

When berthing the vessel should stem the stream and will be under easy control due
to the braking effect of the current. When leaving the berth the up-tide end has its
moorings slackened and the water running between the quay and the ship's side,
forces the other end of the vessel clear of the quay.

Man Over Board: "Man overboard!" is an exclamation given aboard a vessel to

indicate that a member of the crew or a passenger has fallen off of the ship into the
water and is in need of immediate rescue.

Manoeuvres for the rescue of a man over board: Put the rudder over hard.
If in response to a man overboard, put the rudder toward the person, if
the person fell over the starboard side, put the rudder over hard to starboard. After
deviating from the original course by about 240 degrees, shift the rudder hard to the
opposite side.
The three most common manoeuvres that can be executed to turn a vessel back
towards a man overboard in order to rescue the man over board:
1-The Williamson Turn
2-The Anderson Turn or Single Turn
3-Scharnov Turn

Factors that affects recovery: Always remember  the rule number no-1, is to  stay
calm and remember the word:
CALMER:
C : Capability of your engine plant
A : Assistance from crew and other vessels around
L : Limitations by weather; visibility, sea state, currents
M : Manoeuvring characteristics of your vessel
E : Experience of crew and level of training
R : Recovery method to be used.

Man Overboard Marker: The purpose of Man overboard marker is to mark the
position of person fallen overboard for rescue operation. SOLAS require at least
one Man overboard marker to be mounted on each bridge wing. Man overboard
marker (MOB) need to be attached to a lifebuoy weighing 4kg with a lanyard.
General Sequence Of Actions of OOW In case Of Man Over Board :
1-Throw life ring (MOB) to the person
2-Mark and note the position
3-Sound three prolonged blasts on the ship’s whistle
4-Inform the Master
5-Note wind speed and direction
6-Post lookouts
7-Stand by engines
8-Inform other vessels in vicinity
9-Prepare recovery equipment
10-Establish communication between bridge, deck and rescue boat.

Actions: For any situation, always there are 3 actions:

1-Immediate Action :
i- Throw the man over board marker.
ii- Alter course to the side man has fallen over board.
iii- Sound alarm

2-Subsequent Action:
i- Call the Master
ii- Inform nearby ships
iii- Initiate MOB on Global Positioning System (GPS)
iv- Place lookouts to locate the person

3-Delayed Action :
i- Prepare life boat for man over board recovery
ii- Inform owner and other concerned
iii- Inform local authorities
iv- Prepare for hospitalisation if required
Single Turn : In this technique you place the rudder hard over to the side of MOB
and once you have deviated from your original course by 250 degree you bring your
rudder amid ship and perform a stopping manoeuvere.

Advantages:
1-Fastest recovery method
2-Good for ships with tight turning characteristics

Disadvantages:
1-Used most by ships with a considerable power
2-Very difficult for single screw vessel
3-Difficult since the approach to the person is not straight

Williamson Turn : The Williamson turn is a maneuver used to bring a ship or boat

under power back to a point it previously passed through, often for the purpose of
recovering a man overboard. It was named for John Williamson.
The Williamson turn is most appropriate at night or in reduced visibility, or if the point
can be allowed to go (or already has gone) out of sight, but is still relatively near. For
other situations, an Anderson turn (quickest method) or a Scharnow turn might be
more appropriate. The choice largely depends on prevailing wind and weather
conditions.
1-Put the rudder Hard over (full).
2-If in response to a man overboard, put the rudder toward the person (e.g., if the
person fell over the starboard side, put the rudder over starboard full).
3-Shift the rudder full to the opposite side to stop vessel 60 degrees from its original
course and start turning to the opposite direction.
4-When heading about 20 degrees short of the reciprocal, put the rudder amidships
so that vessel turns onto the reciprocal course.
5Bring the vessel upwind of the person, stop the vessel in the water with the person
alongside, well forward of the propellers
If dealing with a man overboard, always bring the vessel upwind of the person. Stop
the vessel in the water with the person well forward of the propellers.

Advantages:
1-Makes a good original track line
2-Good in reduced visibility
3-A simple manoeuvre

Disadvantages:
1-Takes the ship farther away from the incident
2-Slow procedure

The Scharnow turn : It is a maneuver used to bring a ship back to a point it

previously passed through, often for the purpose of recovering a man overboard. It
was developed by and named for Ulrich Scharnow.
The Scharnow turn is most appropriate when the point to be reached is significantly
further astern than the vessel's turning radius. For other situations, an Anderson turn
or a Williamson turn might be more appropriate.

Advantages:
1-Will take the vessel back to her wake
2-Less distance is covered , hence saves time

Disadvantages:
1-Cannot be used in an immediate action situation.
The Scharnov turn takes back the ship into her wake. However it cannot be used in
an immediate manoeuver. This turn cannot be carried out effectively unless the time
elapsed between the person falling overboard and the commencement of the
manoeuver is known.

Execution:
1-Put the rudder over hard towards  the person (e.g., if the person fell over the
starboard side, put the rudder over hard to starboard).
2-After deviating from the original course by about 240 degrees, shift the rudder hard
to the opposite side.
3-When about 20 degrees short of the reciprocal course, put the rudder amidships
so that vessel will turn onto the reciprocal course.

Note: Study all these notes properly & carefully, there will Internal Assessment
of 30 marks next Saturday 08.05.2021. Questions will be such that you will not
be able to copy. Everyone has to write in his words.

Date: 01.05.2021
Capt. S. swaroop
Notes-7 B.Sc(NS) Sem-VI, Ship Manoeuvring (Capt. Swaroop)

Unit- 3
Squat : Squat is the sinkage of a ship due to its movement through the water and is
dependent on speed, ship form and under water clearance. When a ship moves
forward through the water, the water ahead of it is pushed to stbd & port, as well as
underneath the hull. The volume of water pushed ahead of the ship must run down
to the sides and under the keel of the ship. The streamlines of return flow are
speeded up under the ship. This causes drop in pressure, results in ship dropping
vertically in the water.
Squat effect is approximately proportional to the square of the speed of the
ship. Thus, by reducing speed by half, the squat effect is reduced by a factor of
four. Squat effect is usually felt more when the depth/draft ratio is less than four or
when sailing close to a bank. It can lead to unexpected groundings and handling
difficulties.

Indications of a vessel entering shallow water :

1- Wave making increases at the forward end of the ship.
2- Ship becomes more sluggish to manoeuvre.
3- Echo sounder traces will indicate changes.
4- RPM indicator will show a decrease.
5- There will be drop in speed from 30 - 60 %.

Factors governing the ship’s Squat: The main factor governing the squat is ship’s
speed. Squat varies approximately with the speed squared, ie. If we halve the speed,
quarter the squat. The other factor is the block co-efficient, Cb. Squat varies
directly with Cb. Hence it is observed the oil tankers squat comparatively more than
passenger ships. Cb can be used to assess the likely hood of a stern or bow trim
when squatting.

Practical Calculation of Squat :

I- If the ship is in confined water (less breadth of channel)
Squat = 2xCbxV2/100
V = speed of ship in knots
Cb= Block co-efficient of the vessel
2- If the ship is in open water condition (no breadth of
channel restriction)
Squat = CbxV2/100
V = speed of ship in knots
Cb= Block co-efficient of the vessel
Importance Of Squat :

Shallow Water : As the hull moves through shallow water, that which it displaces is
not so easily replaced by other water, and the propeller and rudder are working in
what might again be loosely termed a partial vacuum. The vessel takes longer to
answer her helm, and response to engine movements becomes sluggish. In these
circumstances vibration will be set up, and it will be extremely difficult correct a yaw
or sheer with any degree of rapidity.
Due to the fact that the water displaced by a hull moving through shallow
water is not easily replaced, the bow wave and stem wave of the vessel increase in
height. By reducing speed, the wave heights and trough depth will be diminished,
and the vessel will not therefore close the bottom. The speed of a vessel moving in
shallow water should always be moderate; if the speed is increased the keel will
close with the ground and the ship will sheer about unpredictably.

