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Copyright © 2009, 1993, 1988, 1986 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
4.5 Lattices 83
4.6 Lattices as Partially Ordered Sets 84
4.7 Principle of Duality 86
Problem 4.2 91
4.8 Lattices as Algebraic Systems 92
4.9 Lattice and Order 93
4.10 Sublattices 94
4.11 Direct Product of Two Lattices 95
4.12 Isomorphic Lattices 97
Problem 4.3 100
4.13 Complete Lattice 101
4.14 Complemented Lattices 102
4.15 Distributive Lattice 104
4.16 Modular Lattices 108
Problem 4.4 111
6. Matrices 140–183
6.1 Revision 140
6.2 Diagonal, Scalar, Unit and Triangular Matrix 141
6.3 Equal Matrices 142
6.4 The Transpose of Matrix: Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrix 143
6.5 Algebra of Matrices 144
6.6 Properties of Addition of Matrices 145
6.7 Scalar Multiples of Matrices 146
6.8 Multiplication of Matrices 146
Problem 6.1 149
6.9 Inverse of a Matrix 151
Problem 5.2 152
6.10 Geometric Transformation 153
6.11 Geometric Properties of Plane Linear Transformation 154
(x) CONTENTS
p ∼p
T F
F T
PROBLEM 1.1
1. Which of the following are propositions ?
(a) A cow has four legs.
(b) Do not stand on the flowers.
(c) There is no greatest prime number.
(d ) 6 > 341.
(e) As white as a sheet.
(f ) It will rain somewhere in Delhi on July 23rd, 1984.
(g) Is that a reasonable argument ?
(h) If 2 + 2 = 5 then ice-cream is yellow.
2. Write the negation of the following proposition:
(a) All students are industrious.
(b) One side of Mercury always faces the sun.
(c) I like eating plums and I like drinking lemonade.
(d) A power of 2 never ends in a 7.
(e) Either the sun will be shining or I shall carry my umbrella.
1.5 DISJUNCTION
Any two propositions can be combined by the connective ‘or’ to form a new proposition which is
called disjunction of the original propositions.
Definition 1.5.1. Let p and q be two propositions. We define the disjunction of p and q to be the
proposition.
either p or q or both
and we write p - q. Quite often the words either and ‘or both’ ore omitted and we say that p - q
is the proposition ‘p or q’. Here it is customary to interpret the use of the word ‘or’ in the inclusive
sense. Thus p - q is true if p is true or q is true or p and q both are true or we can phrase it that
the proposition p - q is false if and only if the propositions p, q are both false. The proposition p
- q is completely specified by its truth table as follows:
p q p-q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
4 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
1.6 CONJUNCTION
We can obtain a new proposition from two given propositions p, q by using connective ‘and’.
Definition 1.6.1. Given two propositions p, q we define the conjunction of p and q to be the
proposition
p and q
and we write it p . q.
For example—
p : This child is a boy.
q : This child is intelligent.
p . q : This child is a boy and intelligent.
p . q : Is true, if the child is a boy and intelligent both.
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 5
Even if one of the component is false, p . q is false. Thus the proposition p . q is true if and
only if the propositions p and q are both true. The truth table of p . q is as follows:
p q p.q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example 1.6.1
p : Mathematicians are lazy.
q : Tennis racquets are expensive.
p . q : Mathematicians are lazy and Tennis racquets are expensive.
PROBLEM 1.2
Let the propositions p, q, r and s be given by
p : The sun is a star.
q : Jupiter is a planet.
r : Mumbai is a Capital of India.
s : Protein is necessary for life.
1. State truth values of p - q, p - r, p - s, q - r, q - s, r - s,
2. State truth values of p . q, p . r, p . s, q . r, q . s, r . s
Note: A compound statement is also a proposition. It is not necessary that a proposition has only two
proposition and only one kind of connective. A proposition may have many component propositions
and many connectives joining them.
If there are two propositions, then the truth table will have four rows. If there are three propositions,
there would be eight rows, with four propositions there would be 16 rows and so on. The combination
of truth values of two and three propositions are given by the following Tree diagram:
p q combination of p and q.
T T T
T
F T F
T F T
F
F F F
p qr combination of p, q and
T T T T
T
F T T F
T
T T F T
F
F T F F
6 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
T F T T
T
F F T F
F
T F F T
F
F F F F
p ∼p p - ∼p
T F T
F T T
and
p q ∼p q-p ∼p - (q - p)
T T F T T
T F F T T
F T T T T
F F T F T
The final columns of the truth-table for both sentences containing nothing but T’s, and they are
thus true under all conditions—no circumstance whatever will render them false. These type of
propositions are called a tautology and T stands for tautology. So p - ∼p = T and ∼p - (q - p) = T.
Definition 1.7.1. A proposition, such as above, which is always true, no matter what truth values are
assigned to its component proposition is called a tautology.
Let us consider the truth table for the propositions p . ∼p and p . q . ∼ (p - q).
p ∼p p . ∼p
T F F
F T F
p q p .q p -q ∼ (p - q) p . q . ~ (p - q)
T T T T F F
T F F T F F
F T F T F F
F F F F T F
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 7
It follows from the final columns of the truth tables of the propositions that the proposition have
all truth values F’s. These type of propositions are called contradictions. F stands for contradiction.
Hence p . ∼p = F and p . q . ∼(p - q) = F.
Definition 1.7.2. A proposition, such as above, which is always false, no matter what truth values
are assigned to its component propositions, is called a contradiction.
p q p.q ∼ (p . q) p q ∼ p ∼ q ∼ p-∼ q
T T T F T T F F F
T F F T T F F T T
F T F T F T T F T
F F F T F F T T T
Here the propositions ∼ (p . q) and ∼ p - ∼ q have identical truth values for all possible ways
of assigning truth values to the component propositions p, q. Hence
∼ (p . q) = ∼ p - ∼ q.
PROBLEM 1.3
1. Let p be the proposition ‘high speed driving is dangerous’ and q the proposition ‘Ram was a wise man’.
Write down the meaning of the following propositions:
(a) p . q
(b) ∼ p - q
(c) ∼ (p - q)
(d) (p . q) - (∼ q . ∼ q)
(e) (p - q) . ∼ (p . q)
2. Use the truth table technique to establish the following results, given that p, q, r are arbitrary propositions.
(a) p - (q - r) = (p - q) - r
(b) p - (p . q) = p
(c) p . (q - r) = (p . q) - (p . r)
(d) ∼ (p - q) = ∼ p . ∼ q.
3. Use the truth table technique to establish that the following propositions are tautologies:
(a) (p . q) - (p - ∼ q) - (∼ p . q) - (∼ p . ∼ q)
(b) {(p - ∼ q) . (∼ p . ∼ q} - q
(c) ∼ {p . (∼ p - q)} - q.
8 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
The truth values in columns (5) and (7) are identical. Hence this proves the logical equivalence,
as desired.
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 9
Proof: 3(a) p - (q . r) = (p - q) . (p . r)
We have truth tables for (p - q) . (p - r) and p - (q . r) as follows:
p q r q.r p - (q . r) p-q p- r (p - q) . (p - r)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
T T T T T T T T
T T F F T T T T
T F T F T T T T
T F F F T T T T
F T T T T T T T
F T F F F T F F
F F T F F F F F
F F F F F F F F
By comparison of the columns (5) and (8) in the table it follows that
p - (q . r) = (p - q) . (p - r).
Example 1.9.1. Show that
{p . (∼p - q)} - {q . ∼(p . q)} = q
Proof: L.H.S. = {p . (∼p - q)} - {q . ∼(p . q)}
= {(p . ∼p) - (p . q)} - {q . ( ∼p - ∼q)}
= F - (p . q) - (q . ∼p) - (q . ∼q)
= F - (p . q) - (q . ∼p) - F
= (p . q) - (q . ∼p)
= q . (p - ∼p)
= q . T = q = R.H.S.
Example 1.9.2. Show that
{(p - ∼q) . (∼p - ∼q)} - q = T
Proof: L.H.S. = {(p - ∼q) . (∼p - ∼q)} - q
= {(p - ∼q) . ∼p - (p - ∼q) . ∼q} - q
= {(p . ∼p) - (∼q . ∼p) - (p . ∼q) - (∼q . ∼q)} - q
= {F - (∼q . ∼p) - (p . ∼q) - ∼q} - q
= (∼q . ∼p) - (p . ∼q} - ∼q - q
= (∼q . ∼p) - (p . ∼q} - T
= T.
Hence,{(p - ∼q) . (∼p - ∼q)} - q is a tautology.
PROBLEM 1.4
1. Simplify
(a) (∼p . ∼q) - (∼p . ∼q . ∼r)
(b) ∼p . {∼q . (∼p - q)}
10 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
p q p⇒q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Thus the conditional proposition p ⇒ q is false if and only if p is true and q is false. In all other
cases it is true.
Note: The proposition p ⇒ q does not mean that p causes q. The conditional proposition does not need
any logical connection between p and q except that whenever p is true, q is also true, and whenever p is false,
q is also false.
In this truth table, the first two rows are acceptable to most students but the same cannot be
said for the last two rows. The decision to assign the truth value T to the proposition p ⇒ q when
p is false irrespective of the truth value of the proposition p is reasonale.
The confusion is caused by the fact that, in everyday life, when a statement of the form. “If p
then q” is used the proposition p is usually true and the proposition p, q are normally related. It can
be seen by the following example.
Example 1.10.1
p! Two parallel lines are cut by a transversal.
q! The corresponding angles are equal.
p ⇒ q! If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal then the corresponding angles are equal.
Here p is true and p, q are related.
Mathematical logic however must cater for situation where either or both of these restrictions
do not apply.
Example 1.10.2
p : 3=8
q : 3+5=8
p ⇒ q : If “3 = 8” then “3 + 5 = 8”.
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 11
Here, p ⇒ q is a true proposition because the inferred statement q is true in spite of the fact
that p is false. In fact there is no logical connection between p and q, i.e., q cannot be deduced from p.
Example 1.10.3
p : Dogs are bipeds.
q : Human beings are quadrupeds.
p ⇒ q : If “dogs are bipeds”, then “human beings are quadrupeds”.
Here p and q are false and it is evident that p and q logically unconnected but the conditional
proposition p ⇒ q is taken true in the mathematical logic.
It is possible to express a conditional as a disjunction, as
p ⇒ q = ∼p - q
which is shown below:
p q p⇒ q ∼p ∼p - q
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
We have
p q p⇒ q ∼p ∼q ∼q ⇒ ∼p
T T T F F T
T F F F T F
F T T T F T
F F T T T T
∴ p ⇒ q = ∼q ⇒ ∼p
i.e., Direct statement = Contrapositive.
Again, we have
p q q⇒ p ∼p ∼q ∼p ⇒ ∼ q
T T T F F T
T F T F T T
F T F T F F
F F T T T T
∴ q ⇒ p = ∼p ⇒ ∼q
i.e., Converse = Inverse.
Here we shall see that if p ⇒ q is true, then q ⇒ p and ∼p ⇒ ∼q may not be true.
Example 1.11.1
p : x2 = 4
q:|x |<4
Here, p ⇒ q : If x = 4, i.e., x = ± 2, then | x | < 4 is true.
2
The converse q ⇒ p will be “If | x | < 4, then x2 = 4”. This is false. Let x = 3 or x = –3,
then | x | < 4 but these values do not satisfy x2 = 4. Similarly, any value such that – 4 < x < 4 which
is not equal to 2 or – 2 will not satisfy x2 = 4. The inverse ∼p ⇒ ∼q will be “If x2 ≠ 4,
then | x | ≥ 4”. This is also false. Let x = 3 or x = – 3, then x2 ≠ 4 but these values do not satisfy
| x | ≥ 4.
Since, the columns (4), (7) and (9) are identical, therefore
∼ (p ⇒ q) = ∼ (∼p - q) = p . ∼ q.
p q p⇔ q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
p q p⇔ q p⇒ q q⇒ p p⇒ q.q⇒ p
T T T T T T
T F F F T F
F T F T F F
F F T T T T
Since biconditional is a conjunction of the conditional and its converse, the biconditional is
worded in some alternative fashions:
p is equivalent to q
q is equivalent to p
If p then q, and if p then q
If p then q, and conversely
If q then p, and conversely
p is necessary and sufficient for q
q is necessary and sufficient for p
q if and only if p
Example 1.13.1. Show that p ⇔ q = (p . q) - (∼p . ∼q).
Since, p ⇔ q = (p ⇒ q) . (q ⇒ p)
= (∼p - q) . (∼q - p)
= (∼p . (∼q - p) - q . (∼q - p)
= (∼p . ∼q) - (∼p . p) - (q . ∼q) - (q . p)
= (∼p . ∼q) - F - F - (q . p)
= (∼p . ∼q) - (q . p)
= (q . p) - (∼p . ∼q)
14 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PROBLEM 1.5
1. Show that
(a) p ⇒ q = ∼q ⇒ ∼p
(b) (p ⇒ q) ⇒ r ≠ p ⇒ (q ⇒ r)
(c) (p ⇔ q) = (q ⇔ p)
(d) (p ⇔ q) ⇔ r = p ⇔ (q ⇔ r)
(e) [(p ⇒ q) . (q ⇒ r)] ⇒ (q ⇒ ≡ T (tautology).
2. What is the negation of:
(a) p ⇒ q.
(b) p ⇔ q?
3. Write each of the following statements in symbolic form:
(a) If the journey to and accommodation at Bombay are troublesome, I shall not go to Bombay.
(b) The Indian hockey team will win or lose at the new Olympic meet.
(c) If tomorrow is holiday then there will be no examination, but if an examination is held, it will
be in mathematics.
(d) The country will rise if and only if we work hard, sincerely and intelligently.
(e) If one is interested in acquiring good knowledge then it is a pleasure to study in a library if and
only if the library is well equipped with books and journals and the library atmosphere is good.
4. Determine the truth value of each of the following propositions.
(a) 3 + 5 = 8 iff 1 + 3 = 4
(b) 3 + 5 = 9 iff 1 + 3 = 7
(c) 3 + 5 = 8 iff 1 + 3 = 7
(d) 3 + 5 = 9 iff 1 + 3 = 4
5. Let p: Triangle ABC is equilateral,
q: Triangle ABC is equiangular.
Form the converse inverse and contrapositive of p ⇒ q.
6. Let p: ∆1 and ∆2 are similar.
q: ∆1 and ∆2 have corresponding angles equal.
Form the converse; inverse and contrapositive of p ⇒ q.