Shallow Water Effects On Ship: When a ship moves through the shallow water,

some of the  water displaced rushes under the vessel to rise again at the stern. This
decreases the upward pressure on the hull, making the ship sink deeper in the water
slowing the vessel. As the hull moves through shallow water, the area which it
displaces is not so easily replaced by surrounding water, therefore, leading to a state
of partial vacuum as the propeller and rudder are still working. The vessel take-ups
longer to answer her helm, and response to engine movements becomes sluggish.
In these circumstances, vibration will be set up, and it will be extremely difficult to
correct a yaw or sheer with any degree of rapidity.
At normal speed it is found that steering becomes erratic when the depth of water is
equal to, or less than, one and a half times the deepest draught, i.e. a vessel
drawing 8 m maximum draught will develop unsteady steering in water of depth 12m
or under.
When a ship Nearing an extremely shallow depth of water, such as a shoal, she is
likely to take a sudden sheer, first towards it and then violently away. This is
called smelling the ground, and the movements of a sluggish ship may suddenly
become astonishingly lively.
Due to the fact that the water displaced by a hull moving through shallow water is not
easily replaced, the bow wave and stern wave of the vessel increases in height.
Further, the trough which normally exists under the quarter becomes deeper and
after part of the ship is drawn downwards towards the bottom. By reducing speed,
the wave heights and trough depth will be diminished, and the vessel will not,
therefore, close the bottom or squat.

Shallow Water Effects Shown At Sea / Coastal Areas

Bow wave increases.
Manoeuvering becomes sluggish.
The engine load increases.
The ship speed over water reduces.
Stopping distance and time increases.
The turning circle increases to a great extent.
Rolling and Pitching reduces.
The ship may start to vibrate.

Bank effect: Bank effect refers to the tendency of the ship’s stern to swing towards
the near bank when the ship is operating in a river or restricted waterway.

Bank Cushion effect: When the ship is near to the bank, the water is forced
between the narrowing gap between the ship’s bow and the bank. This water tends
to pile up on the starboard side of the ship, causing the ship to sheer away from the
bank.
The next is Bernoulli’s Principle, which states that for an in viscid flow (flow of an
ideal fluid that has no viscosity), an increase in the speed of the fluid (i.e. its Kinetic
Energy) occurs simultaneously with the decrease in pressure or decrease in its
Potential Energy and vice-versa. Actually this principle is a corollary of the Law of
Conservation of Energy which says the sum total of all the energies in an isolated
system (roughly speaking no energy can be transferred into or out of this system)
always remains the same.

Bow Cushion: In a restricted channel, when the ship moves near the bank,

the bow is pushed away from the bank, an effect known as bow cushion, and
the vessel is bodily attracted toward the bank, an effect known as bank suction.
In a restricted channel, when the ship moves near the bank, the bow is pushed away
from the bank, an effect known as bow cushion, and the vessel is bodily attracted
toward the bank, an effect known as bank suction. The bank cushion results from
high pressure build up between the bank and the bow of the ship, and the bank
suction is caused by loss of pressure and increased velocity of water in the restricted
space between the vessel and the bank.
If the ship is kept in the exact centre of the channel all these forces are equalized.
Inequalities of the bottom can cause these forces to come into play despite the fact
that the ship is equidistant from both banks. If the cannel is deeper on one side than
on the other, if the bank is steeper on one side, or if the vessel passes over a shoal
suction and cushion will appear suddenly due to the river bed restricting the flow of
water. This is similar to smelling the ground, and dangerous sheers may suddenly be
taken. If the vessel is kept to the exact centre the minimum amounts of helm are
used. The speed of the vessel should be moderate and engines on standby for any
immediate action.

Points for Bow cushion and bank suction effect:

1-Occurs in narrow channels near proximities of banks.
2-There is a tendency for the bow of a ship to be pushed away from the bank,
called bow cushion.
3-The ship moves bodily towards the bank, which appears at the stern, called bank
suction.
4-Caused by the restricted flow of water on the bank’s side.
5-The velocity of water to the bank increases and pressure reduces.
6-Results in the drop of water level towards the bank.
7-As a result, a thrust is set up towards the bank.
8-A vessel approaching the bank will have to apply helm to the bank and reduce
speed to prevent the sheer from developing.

Squat and Bank Effect :In these localities all the effects of shallow water are
present, together with others. The water displaced by a vessel moving ahead is
restricted in movement by the proximity of banks. The general effect is a build-up in
the water level ahead of the ship and a lowering in the level astern of her. This
produces a surging effect which can part a moored ship's hawsers. In addition, the
moving vessel's bow wave, stern wave, and trough increase in amplitude, and for
this reason a vessel should proceed at' slow speed in such areas. As the vessel
moves through the restricted channel it is possible that she may close one bank. In
this event a streamlining or venturi effect arises due to the restricted flow of water on
one side of the ship.
Reduction in Under Keel Clearance due to Rolling & Pitching : A hydrographic
survey by vessels show three-dimensional movements due to environmental effects,
such as wind, current, other vessel wakes, etc. As a result of this, the vessel will
experience Pitch & Roll. These motions (if ignored) cause errors in depth and
change in the under keel clearance. The magnitude of the errors can reach up to
even meters depending on the marine environment conditions, vessel size, vessel
characteristics, and especially wave height. In shallow water, opposite to the side of
roll of ship, speed of passing water will increase, thus the vessel will fall vertical. It
will happen vice versa. During the pitching, when forward portion is going down, it
will block the water and the after portion of the vessel will fall vertical, as propeller is
sucking the water and due to block by forward no much water is available.

Interaction Between passing ships :The pressure fields of two vessels in close
proximity on the same or opposite course will interact and require corrective action to
maintain course. The large suction zone developed around the longer of two vessels
may be the dominating factor in interaction between vessels of significantly different
sizes. This may present a dangerous situation for the smaller vessel. When vessels
intend to pass in a narrow channel, each should take up a passing position in ample
time to provide maximum clearance between the other vessel and edges of the
channel, to minimize interaction effects. Preferably speed before and while passing
should be reduced to reduce interaction, steerage way must be maintained. Speed
reduction will result in lessening squat, reduction of pressure waves, reduction in
hull drag, decreased rudder efficiency but ability to increase engine power in short
bursts to enhance steering.
Effectiveness of Bow Thrusters and Stern Thrusters : . Bow thrusters are a type
of propeller-shaped system fitted either on the bow (forward part) and stern part
(known as stern thruster) of the ship. They are smaller in size as compared to
the ship's propeller and help in better manoeuvrability of the vessel at lower speed.
The bow thrusters are now a days increasingly in use in ships. Usually thrusters are
fitted at the forward, also may be fitted at the stern. They are found on passenger
ships, container ships, car carriers, Ro-Ro ships, off shore support vessels and ferry
ships.
Bow thrusters are not effective if speed is more than 5 knots. They are useful
and effective in ports during moorings operations, when berthing along side the berth
and when un-berthing from the berth. These reduce the usage of tugs and thus
reduction in port charges.
Advantages Of Using Bow Thrusters
1) Better manoeuvrability at low speeds of the ship.
2) Safety of the ship increases when berthing in bad weather.
3) Saves money due to less use of tugboats.
4) Easily available all the time (tugs to be booked)

Disadvantages Of Using Bow Thrusters

1) A very large induction motor is required, which takes a lot of current and load, and
thus large generator capacity is required.
2) Initial investment is high
3) Maintenance and repairs are costly when there is damage.
4) If it becomes non operational during berthing

Date: 08.05.2021
Capt. S. swaroop

Notes-8, B.Sc(NS) Sem-VI, Ship Manoeuvring (Capt. Swaroop)

Unit- 3

Rigging Pilot Ladder / Combination Ladder : MMD Exam sect which is the part of
D. G. Shipping requires that a candidate shall know how to rig a pilot ladder in a safe
and proper manner. Every foreign going cargo ship and passenger ship engaged on
a long international voyages is required to carry a ladder which is used only for the
embarkation & disembarkation of pilot.
The ladder must be of a single length, capable of reaching the water from the access
point at light draught, with normal trim and zero list. If the pilot has to climb more
than 9 mtrs, an accommodation ladder with the pilot ladder shall be used (called
combination ladder). The ladder must be rigged well clear of overboard discharges
and obstructions, so that each step rests firmly against the ship side and so that the
pilot can gain convenient access to the ship, from the pilot boat.

Requirement for Pilot Boarding Arrangements: All arrangements used for pilot
transfer shall efficiently fulfil their purpose of enabling pilots to embark and
disembark safely
The appliances shall be kept clean, properly maintained and stowed , and also shall
be regularly inspected
The appliances shall be used solely for the embarkation and disembarkation of
personnel.
An accommodation ladder shall be used in conjunction with the pilot ladder, or other
equally safe and convenient means, whenever the distance from the surface of the
water to the point of access to the ship is more than 9 m.

The rigging of pilot transfer arrangements

The rigging of the pilot transfer arrangements, and the embarkation of a pilot shall
be supervised by a responsible officer having means of communication with the
bridge.
• The responsible officer who shall also arrange for the escort  of the pilot by a
safe route to and from the  bridge.
• Personnel engaged in rigging and operating any mechanical equipment shall
be instructed in the safe procedures to be adopted, and the equipment shall
be tested prior to use.

Certification, marking and record keeping

1- A pilot ladder shall be certified by the manufacturer as complying with SOLAS, or
with an international standard acceptable to the Organization.
2-All pilot ladders shall be clearly identified with tags or other permanent marking so
as to enable identification of each appliance.
3-A record shall be kept on the ship as to the date an identified ladder is placed into
service and any repairs conducted.

Important points for rigging of pilot ladder :

1- Ladder as per require regulation.
2- Ladder Should be of proper length and size.
3- Ropes Should not have joints or knots.
4- Pilot boarding area should be properly marked & lit.
5- Sufficient crews are available during the pilot boarding.
6- Responsible officer to be standby with the walkie talkie.
7- One life buoy with light and line at the boarding area.
8- Two man ropes are to be readily available.
9- Responsible officer to ensure proper securing of ladder.
10-No obstruction near the pilot boarding area.

Equipment required at the pilot boarding location

1-The following associated equipment shall be kept at hand ready for immediate
use when persons are being transferred:
2-Two man-ropes of not less than 28 mm and not more than 32 mm in diameter. The
man-ropes shall be fixed at the rope end to the ring plate fixed on deck and shall be
ready for use when required by the pilot.
3-A lifebuoy equipped with a self-igniting light
4-A heaving line and bucket.
5-When required, stanchions and bulwark ladders
6-Adequate lighting to illuminate the transfer arrangements over side and the
position on deck where a person embarks or disembarks.
 Precautions for embarkation/disembarkation of pilot
1. Have The ETA passed to the pilot station.
2. Side The Pilot Will Embark / Disembark agreed.
3. Engine room Been Advised Of The Time Of 'Stand-By'
4. Pilot Embarkation / Disembarkation arrangements Checked Ready For Use.

Date: 13.05.2021
Capt. S. swaroop

Notes-8, B.Sc(NS) Sem-VI, Ship Manoeuvring (Capt. Swaroop)

Unit- 4- Mooring Safety During Mooring of Vessel:

Mooring operation is one of the important tasks that seafarers have to perform on
ship's deck. Technically, the operation may seem simple but there are several
dangerous associated with it. As a seafarer, you must have heard about “Death
Traps” on ships and how crew members have lost lives during mooring operation.

Steps for Safe Mooring Operation:

1-Use appropriate mooring ropes
2-Carry out checks before operation.
3-Plan operation.
4-Toolbox meeting.
5-Execute operation.
6-Post operation activities.
7-Proper communication.

Mooring Lines:
Breast lines – Mooring lines leading ashore as perpendicular to the ship fore and aft
line. Breast lines restrain the ship in one direction (off the berth). Note: Due to
collision with shore gantry cranes, breast lines are not usually used in container
terminals.

Head lines – Mooring lines leading ashore from the fore-end or forecastle of a ship,
often at an angle of about 45 degrees to the fore and aft line.

Spring lines – Mooring lines leading in a nearly fore and aft direction, the purpose of
which is to prevent longitudinal movement (surge) of the ship while in the berth.
Spring lines restrain the vessels in two directions: headsprings prevent forward
motion and back springs aft motion.

Stern lines – Mooring lines leading ashore from the after the end or poop of a ship,
often at an angle of about 45 degrees to the fore and aft line.

Mooring operation in port:

The master should ensure that all important factors affecting safe mooring of the
vessel throughout the duration of port stay are monitored and recorded.
These may include Weather conditions, both present and forecasted
Tide and Current ranges
Traffic movement in the vicinity (where applicable)
Interval of mooring patrols depending upon above factors
Ensure that no extra personnel are present at the mooring station except those who
are involved in the operation. Anyone who is not assisting in the mooring operation
must be asked to leave the mooring station for his/her and other's safety.
There have been several cases reported in the past about accidents during mooring
operation that has led to severe injuries or deaths of seafarers.
Following factors make mooring area and operation dangerous:
1-Use of old and damaged wires and ropes that do not possess the adequate
strength to hold the ship in place as well as the possibility to cause damage to the
personnel (chafed, weak ropes can snap/get stuck in the winch at any time)
2-Unclear mooring area with unused ropes and equipment possess many dangers
such as confusion with regard to areas that hold a much higher degree of danger
than others
3-Mooring ropes are not fastened but stored at winch drum end
4-Mooring equipment is not maintained properly; as with any other equipment,
maintenance of the mooring equipment is essential to its safe movement.
5-Undersized and untrained operating staff; mooring of a ship pertains to ship
handling and naturally, ship staff not conversant with that will not be able to gauge
the dangers associated with it thoroughly
6-Supervisor of operation is involved with some other work as a result of fewer crew
members; as mentioned earlier, the ropes are big and heavy and adequate skilled
manpower is required to handle the operation. It’s not everyone’s cup of tea to
understand which ropes to pass under command from the Master and to what
lengths.
7-The painting of mooring area is badly planned with all surfaces and equipment
painted with the same colour not highlighting hazardous and tripping sights. The
topic of ‘snapback’ zones have been a hot topic in recent times to ensure hazardous
areas pertaining to mooring are adequately highlighted so that everybody
understands the dangers associated with it.
8-Over painting of the drum including corners causing rope damage. Ropes are
made of vegetable fibre or in the case of wires, other material; painting some of the
rope along with the drum itself can cause it to get stuck while it turns or get hardened
reducing its effectiveness.
9-No warning marks painted
10-Non-slip deck is not available
11-Crew not aware of Snap Back Zone
12-Crew not aware of dangers of rope bight. While the mooring operation is being
carried out, it is only natural to forget many aspects with regard to dangers and the
crew, in their efforts to continue swift operation, might forget that they ought to never
stand in the eye or the bight of the rope.
13-Personal Protective Equipment is not used. As with all other tasks on ship, the
associated PPE must be donned at all times
14-Rope and metal line are joined directly without using thimble which may lead to
parting of rope
Inspection and tests of mooring machinery and ropes are not carried regularly
15-Ropes are not arranged on split type drum correctly. The smaller drum must have
4-5 turns and rest of it should be on larger drum

Important Points for Safe Mooring Operation:

1. Don’t Allow Any Extra Crew Member on the Deck: Ensure that no extra
personnel are present at the mooring station except those who are involved in the
operation. Anyone who is not assisting in the mooring operation must be asked to
leave the mooring station for his/her and other’s safety.