1.14 ARGUMENTS
An argument (denoted by the symbol d which is called a turnstile) is a sequence of propositions
that purport to imply another proposition. The sequence of propositions serving as evidence will be
called the premises, and the proposition inferred will be called the conclusion. An arguments is valid
if and only if, whenever the conjunction of the premises is true, the conclusion is also true. If we let
p1, p2, p3 be the premises and p4 the conclusion, then argument p1, p2, p3 d p4 will be valid if and,
only if whenever p1 . p2 . p3 is true, p4 is also. We can reduce this to the conditional ⇒ as follows:
Definition. 1.14.1. If p1, p2, ...., pn are premises and p is a conclusion, then the argument p1,
p2, ... pn d p is valid if and only if p1 . p2 . ... . pn ⇒ p is true for all combinations of truth values
of p1 ..., pn and p. In other words, to decide whether an argument is valid, use the conjunction of
evidences as the antecedent of conditional of which the conclusion of the argument is the consequent
and see whether or not a tautology results.
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 15
T T F F T F T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T F T
F F T T T T T
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
T T T T T T T F F F F F T
T T F T T T T F F T F F T
T F T F F F T T T T F F T
T F F F F T T T T T F F T
F T T T T T T F T F F F T
F T F T T T F F T T F F T
F F T F T F T F T T F F T
F F F F T F F T T T F F T
PROBLEM 1.6
1. Show that the following is invalid:
If I buy stocks, I will lose money. Therefore, if I lose money, I buy stocks.
Hint. Let
p : I buy stocks
q : I will lose money
the premises are q ⇒ q, and
the conclusion is q ⇒ p.
∴ the argument is p ⇒ q d – q ⇒ p.
We have
p q p⇒ q q⇒ p (p ⇒ q) ⇒ (q ⇒ p)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T T F F
F F T T T
The first example by the rule method is read “N is the set of all x such that x is a natural
number”. Similarly the second is read “D is the set of all x such that x is a whole number between
1 and 10”.
If we represent the statement by P(x) which is satisfied by each element of the set, the set can
be indicated as
D = {x x satisfies P(x)}
and it is read “D is the set of all x such that x satisfies P(x)”.
PROBLEM 2.1
1. Indicate the elements of the following set by listing method:
(a) Set of all integers between 0 and 50, each of which has 3 as its last digit.
(b) Set of all positive integers less than 49 and divisible by 7.
(c) Set of all prime numbers between 1 and 30.
(d ) Set of all square roots of 25 that are even integers.
(e) Set of all positive integers which are common factor of 30 and 45.
(f ) Set of all square roots of the number 9.
(g) Set of even integers between –5 and 7.
2. Which of the following are examples of empty sets ?
(a) Set of all integers ending in 2 which are perfect squares.
(b) Set of all even integers endings in 7.
(c) Set of all integers whose square is 2.
(d) Set of all integral roots of the equation x3 – 5 = 0.
(e) Set of all living people who were born before 1950.
3. Below are given some sets. Express by using the ‘rule method’:
(a) Set of all foreigner who visited India in 2007.
(b) Set of all points in a plane.
(c) Set of all straight lines in a plane.
(d ) Set of all multiples of 5.
(e) Set of all integral divisors of 48.
(f ) Set of all common factors of 48 and 56.
(g) Set of all even integers.
(h) Set of all composite numbers.
4. Let n be an integer. Find the numbers in each of the following sets which correspond to the values
of n from – 4 to 4, inclusive:
(a) {x | x = 5n – 6}
(b) {x | x = 2n – 1}
(c) {x | x = 2n/3 – 1}
(d ) {x | x = 6 – 2n}.
SET THEORY 21
Proper inclusion is denoted by the symbol A ⊂ B which is read ‘‘A is a proper subset of B’’
or ‘‘A is properly contained in B’’, and also by the symbol B ⊃ A which is read ‘‘B includes A
properly’’.
If A is not a proper subset of B we symbolically write A ⊂| B or B ⊃| A.
Example 2.6.2. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4},
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
then we find that every element of A is an element of B but there are 5, 6 and 7 of B which do not
belong to A. In this case A is a proper subset of B(A ⊂ B).
Definition 2.6.3. Two set are identical if they have exactly the same elements in them.
If two sets A and B are identical we shall frequently call them as the same set, as equal sets
or as identical sets and we shall write A = B. If A and B are not equal we shall write A ≠ B.
THEOREM 2.6.1. If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, then A = B.
Proof. Since A ⊆ B, then by the definition of subset every element of A is an element of B,
that is, whenever x ∈ A, then x ∈ B. And every element of B is an element of A because B ⊆ A,
that is, whenever x ∈ B, then x ∈ A. This shows that the element in A and B are identical or A and
B have exactly the same elements.
Hence A = B.
Therefore in order to prove that A = B we must show that every element of A is an element
of B and every element of B is an element of A; we shall say that A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and
B ⊆ A.
Example 2.6.3. Let A = {x | 0 < x ≤ 15 and x is an odd integer}
and B = {y | 0 < y ≤ 16 and y is an odd integer}
then we find that
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15}
and B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15}
Since the elements in A and B are exactly the same elements, by definition, A = B.
Now we shall study the statement of the definition of a subset. We observe that the statement
‘‘every element of A is an element of B’ means the same as “there are no elements in A which are
not in B”. When null set is involving in a discussion, then it may be more convincing to apply the
second statement.
Application of the definition also shows that a null set φ, that is, a set containing none of the
elements of the universe, is a subset of S, for there are no elements in φ, and therefore there are no
elements in φ, which are not in S. Hence φ ⊂ S.
By the same type of reasoning this null set φ is a subset of itself, and also a subset of every
other set taken from this universal set.
Example 2.6.4. Prove that A ⊆ A.
Proof. If x ∈ A, then x ∈ A, by the repetition of the statement therefore A ⊆ A by the definition
of a subset.
Example 2.6.5. If A ⊆ B, and B ⊆ C, then prove that A ⊆ C.
Proof. Let x ∈ A.
x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B since A ⊆ B
⇒ x ∈ C since B ⊆ C.
Hence A ⊆ C.
SET THEORY 23
PROBLEM 2.2
1. State symbolically as many proper inclusion relations as possible among the following sets. Count
repeated letters as the same letter.
A = Set of all letters of the alphabet.
B = Set of vowels a, e, i, o, u.
C = Set of all letters except the vowels a, e, i, o, u.
D = Set of all different letters in the word ‘‘uncomplimentary.’’
E = Set of all different letters in the sentence ‘‘I go to school.’’
2. Let
A = Set of all equilateral triangles.
B = Set of all isosceles triangles.
C = Set of all triangles.
D = Set of all equiangular triangles.
(a) State symbolically, that all equilateral triangles are equiangular.
(b) Make the correct symbolic statement about the set of all equilateral triangles and the set of all
isosceles triangles.
(c) Make the correct symbolic statement about sets C and B.
3. Which of following sets are subsets of which others:
(1) N = {1, 2, 3, 4, ...}
(2) W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4...}
(3) Z = {0, – 1, + 1, – 2, + 2, – 3, + 3, ...}
(4) Q = {x/y | x ∈ Z, y ∈ N and x and y are co-prime to each other}.
(5) R = the set of real numbers.
(6) P = the set of prime natural numbers.
(7) O = the set of odd natural numbers.
(8) E = the set of even natural numbers.