2. Consider Weather Condition: Before planning the mooring operation, consider

the weather condition by taking factors such as wind and current. The ship’s master
and responsible officer must have the details of current and future weather data
before commencing the mooring operation.

3. Have knowledge of Snap Back Zone and Rope Bight: All personnel involved
with the mooring operation should be aware of the snap back zones and rope bight. 

4. Check All the Mooring Equipment: Check all the equipment (mooring winch,
drums, windlass etc.) involved in the mooring operation for any kind of problem.

5-Routine Maintenance: Proper routine maintenance is the key to ensure smooth

running of mooring equipment and systems. 

6. Check the Tail of Mooring Line: If the mooring wire line is provided with tail
(short lengths of synthetic fibber rope which are placed in series with the vessel’s
winch-mounted wires to decrease mooring line stiffness and thus to reduce peak line
loads and fatigue due to vessel motions) ensure same size and material of tails are
used for all lines in the same service. Different tail size and material would lead to
uneven load in the mooring line.

7. Tend One Line at a Time: Only one line should be tended at a time during
mooring operation. If this is not done, it may increase the load in the other tended
lines. If two lines are tended together it may lead to overloading and breakage.

8. Keep a Check on the Mooring Line Load: Ensure that the allowable breaking
load in any of the mooring lines does not increase 55% of its Maximum Breaking
Load (MBL). This is to prevent the line from breaking.

9. Avoid Mixed Mooring: Mixed mooring is extremely dangerous. Generally,

mooring lines of the same size and material should be used for all leads.
10. Keep a Continuous Check: Load on the mooring lines must be checked
continuously even after the mooring operation is over. If there is any change in the
ship’s ballast condition, the lines must be slacked or tightened accordingly.

11. Arrange Mooring Lines Symmetrical: All mooring line must be arranged as

symmetrical as possible with the breast line. The breast line should be perpendicular
to the longitudinal centre line of the ship and the spring line should be  parallel to the
longitudinal centre line.

Precautions For Mooring / Unmooring of Vessel:

1-Never stand in the bight and snap zone area of a rope and always maintain a
position of safety.
2-Be aware of the dangers of back-lash if a man made fibre rope parts.
3-Ensure sufficient number of men are available at the forward and aft stations of the
vessel during mooring operations.
4-Find out mooring plan from master / pilot.
5-Brief the crew well in time about the procedure.
6-Distribute the role and responsibility.
7-Watch for strain / tension on the ropes.
8-Wait for shore mooring gang’s indication.

Snap Back Zone :All mooring ropes will stretch to some degree under tension and
more so when constructed from synthetic fiber. When a mooring line parts under
load, the sudden release of stored energy in the rope will cause it to recover its
original length almost instantaneously. The two ends of the line recoil or snap-back
towards or past their secured ends with great velocity and anyone standing within
the snap-back zone risks serious injury or death. A snap-back zone is thus an area
within which it is unsafe for persons to be positioned when ropes are likely to come
under tension. 

Mooring Plan : A ship is secured to a mooring to have free movement of the ship on

the water. An anchor mooring fixes a vessel's position relative to a point on the
bottom of a waterway without connecting the vessel to shore. As a
berb, mooring refers to the act of attaching a vessel to a wharf, quay, pier, jetty,
anchor or buoy.
OCIMF Recommendations on Mooring Equipment :The Oil Companies
International Marine Forum (OCIMF) has introduced new guidelines for the safe
mooring of tankers and gas carriers at terminals. A Mooring System Management
Plan (MSMP) is part of the requirements to ensure risks are managed through
the safe design and operation of mooring systems.

1-Ship Design Minimum Breaking Load: The minimum breaking load of new, dry
mooring lines for which a ship’s mooring system is designed, to meet OCIMF
standard environmental criteria restraint requirements. The ship design MBL is the
core parameter against which all the other components of a ship’s mooring system
are sized and designed with defined tolerances.

2-Line Design Break Force (LDBF): LDBF is the minimum force that a new, dry,
spliced mooring line will break at when tested according to appendix B. This is for all
mooring line and tail materials except those manufactured from nylon which is tested
wet and spliced. This value is declared by the manufacturer on each line’s mooring
line certificate (see appendix B) and is stated on a manufacturer’s line data sheet. As
outlined in appendix B, when selecting lines, the LDBF of a line shall be 100-105% of
the ship design MBL.

3-Working Load Limit (WLL): The maximum load that a mooring line should be
subjected to in operational service, calculated from the standard environmental
criteria. The WLL is expressed as a percentage of ship design MBL and should be
used as a limiting value in both ship design and operational mooring analyses.
During operation, the WLL should not be exceeded.

4-Line Management Plan (LMP): LMP is used to manage the operation and
retirement of mooring lines and tails. The LMP also documents the requirements,
assumptions and evaluation methods used in determining the line retirement criteria.
The LMP is specific to an operator, ship type, and trade route; however, MEG4 gives
general guidance on establishing a LMP.

5-Mooring System Management Plan (MSMP): The MSMP is to be ship specific

and complement the ship’s safety management system. Through a ‘goal-based’
approach, core elements of the mooring system are identified against which high
level ‘goals’ are established supported by more detailed ‘functional requirements’. A
register of the mooring system components is maintained for the ship’s life in an
accompanying Mooring System Management Plan Register (MSMPR).
Slip Wire : A wire / rope so arranged that it may be readily let go; a rope passed
through the ring of a mooring-buoy with both ends on board ship, so that by letting
go one end and hauling on the other the ship will be disengaged.

Making Fast Tugs: The most common position for securing the tugs, if we have
two tugs is, the centre lead forward and aft. This way the tugs can control both the
lateral and forward, and the aft movement by either pulling and/or pushing as
required. If there is only one tug that we are going to use then it is
usually secured aft.
Precaution when making fast Tugs:
1-Be clear of tug‘s rope
2-Do not mix up with other ship ropes
3-Watch out for the tug’s movement
4-Ensure tug is pushing at the proper place
5-Maintain proper communication with pilot / bridge
6-Take and pass tug’s line with help of mooring winch/drum

Joining of Two Mooring Ropes: Various knots, bends, hitches, splicing and other
methods are used to join two ropes of same or different size on board ship when
working with ropes. But when two different types of ship’s mooring ropes are
joined together ie, synthetic fiber and wire ropes, they are joined with the below two
methods:

1-Tonsberg  Mooring Link: It is galvanized steel mooring link of compact design

typically utilized as connection between wire rope and fibber forerunner.

2- Mandel Shackle - Stainless steel mooring shackle  with sleek shape designed to

pass through fairleads. Available in two sizes 90 M and 120 M. each shackle is proof
tested and certified by DNV.

Synthetic Fibre Tails: Mooring Tails or mooring pendants are special-

length ropes that introduce elasticity in a high Modulus (low stretch) mooring &
towing line, providing safer operations. Their primary use is to give elasticity in a low
stretch line (High Modulus Synthetic Rope or Wire Rope) which reduces the peak
loads and extends the service life. This way, small vessel movements (i.e. caused by
swell or even waves) are absorbed by the mooring tail’s elongation and do no
damage to the main line in high loads.

Effects of Under Keel Clearance On Current: This overall decrease in the

static under keel clearance, both forward and aft, is called Ship's Squat. If the ship
moves forward at a greater speed in shallow water, where the keel clearance is 1.0
to 1.5 metres, then there are high chances of grounding at the bow or stern due to
excessive squat.

Dangers of Using different types of ropes in one mooring system:  Mixed

mooring is extremely dangerous. Generally, mooring lines of the same size and
material should be used for all leads, if this is not possible due to the available
equipment, all lines in the same service, i.e. breast lines, spring lines, head
lines and stern lines should be of the same size and material. The use of mixed
moorings comprising full length synthetic ropes used in conjunction with wire should
be avoided. 
1-Wire ropes do not stretch
2-Uneven load distribution
3-Need to have different drums for normal & wire ropes
4-Wire ropes are heavy therefore need more man power
5-Wire difficult to maintain at sea

Use of Fenders during berthing of Vessel: Marine fenders are used at ports and

docks on quay walls and other berthing structures. They absorb the kinetic energy of
a berthing vessel and thus prevent damage to the vessel or the berthing structure.
The purpose of installing fenders on the pier/jetty is to protect the vessel and
the pier from damage when the vessel berths alongside the pier or jetty.
The fenders absorb the berthing energy of the vessel and soften the berthing impact
on the pier due to push of the tugs.

Types of Fenders:
1-Rubber Fender- Tires, rolls, flat sheets
2-Wooden Fenders- logs & planks
3-Ropes Fenders
4-Pnumetic Fenders
5-Coir Fenders

Date: 22.05.2021
Capt. S. swaroop

Notes-8, B.Sc(NS) Sem-VI, Ship Manoeuvring (Capt. Swaroop)

Unit- 7
Constant Radius Turn : While executing a turn the ship has to travel some distance
along the arc, as a ship can not execute a sharp turn about a point. Moreover when
designing traffic separation schemes and narrow channels, the recommended routes
take into consideration the fact that the ship move along the arc of circle while
executing a turn, rounding a sharp bend or any other alteration of course. To enable
a ship to execute a turn or an alteration of course the Rate of Turn Indicator is very
useful equipment.
As per SOLAS 2000 amendments, chapter V, regulation-19.2.9 it is now mandatory
for ships above 50,000 G gt to have a rate of turn indicator. As per IMO
recommendation large course alteration have to be planned along circular tracks
with wheel over point marked and the progress of the ship continuously monitored.

Application of constant radius turn technique: In order to negotiate a plan turn,

a constant radius turn concept can be used. Therefore, to have a turn of constant
radius, relationship between 'V' & 'ROT' can be established. For example: For having
a turn of radius 1 Mile, V/ROT = 1, So the 'ROT' is to be monitored with the speed of
the vessel during the turn.
Following formula can be used to find the distance of wheel over line from the new
course line and the same can be used to set the parallel indexing line or the line of
turn for giving the wheel over order:
Distance of wheel over line from the new course line = F sin q + R (1 – cos q)
where,
F = one ship's length

1-Rate of turn indicator or ROTI on board vessels indicates the rate a ship is turning.
It indicates the rate a ship is turning in degrees per minute (°/min) . It is one of the
most important instruments a helmsman can have.
2-IMO Recommendations on passage planning lay stress on controlled navigation.
The passages in narrow channels or harbours are either along straight courses or
along arcs of circles.
3-As per SOLAS 2000 Amendment Chapter V Regulation 19.2.9, it is mandatory for
ships over 50,000 GRT to have a rate of turn indicator. IMO recommends that large
alteration of courses have to be planned along circular tracks with wheel over point
marked.
4-The Rate of Turn Indicator (ROTI) is a device which indicates the instantaneous
rate at which the ship is turning. It is fitted on ship as an independent fitment
integrated with the steering gear/auto pilot.
5-When the wheel is turned over, the ship actually traverses along a curved track
rather than performing a sharp turn about a point. It is very useful knowing the nature
of this traversed path the ship takes which can help in planning:
The desired turn with given radius
Desired speed of the vessel to execute the planned turn.
When to apply the turn (wheel over point).
ROT = v/R
Where,
v – Speed of the vessel .
R – Radius from a fixed point around which to turn the ship.
Note: ROT is directly proportional to the speed.
ROT is inversely proportional to radius.

Use of ROTI (Rate Of Turn Indicator):-

The rate of turn indicator is equipment which indicates the instantaneous rate at
which the ship is turning. This indicator is fed 60 to 200 pulses per minute from
the steering repeater and from this input it works out the instantaneous rate of turn.
The dial is marked usually 0O to 60O on either side. As per IMO performance
standard the dial should be marked not less than 0O to 30O per minute on either
side and graduated in intervals of 1O per minute. As we know that when ship turns
she actually traverses some distance round the arc of a circle and cannot execute a
sharp turns about a point. When ship is making a turn it precise the ship track
uncertain due to her characteristic, condition(loaded/ballast), weight and UKC.

Wheel Over Point : When the wheel is turned the ship takes some time to respond
and this is primarily due to the inertia of the ship. Hence the wheel should be turned
over at a point earlier than the point from which the ship is required to turn. This point
at which the starts turning is known as wheel over point. The distance between the
wheel over position and the wheel over point (ship commencing its turn) is denoted
by “ F “ and depends on the following :
1- Length
2- Beam
3- Displacement
4- Speed
5- Trim
6- Type of vessel.

Wheel Over Position : Point from where to commence the altering of course before
reaching altering position. The distance of wheel over point from the point where the
turn is to become effective is usually taken as one ship’s length but it is
recommended to find it out by some practice turns on the type of ship one is serving.
While marking the wheel over position, the following factors are to be taken in
consideration.
1- Characteristics of the vessel. 2- Visual / radar objects
3- Parallel Indexing . 4- Rate of turn.
Distance of wheel over line from the new course line
= F sin0 + R (1 –cos 0) where,
F = one ship’s length (usually),
R = Radius of the turn
Safety Margins for Wheel Over Position : On executing the turn, the following
factors are to be kept in mind :
1- Due to current and wind, the ship is likely to drift port/stbd
2- Ensure that the ship remains in the arc during the turn.
3- During the turn, the ship is likely to heel over to opposite side of the turn.
4- If depth of water is less, squat effect may take place.
5- Accuracy of navigational equipment.
6- Possibility of main engine break down.
7- Possibility of steering failure.
8. Additional preventive measures (look out and safe speed)
9. Position of the ship must be plotted frequently.
10-Execution of the turn should be monitored, right from the beginning to the end.

Determining The Radius : As ship travels along the arc during the turn. The arc is
drawn preferably with radar or visually conspicuous object as centre ”O” and the
distance to be passed from this point as radius “R”, taking into consideration that the
resultant Rate of Turn is achievable.
For convenience the radius is chosen as 1 nm, 1.5 nm or 2 nm so that calculating
ROT becomes an oral exercise. Practically while executing the turn the speed of the
ship reduces and therefore, the ROT has to be reduced accordingly to keep the
vessel on the same track.
ROT =v/R deg / minutes
v – Is the speed of the ship over ground
R- Radius of the turn in NM.
Advantages of the Turn :
1- The turn can be planned and required rate of turn can be pre calculated. Hence
the execution of the turn is easy.
2- The turn can be easily monitored while it is being executed.
3- As the turn is pre planned, the use of helm is minimised and thereby loss of speed
during the turn is reduced.
4- Even if the ship has drifted to port/stbd, the turn can be easily amended so that on
completion of the turn the ship is on the new course.
Precautions while using the rate of turn indicator :
1- The speed to be used for calculating the rate of turn is speed over ground and not
speed over water.
2- Initially a large helm is required to achieve the calculated rate of turn. The helm
must be immediately eased, as soon as the rate of turn is achieved, to the bare
minimum required to maintain the rate of turn.
3- In the case of constant radius turn, careful watch on the ground speed must be
maintained, so that as the speed drops the rate of turn can be correspondingly
reduced.
4- It is always safe to over estimate the rate of turn marginally rather than under
estimating it, since if the ship turns faster it is easier to reduce the rate of turn than
trying to increase the rate of turn at a later stage if she is turning slowly at the
initial stage.
5-Keep a watch on the steering system for load.
6-Inform the engine room about the turn (if more than 20°)
7-Instruct the helmsman to standby near the auto pilot to steer by hand if required.