(9) Z– = {–1, –2, –3, ...}
(10) R+ = the set of positive real numbers.
4. Using the definitions of equality of sets, show that
(a) {a, b, c} = {b, c, a}
(b) {a, b, c} = {a, b, a, b, c, c, c}.
5. For all sets A, B, and C, determine whether the following statements are true or false:
(1) B = A and A = C ⇒ (Implies) C = B
(2) B ⊆ C and C ⊆ A ⇒ (Implies) C ⊆ B
(3) B ∈ A and A ∈ C ⇒ (Implies) B ∈ C
(4) B = C and C ∈ A ⇒ (Implies) B ∈ A
(5) B ⊆ A and A ∈ C = (Implies) B ∈ C.
6. Which of the following sets are equal,
{1, 2, 3}, {x | x2 – 2x + 1 = 0}, {3, 2, 1}, {x | x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0}.
24 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Set Diagrams
Set operation can be illustrated by Venn diagrams which was used by John Venn to represent
George Boole’s Theory of logical systems. In a Venn diagram the universal set U is usually represented
by points of a rectangle plus its interior points, and subsets of U, such as A and B, are represented
by the points of circles plus their interior points; through other figures besides rectangle and circles
can be used to give graphic representation.
U U
A A
B B
(1) A ∪ A = A
(2) A ∪ φ = A
(3) A ∪ U = U
(4) A ⊆ A ∪ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B
(5) A ∪ B = B ∪ A
(6) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C).
The above properties are very simple and the proofs of all these properties follow immediately
from the definition of union and equality of sets. To indicate the method of proof we give the proof
of the property (6).
In property (6) we have to prove that the two sets (A ∪ B) ∪ C and A ∪ (B ∪ C) are equal.
For this we have to prove that
(1) (A ∪ B) ∪ C ⊆ A ∪ (B ∪ C)
and (2) A ∪ (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A ∪ B) ∪ C.
Proof. Let x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C. Then
x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C ⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B or x ∈ C
⇒ (x ∈ A or x ∈ B) or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A or (x ∈ B or x ∈ C)
⇒ x ∈ A or (x ∈ B ∪ C)
⇒ x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C)
∴ (A ∪ B) ∪ C ⊆ A ∪ (B ∪ C) ...(1)
Conversely, let x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C). Then
x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C) ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B ∪ C
⇒ x ∈ A or (x ∈ B or x ∈ C)
⇒ (x ∈ A or x ∈ B) or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C
∴ A ∪ (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A ∪ B) ∪ C. ...(2)
Hence from (1) and (2), we have
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
It can be illustrated by Venn diagram.
A B A B
A B A B
C C
(4) B U C (5) AU (B U C)
Fig. 2.2
From figures (3) and (5), we have
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
2.10 INTERSECTION
When elements belong to two or more sets we often refer to them as the “elements common to the
sets’. These common elements form the intersection of the sets.
Definition 2.10.1. The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of elements which are in the set
A and also in the set B.
Symbolically, we write A ∩ B for the ‘‘intersection of A and B’’ and this is sometimes read
as ‘A cap B’ or ‘A intersect B’. Now we give the symbolic definition which is more concise form
of set intersection.
Definition 2.10.2. A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
It can be illustrated by Venn diagram:
U U
A A
B B
A ∩ B = φ, A and B are disjoint sets. In the following Venn diagram A and B are disjoint sets.
A B
Fig. 2.4
A B A B A B
C C C
U U
A B A B
C C
(4) A ∪ C (5) A ∪ B ∩ A ∪ C
Fig. 2.5
SET THEORY 29
2.13 COMPLEMENTATION
Let A be a subset of a universal set U. Since A is well-defined, each element of U is either in A or
is not in A. Thus the elements of U fall into two sets; namely, those which are in A or which are not
in A. The collection of all elements of U which are not in A is the complement of A with respect to
U or simply we refer to it as ‘‘the complement of A.’’
Definition 2.13.1. Let A be a subset of the universal set U. Then the complement of A with respect
to U is the set of all elements of U which are not in A and it is denoted by A'.
The symbolic form of the definition can be given as follows:
Definition 2.13.2. Let A ⊆ U. Then A′ ={x | x ∈ U and x ∉ A}.
Example 2.13.1. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...}
and E = {2, 4, 6, ...},
then E′ = {1, 3, 5, ...},
It can be illustrated by Venn diagram.
U
A ′ = shaded area
A A′
Fig. 2.6
B
A A
A
B B
A ⊄B A ⊂B A!B=φ
U U
A A
B B
U U
A A
B B′ B
A′
(3) A′ = , B′ = (4) A′ U B′ =
Fig. 2.8
A
B
A ∆B =
Fig. 2.9
Example 2.17.1. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
B = {2, 3, a, b, c},
A ∆ B = {1, 4, 5, a, b, c}
SET THEORY 33
PROBLEM 2.3
1. Let A = {1, 2, 3,....10}, B = {2, 4, 6,...10}
and C = {1, 3, 5, ...9}. Find the following sets:
(a) A ∪ B; (c) A ∩ C; (e) B ∩ C; (g) A – B;
(b) A ∩ B; (d) A ∪ C; (f ) B ∪ C; (h) A – C.
2. (i) Find the set obtained by the following set operations where U is the universal set and A is a subset
of U.
(a) A ∩ A′; (c) A ∪ A′; (e) A ∩ φ; (g) U ∩ φ;
(b) A ∩ U; (d) A ∪ U; (f ) A ∪ φ; (h) U ∪ φ.
(ii) And find a set equal to each of the following:
(a) A ∩ A; (b) A ∪ A; (c) U′; (d) φ'.
3. Let A = set of all even integers,
B = set of all integers which are integral multiples of 3.
C = set of all integers which are integral multiples of 4.
Z = the set of all integers.
Describe the following sets:
(a) A ∩ B; (b) A ∪ B; (c) B ∩ C; (d) A ∪ Z;
(e) A ∪ C; (f ) the complement of C with respect to A;
(g) the complement of C with respect to Z.
4. Let A be a subset of the universal set U. Find a set equal to each of the following:
(a) U – A; (b) A – U; (c) A – φ;
(d) φ – A; (e) A – A.
5. Simplify the following.
(a) C ∩ B ∩ C′ (Ans φ′)
(b) (C′ ∪ φ) ∪ C (Ans U)
(c) (H ∪ K) ∩ K′ (Ans H ∩ K′)
(d) (C ∩ B) ∪ (C' ∩ B) (Ans B)
(e) (A ∪ B)′ ∪ (A′ ∩ B) (Ans A′)
(f ) C ∪ B ∪ C′ (Ans U)
(g) (C ∩ U) ∪ C′ (Ans U)
(h) [(H ∩ K) ∪ (H ∩ K') ∪ (H' ∩ K)] ∩ K (Ans K)
6. Suppose A ⊆ B, show that
(a) A ∩ C ⊆ B ∩ C, (b) A ∪ C ⊆ B ∪ C.
7. Show that
(a) If A ∩ B = B, then A ∪ B = A and A ⊇ B,
(b) If A ⊇ B, then A ∩ B = B and A ∪ B = A,
(c) If A ∪ B = A, then A ∩ B = B and A ⊇ B.
8. If A ⊂ B, and A and B are subsets of U, write the equivalent of the following sets in simple form,
A ∩ B, A ∪ B, A ∩ Bc, A ∪ Bc, where Ac is the complement of A in U.
9. Show that if A ⊆ B, then A ∩ B′ = φ.
10. Let A = {1, 2, 3, ...., 50},
B = {2, 4, 6, ...., 50},
SET THEORY 35
PROBLEM 2.4
1. Let A = {a, b, c, d}, list all elements of the power set P(A).
2. How many elements are there in the power set of a set having the following number of objects:
(a) Nine; (c) two; (e) four;
(b) one; (d ) three; (f ) five
(g) n, where n is zero or a positive integer.
3. If A = {(a, b), c}, find out P(A).
1 (3, 1) a (3, a)
3 2 (3, 2) 3
3 (3, 3) b (3, b)
The concept of the product of two sets can be extended to the product of any number of sets.
Example 2.19.2. Let A = {1, 2, 3}
and B = {5, 7}, then find A × B.
Solution. Given two sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {5, 7} we form from them the set of all pairs
such that each pair contains an element of A and an element of B arranged in the specified order. If
the elements of A are first in the pairs we denote this set by A × B, read ‘‘The Cartesian product of
A and B,’’ or simply ‘‘A cross B’’.
Therefore, A × B = {(1, 5), (1, 7), (2, 5), (2, 7), (3, 5), (3, 7)} we observe that
A contains 3 elements, B contains 2 elements, and A × B contains 6 elements.
7
A×B
6
B×C
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. 2.10
Similarly be merely interchanging the order of the pairs in A × B, we get
B × A = {(5, 1), (7, 1), (5, 2), (7, 2), (5, 3), (7, 3)}
Therefore, A × B ≠ B × A.
PROBLEM 2.5
1. Let A = {– 1, 0, 1} and B = {0, 2} then find out A × B and B × A.
2. If S = {1, 2} and T = {a, b}, list all elements of S × T and T × S.
3. If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {x, y, z} list all elements in A × B, and B × A and show that A × B ≠ B × A.
4. Prove that A × B = φ if A = φ or B = φ.
5. Prove that A × B = B × A if and only if A = B.
6. Define cartesian product of two sets. If A, B, and C are sets and A ⊂ B, than A × C ⊂ B × C.
38 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
7. Show that
(i) A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
(ii) A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C)
8. For sets A, B ⊆ X and C, D ⊆ Y, verify the following properties of the cartesian product.
(a) (A ∩ B) × (C ∩ D) = (A × C) ∩ (B × D);
(b) (A – B) × C = (A × C) – (B × C);
(c) (A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C);
(d) A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C).
F 0, 1 I
Example 2.20.1. Let Dn =
H nK , where n∈N, the positive integers. Find:
(i) ∪ {Di | i∈A ⊂ N}
(ii) ∩ {Di | i∈N},
F I 1
H K
1
Solution. Here Dn = 0, is the set of all real numbers lying between 0 and which does
n n
1
not include 0 and .
n
(i) Let α ∈ A be smallest number in A, then
∪{Di | i ∈ A ⊂ N} = Dα.
(ii) If x ∈ R, then there exists i∈N such that
F 1I
H iK
x ∉ 0. Here ∩{Di | i ∈ N} = φ
Example 2.20.2. Let I = [0, 1] and for each i∈I, Let Ai = [0, i]. Find Ui Ai and ∩iAi.
Solution. Here ∪i Ai = [0, 1] and ∪i Ai = {0}.
Now we give here some important and interesting results.
THEOREM 2.20.1. If the family F ={Si | i∈I} of subsets of a universal set U is empty, then
∪i∈ISi = φ.
Proof. Let x∈U. Then for some i∈I, x∈Si x∈∪CεI ⇒ x∈Si for atleast one i∈I but Si ∉ F since
F is an empty set, therefore x ∉ Si, for any i,
⇒ x ∉ ∪iεISi
⇒ ∪iεISi = φ
THEOREM 2.20.2. If the family F = {Si | i∈I} of subsets of a universal set U is empty, then
∩iεISi = U
Proof. Let x∈U. Then for some i∈I there exists a subset Si such that x∈Si. Therefore if x
belongs to each Si, for all i∈I and if there are no sets present in the family F, then
x ∈ ∩iεI Si
⇒ U ⊆ ∩iεI Si ...(1)
Since each Si ⊆ U,
Then ∩ i ∈ I Si ⊆ U ...(2)
From (1) and (2)
∩i ∈ I Si = U.
We now prove the De Morgan formulas for an arbitrary family of sets.
THEOREM 2.20.3. Suppose {Si}, i∈I is a family of subsets of some set U. Then
(i) (∪I Si)′ = ∩I Si′
(ii) (∩I Si)′ = ∪I Si′
Proof. Here Si′ = {x∈U | x ∉ Si}
(i) Let x ∈ (∪I Si)′. Then
x ∈ (∪i Si)' ⇒ x ∉ ∪I Si
⇒ x ∉ Si, for any i∈I
40 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PROBLEM 2.6
1. Let An = {x | x is a multiple of n}, where x∈N, the positive integers and let Bi = [i, i+1], where i∈Z,
the integers. Find,
(i) A3 ∩ A5 (ii) ∪{Ai | i ∈ P}, where P is the set of prime numbers.
(iii) B3 ∩ D4 (iv) ∪{Bi | i ∈ Z}
(v) (∪ (Bi | i ≥ 7)) ∩ A5.
5
9 25
–5
0 0
4 –1
1 1
1
–2
4
2
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
Fig. 3.1
In the example our discussion of a relation involves a set of ordered pairs. We observe that these
ordered pairs (0, 0), (1, 1), (–1, 1)....are the elements of the set Z × Z. Therefore relation is a set of
ordered pairs and also a subset of Z × Z.
43
44 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Definition 3.1.1. A binary relation from the set A to the set B is a subset of A × B.
This definition proves that the empty subset of A × B is relation which is called null relation
or the empty relation in A × B. From the definition it is also obvious that A × B is relation which
is referred to as the universal relation from A to B.
If A = B we often say that the relation is in A, it is a subset of A × A.
If R ⊂ A × B and (x, y) is in R, using set notation, we write (x, y) ∈ R.
Definition 3.1.2. The domain of a binary relation is the set of all first elements of the ordered pairs
in the relation. The range of binary relation is the set of all second elements of the ordered pairs in
the relation.
We shall denote the domain by d(R) and the range by r(R).
Example 3.1.2. Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4}
and T = {1, 2, 3, 4},
then the cartesian product of S and T is
S × T = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4),
(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3) (4, 4)}.
S × T has 42 elements.
The elements (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3) and (4, 4) are called diagonal elements in T × T(S × S).
The set R = {(1, 1)} is a relation in S × T
R = {(x, y) | x = y} is a relation in S × T
or R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}.
Here d(R) = r(R) = {(1, 2, 3, 4)}.
Similarly, R = {(x, y) | x < y)} is a relation in S × T
i.e., < or R = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}.
Hence, d(R) = {1, 2, 3} and r(R) = {2, 3, 4}.
In each of these illustrations R was some relation described by a single formula relating the first
and second elements of the pairs in R, but, relations may exist for which such formulas are difficult
to find. Consider the relation R in S × T
where R = {(1, 4), (2, 3), (1, 1), (3, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 4), (5, 1), (1, 3)}, for example.