Date: 29.05.2021
Capt. S. swaroop

Notes-8, B.Sc(NS) Sem-VI, Ship Manoeuvring (Capt. Swaroop)

Unit- 8
Contingency Plan (Emergency Plan): An emergency situation on board ship must
be handled with confidence and calmness, for haste decisions and “jumping to
conclusions” can make the matters even worse. Efficient tackling of emergency
situations can be achieved by continuous training and by practical drills developed
on board vessel. However, it has been seen that in spite of adequate training, people
get panic attacks and eventually do not do what they should in an emergency
situation.
As far as the seafarer is concerned, first and foremost, he or she must be aware of
the different types of emergency situations that can arise on board ship. This would
help in understanding the real scenario in a better way, and would also lead to taking
correct actions to save life, property, and environment.
An emergency can occur at any time and in any situation. Effective action is only
possible if pre-planned and practical procedures have been developed and are
frequently exercised. The Contingency Plan provides guidelines and instructions that
assist in making an efficient response to emergency situations on board ships. If the
vessel encounters a dangerous situation that may develop into an emergency, it is
extremely important that the whole crew know exactly what they should do to save
their lives and minimize damage.

The crew must be drilled to take certain actions more or less automatically. However,
nobody must act without considering the superfluous consequences. 

Emergency Situations on Board ship at Sea and in Port:

1-Natural disasters - cyclones, storm & heavy rain
2-Fire (poor house keeping & securing).
3-Collision (insufficient professional knowledge).
4-Environment hazards.
5-Flooding (poor maintenance).
6-Grounding (insufficient professional knowledge).
7-Beaching.
8-Parting of mooring Lines.
9-Spilling hazardous Liquid.
10-Man Over Board
11-Gyro compass failure

Contingency Plan: It contains action plan and duties of every crew for possible

emergencies on board. An emergency can occur at any time and in any situation.
The Contingency Plan provides guidelines and instructions that assist in making an
efficient response to emergency situations on board ships.
The plan takes into account the formation of an emergency squad, which jumps to
action in every emergency and directs the controlling and monitoring action. The
emergency squad is like the fire brigade. It gets into action for every emergency and
then gets other services involved.
A study of a number of casualties have shown that seafarers tend to panic in an
emergency as there is no contingency plan and most crew members are not aware
of the task they should jump to in an incident. This can only be avoided by suitable
contingency plan, for each type of emergency and by carrying out regular drills. 
All personal must receive instruction in the following: 
1-What is an emergency?
2-Procedures for raising the alarm. 
3-Action to be taken upon discovery of a fire or other emergency. 
4-Function of the Emergency Organisation. 
5-Use of safety equipments including Breathing Apparatus, SCBA, EEBD etc. 
6-Preparation and lowering of lifeboats, life rafts etc. 
7-Closing down procedures. (To cut off oxygen for preventing spread of fire) 
8-Rescue from enclosed spaces. 

Additional training shall be provided to all the crew members in the operation
of the following: 
1-Emergency Generator. 
2-Emergency Fire Pump. 
3-Lifeboat Engines. 
4-EPIRB / SART / transmission of distress signals on HF/MF/VHF DSC and on
SATCOM. 
5-Line throwing apparatus/pyrotechnics. 
6-Preparation of towing cable connection (Where fitted).
7-Emergency Steering. 
8-Use of Fire Extinguisher.

Emergency exercises:
An emergency exercise should be held once a week. This should alternate between
exercising the Emergency Organisation in simulated emergency conditions, and
training in the use and operation of systems and equipment. Exercises should be
planned with care, and dull routines avoided; the use of substitutes and reserves
should be included from time to time. Emergency training and drills shall be carried
out in accordance with SOLAS. As far as possible Lifeboats should be swung out as
part of emergency exercise and be lowered into the water and manoeuvred when in
port at least every 3 m.

Different teams: Different teams with assigned duties for the individuals of
the team for emergencies
1-Command Team: Operated from the bridge (Master, OOW & Helmsman).
2-Emergency Team 1: Operates at the point of scene(4 crews).
3-Emergency Team 2: Standby team and helping hand for emergency team 1
(4 crews).
4-Engine Room Team: (Chief Engineer, Duty Eng & Electrician).
5-Support Squad: (For First Aid & Preparing Life Boat)

Instruction to follow in case of different types of emergency

Brief instruction is given in case the alarm for a particular emergency is sounded,
which includes action to be taken by the crew onboard. Specific duties that are
assigned to each person on board are mentioned very clearly in the list.

Some of the essential duties specified in the list are:

1-Closing of the watertight doors, skylights, portholes and other openings
2-Carriage of equipment and readying the survival craft and other life-saving
appliances
3-Muster of the crew (and passengers, if applicable)
4-Heads of emergency teams and fire teams to streamline the action against such
emergencies
The muster list shall also specify the apt substitute in case any person is injured or
disabled.

The plans should be directed at achieving the following aims:

Rescue and treatment of casualties
Safeguarding others
Minimising damage to property and the environment
Bringing the incident under control.

The plans should include advice on the following:

Main Engine or Steering Failure.
Collision
Grounding
Beaching
Parting of Mooring Ropes at berth
Spillage of Dangerous Goods
Most of these plans will be practised during emergency drills and exercises. Make
sure you know what to do and how to use the safety equipment if in doubt ask an
officer.
1. Main Engine Or Steering Failure : (Immediate Action)
a- Revert to manual steering and raise emergency alarm if running into danger.
b- Prepare for anchoring if coastal or shallow water.
c- Exhibit not under command, Shapes / Lights
d- Commence Sound Signalling and send safety message.
e- Use rudder and bow thruster to keep away from danger.
f- Take whatever action required to keep the vessel in safe position.

Command Centre (Bridge Team) :

a- Fix ship’s position and record all the movements / events.
b- Exhibit NUC signals and broadcast safety message.
c- Manoeuver the vessel using helm & headway to avoid immediate danger.
d- Summon for additional men on bridge & consider need for towing assistance.
e- Prepare for anchoring if coastal or shallow water.
f- Consider operating main engine under emergency operation mode.
g. Compile reports and inform technical department & DPA.

Emergency Team :
a- Prepare for anchoring.
b- Proceed to engine room and assist engine room team.
c- Attend to engine room services and controls.
d- Assist as required.

Support Team :
a- Provide first aid.
b- Prepare life boat for lowering.
c- Assist as required.
Engine Team :
a- Determine cause of failure and inform command centre.
b- Effect / start immediate repairs and keep bridge up dated.
c- Up date bridge about the status of auxiliary machinery.
2. Collision : (Immediate Action)
a. Stop main engine and raise alarm.
b. Determine if any casualty and render First Aid.
c. Establish communication with other vessel and exchange in-formations.
d. Check for oil pollution and if there is any possibility.
e. Assess for immediate danger of sinking, fire or capsizing.
f. Start necessary damage and pollution control measures.

Command Centre ( Bridge Team):

a. Fix ship’s position and record all the events.
b. Establish communication with opponent vessel and exchange in-formations.
c. Send safety message to vessels in the vicinity and keep clear
d. Inform technical superintendent and DPA
e. Inform agents, port authorities and arrange for P & I surveyor.

Emergency Team :
a. Inspect / assess damage damaged area and report to command centre (bridge)
b. Ascertain if any oil pollution and act accordingly.
c. Take sounding of ballast, fuel and fresh water tanks.
d. Start damage control and temporary repairs.
e. Check damage stability and stress criteria.
f. Ballast / de-ballast and transfer fuel if necessary.
g. Take fuel tanks and engine room bilge soundings.

Support Team:
a. Provide first aid if any casualty.
b. Prepare life boat for lowering if required.
c. Shut all water tight doors and air vents.
d. Assist as required.

Engineers Team:
a. Attend engine room activity and controls.
b. Investigate engine room for damage and ingress of water.
c. Prepare for fire fighting if required.
d. Check switch board for proper insulation.
e. Check steering gear system for operation
f. Report status of main engine & other machinery to bridge.