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
R = {x, y) | x = y} in S R = {(x, y) | x < y} in S
Fig. 3.2
RELATION AND FUNCTIONS 45
PROBLEM 3.1
1. If S = {1, 2, 3} and T = {x, y}, list all the elements of S × T. List ten of the relations in S × T.
2. Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4} and T = {1, 2, 3, 4}. In each of the following find all of the pairs of S × T that
belong to R:
(a) R = {(x, y) | x ≥ y},
(b) R = {(x, y) | x > y},
(c) R = {(x, y) | x ≤ y},
(d) R = {(x, y) | x = y2}.
3. Let S and T be sets with m and n elements, respectively. How many elements has S × T ? How many
relations are there in S × T ?
4. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Y = {1, 2, 3}. Graph the relation R = {(x, y) | x > y} from a subset of
X into Y. Give the domain and the range of the relation.
5. Graph the relation {(x, y) | x2 + y2 = 25}
(a) in the set of real numbers,
(b) in the set of integers.
6. Describe in words and with set notation the relation “is similar to” in the set of triangles in the plane.
Example 3.2.4. If R and S are equivalence relations in the set X, prove that R ∩ S is an
equivalence relation.
Solution. We have to verify that R ∩ S is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
- a ∈ X, (a, a) ∈ R and (a, a) ∈ S, since R and S are equivalence relations. Hence —
(1) — - a
∈ X, (a, a) ∈ R ∩ S.
Hence R ∩ S is reflexive.
(2) (a, b) ∈ R ∩ S ⇒ (a, b) ∈ R and (a, b) ∈ S
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ S, since
R and S are symmetric being equivalence relations
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R ∩ S.
Hence R ∩ S is symmetric.
(3) (a, b) ∈ R ∩ S, (b, c) ∈ R ∩ S ⇒ (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R and
(a, b) ∈ S, (b, c) ∈ S
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R and (a, c) ∈ S,
since R and S are transtive being equivalence relations
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R ∩ S.
Hence R ∩ S is transitive.
This proves R ∩ S is an equivalence relation.
Example 3.2.5. Which of the following relations in the set of real numbers are equivalence
relations
(i) R = {(a, b) | a | = | b |},
(ii) R = {(a, b) | a ≥ b} ?
Solution. (i) We verify the following properties :
(1) Since —- a ∈ R, the set of real numbers, | a | = | a |, (a, a) ∈ R.
Hence R is reflexive.
(2) (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ | a | = | b |
⇒|b|=|a|
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R.
Hence R is symmetric.
(3) (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ | a | = | b | and | b | = | c |
⇒|a|=|c|
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R.
Hence R is transitive.
Thus R is an equivalence relation.
(ii) For this relation we have
(1) a ≥ a, —- a ∈ R, the set of real numbers, (a, a) ∈ R. Hence R is reflexive.
(2) (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ a ≥ b does imply b ≥ a
⇒ (b, a) ∉ R.
Hence R is not symmetric.
48 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Conversely, if R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive then we show that R is reflexive and
circular.
(a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R, since R is transitive
⇒ (c, a) ∈ R, since R is symmetric
⇒ R is circular.
(a, c) ∈ R, (c, a) ∈ R ⇒ (a, a) ∈ R, since R is transitive
⇒ R is reflexive
Definition 3.2.3. Let an equivalence relation ~ be defined on A. For any a ∈ A, the set of all elements
x ∈ A which are equivalent to a, x ~ a, is called the equivalence class, denoted by [a]. Thus [a] =
{x ∈ A | x ~ a}.
THEOREM 3.2.1. Let ~ be an equivalence relation on A. For any a, b ∈ A,
(i) a ∈ [a]
(ii) [a] ∩ [b] = φ or [a] = [b] (that is, any two equivalence classes are either disjoint or equal).
(iii) A is the union of all disjoint classes.
Proof. (i) By definition [a] = {x | x ~ a}. Since a ~ a, by reflexive property, we have a ∈ [a].
(ii) [a] ∩ [b] ≠ φ ⇒ ∃ c ∈ [a] ∩ [b]
⇒ c ∈ [a] and c ∈ [b]
⇒ a ~ c and b ~ c
⇒ a ~ c and c ~ b (by symmetry)
⇒ a ~ b (by transitivity)
Let y ∈ [b], then b ~ y and a ~ b, ⇒ a ~ y ⇒ y ∈ [a] ⇒ [b] ⊆ [a].
Again let y ∈ [a], then a ~ y and y ~ a, a ~ b ⇒ y ~ b ⇒ y ∈ [b].
⇒ [a] ⊆ [b].
Hence [a] = [b].
(iii) Let P = ∪ [a], a ∈ A. Clearly P ⊆ A.
For each a ∈ A, there exists an equivalence class [a] containing a.
Thus a ∈ A ⇒ a ∈ [a] ⇒ a ∈ P ⇒ A ⊆ P.
Hence A = P.
From this theorem we conclude that the equivalence relation ~ defined on the set A decomposes
the set A into mutually disjoint equivalence classes. That is,
(1) every element of A belongs to some equivalence class,
(2) Any two equivalence classes are either identical or disjoint.
(3) The union of disjoint equivalence classes is equal to the set A.
Example 3.2.8. Show that the relation of congruence modulo m has m distinct equivalence
classes.
Solution. We have seen in example that the relation of congruence modulo m is an equivalence
relation defined on the set Z, the set of all integers. Since the relation of congruence of modulo m
is an equivalence relation, it decomposes the set Z into mutually disjoint equivalence classes. Now
we find out the equivalence classes.
50 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
3.3 PARTITION
Definition 3.3.1. Let S be a non-void set. Let P be a collection {Aα} of non-void subsets of S indexed
by A. Then P is a partition of S if, and only if,
(a) Uα Aα∈A = S (the union of the subsets in P is S)
(b) If Aα ≠ Aβ then Aα ∩ Aβ = φ for all, α, β ∈ A (the intersection of two distinct subsets in
P is empty).
THEOREM 3.3.1. Let S be non-void set and P a partition of S. Let P be indexed by A. Let
R be the relation in S × S given by (a, b) ∈ R if, and only if, a ∈ Aα implies b ∈ Aα, where
Aα ∈ P. That is, a, b belong to the same subset in P. Then R is an equivalence relation in S × S.
Proof. We must show that R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. Since every element a is
in the same subset Aα of S in P as itself, we have (a, a) ∈ R for all a ∈ S. If a and b belong to S
also belong to Aα ∈ P, then b and a belong to Aα ∈ P. That is, if (a, b) ∈ R, then (b, a) ∈ R. If
a and b belong to Aα, that is, if (a, b) ∈ R, and (b, c) ∈ R, then (a, c) ∈ R. Hence the theorem.
THEOREM 3.3.2. Let S be non-void set and R an equivalence relation in S × S. Let P be a
collection of subsets of S, called equivalence sets indexed by S, and given as follows. Let x ∈ S. Then
the equivalence set of x, Ax = {y ∈ S | (x, y) ∈ R}. Then the collection P = {Ax} | Ax ⊆ S is a partition
of S.
Proof. We must show that P possesses properties (a) and (b) of definition of partition. The first
of these Ux∈s Aα = S. Since the union of a collection of subsets of S is contained in S, we have Ux∈s
Ax ⊆ S. Let a ∈ S. Since R is reflexive, (a, a) ∈ R. By the definition of Aa, a ∈ Aa. Therefore,
S ⊆ Uα∈s Ax. Hence we have S = Ux∈s Ax.
Now we shall prove that P satisfies the property (b) of definition of partition.
Let u, v ∈ S, and Au, Av ∈ P, we must show Au ∩ Av = φ or Au, Av are not different subset
of S. If Au ∩ Av, = φ, then we have finished. If ½ w ∈ S such that w ∈ Au ∩ Av, then w ∈ Au and
w ∈ Av. By the definition of Au, (u, w) ∈ R, and by the definition of Av, (v, w) ∈ R. By symmetric
property, if (v, w) ∈ R, then (w, v) ∈ R. By transitive property if (u, w) ∈ R and (w, v) ∈ R, then
(u, v) ∈ R.
Therefore u is equivalent to v. It proves that the equivalence set Au of u ∈ S is equal to the
equivalence set of v ∈ S, that is, Au = Av. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Example 3.3.1. Let Z be the set of integers;
Z = {0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3 ...). Let n be non-negative integer. Then the relation Rn is the subset of
all pairs (a, b) ∈ Z × Z such that a – b = kn for some k ∈ Z, is an equivalence relation.
Solution. We must show that Rn is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Let a ∈ Z, then
a – a = 0. n for 0 ∈ Z, that is (a, a) ∈ Rn. It shows that Rn is reflexive.
Now let (a, b) ∈ Rn, then ½k ∈ Z such that a – b = k.n. Then b – a = (– k)n. Here – k ∈ Z.
Therefore (b, a) ∈ Rn. This proves that Rn is symmetric.
52 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
To prove Rn is transitive, let (a, b) ∈ Rn and (b, c) ∈ Rn, that is, ½k1, k2, ∈ Z such that
a – b = k1n and b – c = k2n. But (a – b) + (b – c) = k1n + k2n or (a – c) = (k1 + k2)n, where
k1 + k2 ∈ Z. This shows that (a, c) ∈ Rn. Hence Rn satisfies the transitive property and Rn is an
equivalence relation.
Definition 3.3.2. The partition Pn induced on the set Z by Rn is called the set of integers
modulo n.
Example 3.3.2. Let n = 3, for two integers a and b, (a, b) ∈ R3 if, and only if ½k ∈ Z such
that a – b = k. 3. The pair (3, 18) ∈ R3, since 3 – 18 = (– 5)3. Similarly (7, – 2), (–2, 1),
(–5, –2) belong to R3, because 7 – (– 2) = 3.3, – 2 – 13 = (– 5)3, – 5 – (– 2) = (– 1)3. There are
pairs that do not belong to R3; (2, 3), (– 17, 11) are examples.
Now we form the equivalence sets of elements 0, 1, 2. Therefore [0] = {y ∈ Z | 0 ~ y}
or [0] = {y ∈ Z | (0, y) ∈ R3}
or [0] = {x ∈ Z | 0 – y = k.3 , for y ∈ Z}
i.e., [0] = {{0 ± 3, ± 6, ± 9,...}
Similarly, [1] = {y ∈ Z | (1, y) ∈ R3}
[1] = {..., – 5, – 2, 1, 4, 7, ...}
and [2] = {..., – 4, – 1, 2, 5, 8, ...}.
We need not go further, because [3] = [0], [4], = [1], [5] = [2] ...
We observe that if a, b, ∈ [0], then (a, b) ∈ R3, if e, f ∈ [1] the (e, f ) ∈ R3 and if x, y ∈ [2],
then (x, y) ∈ R3.
We also notice that [0] ∪ [1] ∪ [2] = Z and [0] ∩ [1] ∩ [2] = φ.
Therefore the collection Z3 = {[0], [1], [2]} is the partition of Z induced by R3. This set
Z3 = {[0], [1], [2]} is called the set of integers modulo 3.
PROBLEM 3.2
1. Determine whether each of the following relations R is an equivalence relation. If it is, indicate
partition induced: that is, indicate the equivalence classes.
(a) Let R = {(x, y) | x – y = 2n, x, y and n ∈ Z}
(b) Let R = {(x, y) | x – y = 5n, x, y and n ∈ Z}
(c) Let S be the set of books in a specific college library. If x, y ∈ S, then xRy if the books x and
y have the same number of pages in them.
54 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
(d) In the set of all people let R = {(x, y) | y is the mother of x}.
(e) Let x, y ∈ Q and let xRy if and only if x – y > 0.
2. Show that a partition of a set S determines an equivalence relation in S.
3. Find an equation which defines each of the following relations. Give the domain and the range.
(a) {(0, 3), (1, 4), (2, 5), (– 1, 2)}
(b) {(–3, 9), ( 2 , 2), (2, 4)}
(c) {(0, 1), (1, 2 ), (–1, 2 ), (2, 5 ), (– 2, 5 )}
4. Show that equality of numbers is an equivalence relation for the set of real numbers.
5. Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and R the relation
R = {(1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 5), (1, 1), (2, 2), (4, 2), (3, 1)}
Explain why this relation on S has none of the three properties of an equivalence relation.
6. Let S be the set of Exercise 5 and construct an equivalence relation on S by listing pairs of elements
of S. Give a relation containing 5 or more such pairs.
7. Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} have a partition consisting of the sets {1, 3, 5} and {2, 4}. Show that this
partition determines an equivalence relation.
8. Let T be the set of integers from 0 through 12.
Define an equivalence relation on T as follows, where a ~ b for elements of T if and only if one of
the following conditions holds:
(a) Both a and b have the factor 2 (this includes 0, since 0 = 2.0).
(b) Both a and b are prime numbers other than 2.
(c) Each of a and b is either 1 or 9.
List the elements in each of the equivalence sets for this relation.
9. In each of the following problems determine which, if any, of the three defining properties of
an equivalence relation are valid.
(a) S is the set of triangles: (a, b) ∈ R if a is similar to b.
(Two triangles are similar if the angles of one equal to the angles of the other).
(b) R is the set of real numbers; (a, b) ∈ R if a ≤ b.
(c) S is the set of men; (a, b) ∈ R if a is a brother of b.
(d ) S is the set of men; (a, b) ∈ R if a is father of b.
(e) S is the set of polygons; (a, b) ∈ R if a has the same number of sides as b.
(f ) S is a set of coplanar liner; (a, b) ∈ R if a is parallel to b.
(g) S is a set of non-zero rational numbers; (a, b) ∈ R if a = I/b.
(h) Z is the set of all integers, (a, b) ∈ R if a = bx for some. x ∈ Z.
(i) N is the set of natural numbers, (a, b) ∈ R; if a2 – 4ab + 3b2 = 0, a, b ∈ N.
10. Find examples of sets and relations on the sets which are :
(a) Reflexive but not symmetric or transitive.
(b) Symmetric but not reflexive or transitive.
(c) Transitive but not reflexive or symmetric.
(d ) Reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
(e) Reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(f ) Symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
RELATION AND FUNCTIONS 55
11. Let S = {(a, b) | a, b ∈ N} and define (a, b) ~ (c, d) if and only if ad = bc. Prove that ~ is an
equivalence relation on S.
12. Let S = {n | n ∈ N and n > 1}. If a, b ∈ S define a ~ b to mean that a and b have the same number
of positive prime factors (distinct or identical). Show that ~ is an equivalence relation.
13. Let R be a partial order relation on S. If we define a relation R′ on S by (a, b) ∈ R' if and only if
(a, b) ∈ R, show that R' is a partially order relation on S if and only if R is partially order relation
on S.