3.Grounding: (Immediate Action)

a. Stop ship engine & raise emergency alarm.
b. Exhibit light, shapes and sound signal as required.
c. Take sounding around the ship, sample of seabed, check tidal range and current.
d. Check for oil / hazardous substance, pollution or possibility of one.
e. In case of pollution, report to the nearest coast station.
f. Ensure adequate stability to remain intact and calculate buoyancy needed to
remain re-float.
g. Determine if able to re-float independently or require assistance.

Command Centre :
a. Fix ship’s position and record all events.
b. Exhibit required signals, monitor weather condition & tide and current.
c. Compile communication reports, inform technical department and DPA.
d. Transmit safety message.
e. Start damage control to reduce risk to crew, ship & cargo.
f. Consider listing, trimming, transferring or de-ballasting.

Emergency Team :
a. Conduct visual inspection of damage & report to bridge.
b. Take sounding around the vessel, and ballast & bilge tanks.
c. Check for oil / hazardous substance, pollution or possibility
d. Calculate buoyancy to re-float, stability criteria & stress.
e. Shut all water tight access and isolate any damaged tanks.
f. Determine possibility of sinking, breaking up or capsizing while trying to re-float.
g. Take engine room bilge and fuel tanks sounding.

Support Team :
a. Provide first aid.
b. Prepare life boats.
c. Assist as directed/ required.

Engine Room Team :

a. Attend to engine room services, controls and high suction.
b. Check status of main engine, steering gear and auxiliary machinery and report to
bridge.

4.Beaching : Beaching is a process wherein during an emergency situation a ship is

intentionally taken towards shallow waters and at last grounded. The word Beaching
is used for such process because the type of emergency grounding is done only in
those areas where the ground is of soft mud or sand (as in a Beach) in order to avoid
damage to ship’s hull, propeller, rudder etc. A vessel may be beached bow-on or
stern-on. Whichever method is suitable, ground tackle should be rigged to keep her
seaward end steady.

Why Beaching is done: The 3 main reasons for which Beaching of ship is done
are:
a. To prevent loss of ship due to flooding when there is major damage below the
water line of the ship
b. To re-float the ship when satisfactory repair has been done and water tight
integrity is restored
c. In order to hand it over to the scrap yard

Procedure to Perform Beaching of Ship

1.Ballast the ship to its maximum capacity
2. Check where the damage is more-bow side or stern side. Head with the damage
o 
side for beaching with 90  to the tides
3. Take all measure to avoid ship going parallel to the beach (throw weather anchor
first)
4. If approaching from astern due to stern damage, drop both the anchor at good
distance so that they can assist the vessel in heaving when going water
5. Sounding of all tanks must be done before and after beaching Larger ships may
be beached deliberately, for instance in an emergency, a damaged ship might be
beached to prevent it from sinking in deep water. 

5. Parting of Mooring Ropes at Berth : The highest number of injuries and deaths
during a mooring operation on a ship are due to the parting of the rope or wire hitting
back to a crew member standing in the area of the rope. The area travelled by
the parted rope having a force enough to kill a person on its way is known as the
snap back zone.
The best ways to avoid accidents due to rope bight are:
1. The crew must be aware of where he is standing while handling the ropes or when
near them. It must be repeatedly made known to them that they should never stand
in the bight of a rope as the smallest error can cause them their life
2. The supervisor must concentrate on others action and should not involve
himself/herself in the operation as working hand.
3. Being the officer in charge of the whole operation, the person must ensure that he
oversees the safe mooring operation and carry out the Master’s orders.
4.There is absolutely no need, unless in a critical situation, for the officer to get
involved with the handling of ropes as rather than helping the situation, it only further
increases the risk.
5.Inexperienced crew such as fresh cadets and fresh ratings should be allowed to
handle rope only under supervision.
6.Cadets and trainee OS are on board to pick up the requisite skills and it shouldn’t
be expected of them to be part of a team who are thoroughly conversant with safety
aspects while mooring happens.
7. Only the required crew should be present at the mooring stations.
8.Notices should be placed for restricted entry near to fwd and aft mooring stations
9.Enough number of deck hands to be present on mooring station to perform the
operation smoothly. 

Points to Consider While Handling Mooring Ropes

1. Don’t Allow Any Extra Crew Member on the Deck.
2. Consider Weather Condition.
3. Have knowledge of Snap Back Zone and Rope Bight.
4. Check All the Mooring Equipment.
5. Check the Tail (end) of Mooring Line.
6. Handle One Line at a Time. 
7. Keep a Check on the Mooring Line Load.
8. Avoid Mixed Mooring (one normal & one wire rope).
9. Keep a Continuous Check.
10. Arrange Mooring Lines Systematically.
11. Use proper personal gears.
12. One should know lead / direction of the line leading.

6. Spill of Dangerous goods on board ship : Certain dangerous  goods

when spilled may lead to fire and other extreme hazards jeopardizing safety of
vessel and her crew. Flammable liquids and flammable gas when leaked can result
in fire/explosion causing grievous injury to crew and damage to the ship. If spillage is
observed from any container, the ship staff should immediately ascertain the
properties of the goods involved and necessary precautions before initiating spillage
control operations. Flammable liquids and flammable gas when leaked can result in
fire/explosion causing grievous injury to crew and damage to ship.

The magnitude of effect from spillage depends on amount of dangerous good spilled
and the properties of cargo also whether spillage has occurred on deck or under
deck. The importance of training of crew and their familiarity with contingency plan
plays a vital role when dealing with spillage. Regular drills and exercises must
involve the cargoes being carried during the voyage. 

Most important aspect while dealing with dangerous goods spillage, whether on deck
or under deck is safety of the emergency personnel. Every vessel must have
chemical protective suits, self-contained breathing apparatus and fire fighter’s outfits
according to Chapter II-2 of SOLAS convention.  

Four steps to spillage response

1. Identification.
2. Rescue.
3. Isolation.
4. Response.

1. Identification of The Dangerous Goods Involved: SOLAS regulation VII/5

requires a special list, manifest or stowage plan setting forth the dangerous goods on
board and the location thereof. This list or manifest will contain four-digit UN Number
and other details of the goods including the container no. and stowage position.
Identify UN Number of the spilled goods from column 10 of dangerous goods
manifest, and EmS (Emergency Response Procedures for Ships arraying Dangerous
Goods (EmS Guide)) schedule from column 16 for fire and spillage response.
Additionally, properties of the goods can be found in column 17 of dangerous goods
list in chapter 3.2 of IMDG Code. For more information about the goods vessel can
ask their respective office to provide safety data sheets, contact professional
responders or manufacturer of the goods.

2. Rescue : Utmost priority is safety of the personnel. When a spillage is noticed first
action should be to find and rescue any victim affected by the spillage this may also
involve rescuing persons from confined spaces and or elevated places.

3. Isolation : Isolation can be achieved by limiting the number of personnel who may
get exposed to the spilled cargo. One of the way to achieve this is roping or taping
off dangerous area, sealing off ventilation, air conditioning which can stop
penetration of dangerous vapours into the living and working spaces. Mater can alter
the course of the vessel to keep the vapours away.

4.  Response : Response to spillage should be in accordance with spillage schedule

in EmS guide. Prior to dealing with spillage or during spillage control vessel may
seek advice from shore. Specialist advise may be sought from

Specialist advise may be sought from the following:

1. Ship operating companies (e.g. designated persons ashore).
2. Emergency information centres (such as CHEMTREC in the USA).
3. Specialized agencies.
4. Professional responders.
5. Port state authorities.
6. Coast Guard.
7. Fire brigades.
8. Manufacturer of the products.
9. Emergency Guide Books.

General Guidelines for Spillage on Board :

1-Think of safety first.
2-Avoid any contact with dangerous substances. Do not walk through spilled liquids
or dust (solids).
3-Keep away from vapours or gases.
4-Sound general emergency alarm.
5-Keep the bridge and living quarters up wind if possible.
6-Wear full protective clothing resistant to chemical attack and self-contained
breathing apparatus.
7-Locate stowage position of leaking cargo.
8-Identify cargo.
9-Obtain UN Numbers and the EmS SPILLAGE SCHEDULE of dangerous goods
involved.
10-Consider which measures of the EmS SPILLAGE SCHEDULE are applicable and
should be followed.
11-Be prepared to use the Medical First Aid Guide (MFAG).
12-Contact the designated person of the company responsible for the operation of
the ship to obtain expert advice on dangerous goods emergency response measures

Date: 05.06.2021
Capt. S. Swaroop

Notes-8, B.Sc(NS) Sem-VI, Ship Manoeuvring (Capt. Swaroop)

Unit- 6, Navigation In restricted Visibility (Blind Pilotage / Navigation)

Navigation In Restricted Visibility: Ship navigation under circumstances of

restricted visibility, is one of the most challenging tasks when accomplishing a safe
voyage at sea.  The visibility is mentioned as restricted in cases that have been
observed fog, heavy rain, dust storm & snow, all are very dangerous conditions to
navigate. Navigation in restricted visibility, doubles the likelihood of a collision or
grounding. Such situations call for the use of special equipment and require some
actions to be taken by the time the ship's officer gets information of relevant
weather conditions.

When navigating in restricted visibility certain procedures must be followed:

1-Sound fog signals: Fog signals are required when navigating in or near an area
of restricted visibility.

2-Reduce Speed (Safe Speed): The state of visibility is one of the most important
factors in determining safe speed. Speed should be reduced - to bare steerage if
necessary. Slowing the vessel reduces the likelihood of a casualty because it gives
more time for the operator to assess the situation, and keeps power in reserve if
emergency manoeuvres become necessary.

3-Post lookouts: Additional lookouts must be posted, at least one as far forward as
safely possible. Lookouts should be well rested, have no other duties, and receive
periodic training on proper lookout procedures. Lookouts should be relieved regularly
to ensure they remain alert. At a minimum, a lookout should have binoculars and a
means of communicating with the bridge.

4-Take frequent position fixes: Too often mariners fail to appreciate the
importance of frequent fixes while navigating in restricted visibility. Over-reliance on
radar and electronic navigation systems can cause a mariner to lose situational
awareness, in part because of time delays while the image is refreshed. A vessel
can travel several hundred yards, especially if the operator fails to reduce speed, in
the time it takes for the track line to update on an electronic chart. In some cases it
may be necessary to take fixes as often as every three minutes.

5-Monitor other vessels: The bearing, range and closest point of approach (CPA)
of other vessels should be closely monitored. Communications should be
established early to determine the intentions of other vessels. Short and long range
scanning by radar should be used to identify targets before they get too close.

6-Summon help to the bridge: A one-person watch cannot safely navigate in

restricted visibility. One person cannot man the helm, monitor the radar, serve as
lookout, plot fixes frequently.

Blind Navigation (Blind Pilotage): Blind pilotage means the navigation of the ship
through restricted waters in low visibility with little or no recourse to the visual
observation of objects outside the ship. The principal non-visual aid to navigation
that enables this to be done is high-definition warning-surface radar, but all available
non-visual aids are employed. The organization to achieve this is called the blind
pilotage organization, comprising a BP team, led by a BP Officer (BPO).

What is Blind Pilotage?

1-Navigating the vessel in restricted visibility
2-The principle for use of non-visual aid to navigation is the ship’s radar.
3-Use of other non-visual aids are also employed e.g. AIS, Echo Sounder, ROTI.
Blind Pilotage Team:
1-Blind Pilotage Officer (BPO/OOW)
2-Helmsman
3-Lookout
4-Master & additional lookouts (if required)

Blind Pilotage Equipments:

1-Radar
2-ARPA
3-Chart for Blind Pilotage Area
4-Blind Pilotage Room
5-Means of communication (Between BPO & Bridge)
Master to monitor and guide the blind pilotage officer, if not following the planned
track by the BPO, to ensure safe navigation of ship during this practice.

Assessment of the risk involved in a blind pilotage passage

Although normally the accuracy of blind pilotage is such that a ship can be taken to
an open anchorage and anchored within 50 yards of the desired place, the degree of
risk involved, particularly in restricted waters, must be carefully assessed.
Congestion due to other shipping, the consequences of a failure of radar or other
vital aids once the ship has been committed to her passage, and the number and
quality of fixing marks must be taken into account.

Parallel index techniques: The key to blind pilotage is the principle of the parallel
index. The running of a parallel index line provides real-time information on the ship’s
lateral position relative to the planned track. On the chart a line is drawn from the
edge of a radar-conspicuous object, parallel to the perpendicular distance (or cross-
index range) from the object to the track is then measured.
The range strobe on the radar is then set to this range, and a solid china graph line
drawn on the display parallel to the planned course on a scale appropriate to the
range in use.

Factors to consider:
The degree of risk involved in restricted waters must be carefully assessed prior to
entering. Bridge watches may be doubled up & watch level upgraded.
Congestion due to other shipping should be considered. Both radars / ARPA should
be operational.
Consequences of failure of radar or other vital aids should be considered & risk
assessment should be done.
The availability of navigational aids, which can be used in restricted visibility, must be
taken into account. RACON, AIS buoys/stations, VTS, etc.
Parallel indexing can be used as a powerful tool for position monitoring & execution
of passage.
Draw one set of parallel index lines ahead of those in use.
Plan the passage so as to Steer a course to pass a given distance off a radar
conspicuous point, Alter course off a navigational mark or point of land.

Blind Pilotage Techniques: Radar comes in use during poor visibility. While most
modern marine radars now have a computer built in (ARPA – Automatic Radar
Plotting Aid), which provides many more features than the older sets, the basic
principles of blind pilotage remain. 

1-Maintaining a specified track.

2-Altering course.
3-Anchoring a vessel.
4-Anti-collision

1-Maintaining a specified track. If it is desired to pass a specified distance, OE, off

a radar- conspicuous object, D, set the index lines parallel to the intended track,
draw the parallel through E in china graph pencil (or an erasable overhead projector
marker) and steer a course so that the relative track of D remains on parallel index
line DE. Points A and B could also be used in a like fashion. The distance OX is
called the Cross Index Range (CIR) as is the distance OE.
2-Altering course. In the figure below, the ship is approaching harbour on a
selected track parallel to the coast. In order to enter it needs to alter course to port.
On the chart are two conspicuous points which are also conspicuous on radar. Point
B is a small island situated close to the shore on the eastern side of the entrance
while point C is a headland marking the western side of the entrance. Both B and C
appear to be suitable marks on which the course alteration can be made. If C is
chosen, the moment at which course should be altered will be determined by radar
bearing, whereas if B is chosen it will depend on the radar range.
3-Anchoring Of Vessel: If one wanted to anchor in the desired position , the
following procedure would be carried out. The approach course (track) should be
drawn on the applicable chart with the anchor position clearly marked. The track
should be marked back at one cable distances from the anchor position.
On the chart a radar conspicuous point should be selected, in this case a projection
of land (object B). A line is drawn through this point, parallel to the approach track
and the perpendicular drawn from A to this line at C. The PPI cursor is then prepared
as indicated in the sketch on the display scale to be used, with the parallel index line
drawn at the cross index range from the centre. The dead range is then marked, also
the intervals of cable to the limit of the range of the cursor. The cursor is then rotated
so that the index lines are parallel to the approach track. As the ship approaches, the
distance to go is indicated on the cursor by the position of the echo of B.
4-Anti-collision (Collision Avoidance). Another use of parallel index occurs in anti-
collision work, both in fog and in good visibility. If the parallel index is aligned with a
few successive plots of another ship, the risk of collision can be rapidly assessed. If
the relative track of the other ship passes through the centre of the PPI, then the ship
is on a collision course. In the figure below, ship A is on a collision course. Ship B
will pass clear on the port side of the own vessel heading north. The closest point of
approach (CPA) of B is the point Y and XY is the cross index range.

Date: 12.06.2021, Capt. S. swaroop