14. Let A be the set of all continuous functions on the closed interval [0, 1] = {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 1} and define
1 1
a(x) ~ b(x) if and only if ∫ a( x )dx = ∫ b( x)dx . Show that ~ is an equivalence relation.
0 0
15. Show that for the set of all points in a plane, the relation at the same distance from the origin is an
equivalence relation.
x1
a
x2
x3
b
Fig. 3.3
Definition 3.5.8. Two mapping f and g are equal if and only if f and g have the same domain A and
- x ∈ A.
f(x) = g(x) —
Definition 3.5.9. A sequence is a function f whose domain is the set of positve integers. If n is a
positive integer, f(n) is called the nth term of the sequence.
Definition 3.5.10. The mapping f : S → T is said to be onto T if given t ∈ T. ½ s ∈ S such that f (s)
= t. That is, every element of T is an image, or the image set f (S) of S under f is T, i.e., f (S) = T.
An onto mapping is also sometimes called surjection, and if f(S) ⊂ T, that is, every element of T is
not an image of some s ∈ S, then f is said to be into mapping.
Example 3.5.4. Let A = {a, b, c} and b = {1, 2}
then f : a → 1, b → 2, c → 2.
Here f is a mapping by the definition. It is a mapping of A onto B because every element of
B is an image, while a mapping g : 1 → a, 2 → b is an into mapping because every element of A
is not an image. That, ½ c ∈ A which is not an image element for x ∈ B.
If can be shown by Venn diagrams
A A
B B
a f g a
1 1
b b
2 2
c c
Fig. 3.4
Definition 3.5.11. By many-to-one mapping we mean that many elements in the domain of that
mapping have the same image element in the rage. Thus, we have f (a) = f (b) even if a ≠ b.
Example 3.5.5. Let f = {(x, x2) x ∈ Z} in the set Z × Z.
We observe that the elements of f can be written as
f = {(1, 1), (– 1, 1), (2, 4), (– 2, 4),...}
or the elements 1 and – 1 have the same image element 1, 2 and – 2 have the same image element
4 and so on.
58 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
1
1
–1
2
4
–2
3
9
–3
Fig. 3.5
i.e., two elements of the domain have the same image under the mapping f given by x → f (x) = x2
therefore it is many to one mapping. It is into mapping because Rf = {1, 4, 9,...} is a proper subset
of Z. Hence f is many to one and into mapping.
Example 3.5.6. Let f : Z → {E, O} defined by
n → f (n) = E when n is even integer.
n → f (n) = O when n is odd integer.
In this case all even integers are having the same image element E and all odd integers are
having the same image element O. So f is clearly onto.
Therefore it is a many-to-one and onto mapping.
Definition 3.5.12. A mapping f is termed one-to-one if and only if x1, x2 ∈ Df, with x1 ≠ x2 implies
f (x1) ≠ f (x2) that is, distinct elements in the domain of f have distinct image elements in the range
Rf, or in terms of ordered pairs, a mapping f is one-to-one if and only if no two distinct ordered piars
of f have the same second element. Thus we have
(x1, y1) ∈ f and (x2, y2) ∈ f and x1 ≠ x2 imply that y1 ≠ y2).
And sometimes we define that f is one-to-one mapping if and only If. (x1, y) ∈ f, and (x2, y)
∈ f imply x1 = x2. In functional notation this means if f (x1) = f (x2), then x1 = x2.
Example 3.5.7. Show that the mapping f : Z + → Z + defined by f (x) = x2, x ∈ Z +, where Z +
is the set of positive integers, is one-to-one and into.
Solution. In the mapping f : Z + → Z + the domain of f is D1 = Z+, the set of positive integers.
Under the function f the elements of Z + will have the images as follows:
When x = 1, f (1) = 12 = 1,
x = 2, f (2) = 22 = 4,
x = 3, f (3) = 32 = 9. and so on.
Thus, range Rf = {1, 4, 9,...}. Rf ∈ Z . Hence f is into mapping.
+
This shows that the squares of two different positive integers are different. Hence f is one-to-
one and into mapping.
Example 3.5.8. Prove that the mapping f : X → X, where
X = {x ∈ R | x ≠ 0}, defined by f (x) = 1/x is one-to-one and onto.
Solution. The set X is the set of all non-zero real numbers.
Let x1, x2 ∈ X.
1 1
Then f (x1) = f (x2) = =
x1 x2
⇒ x1 = x2.
This proves f is one-to-one.
For every non-zero real number x ∈ X there exists a non-zero real number I/x ∈ X such that
1
f = 1/1/x = x.
x
Therefore every element x ∈ X is an image element of 1/x.
Hence f is onto.
Thus f is one-to-one and onto.
Example 3.5.9. Is an injective map (1– 1) from a set to itself a subjective map (onto)? Give
reasons.
Solution. Let A be a set and let f : A → A be an injective map (1 – 1). Then different elements
of A have different images under the injective map f in A. So if A is finite with n distinct elements,
then the images of n distinct elements are n distinct elements of A under the injective map f.
This implies that if A is finite, then f : A → A is onto (surjective) because under the injective map
f, f (A) = A.
If A is infinite, then the injective map f may and may not be surjective depending upon
definition of f.
For example the map f : A → A defined by
f (x) = 2x, V x ∈ A, where A is the set of all integers, is one-to-one (injective) but not onto
(surjective) because the range Rf = {0, ± 2, ± 4...} is a proper subset of A.
Definition 3.5.13. A set is infinite if and only if there exists a one-to-one mapping from the set onto
a proper subset of itself. A set is finite if it is not infinite.
For a function F whose domain and range are both finite sets, the statement that F is one-to-
one and onto implies that the domain and range contain the same number of elements.
Now we condider an interesting thing about f which is f –1 that is, inverse image set of
f : A → B, and if C ⊂ B, then f –1(C) is defined as {a ∈ A | f (a) ∈ C}, the set of all points of the
domain of f whose images are in C. If C has only one element in it, say C = {y}, we usually write
f –1(y) instead of f –1{(y)}. The f –1(C) is called the inverse image of C under f. (Note that no
definition has been given for the symbol f –1 by itself.)
If D ⊂ A, then f (D) is defined as {f (x) | x ∈ D}.
The set f (D) is called the image of D under f. Therefore the set f (A) is the image of A under
f and f (A) ⊆ B.
60 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Example 3.5.10. Let Z be the set of integers and let T = {E, O}. Define f : Z → T by
n → f (n) = E if n is even.
n → f (n) = O if n odd. Then f is a mapping of Z onto T.
f –1(E) = {n ∈ Z | E = f (n)}, the set of even integers.
f –1(O) = {n ∈ Z | O = f (n)}, the set of odd integers.
THEOREM 3.5.1. Let f : X → Y.
For each subset A ⊆ Y,
f (f –1(A) ⊆ A)
Proof. b ∈ f (f –1(A)) ⇒ f (a) = b for some a ∈ f –1(A)
⇒ f (a) ∈ A
⇒ b∈A
⇒ f (f –1(A)) ⊆ A.
COROLLARY. If f is mapping from X onto Y, then
f (f –1(A)) = A.
Proof. In preceding theorem we have proved
f (f –1(A) ⊆ A
For opposite inclusion. Let b ∈ A,
then there exists some element a ∈ X such that
f (a) = b because f is onto.
f (a) = b ∈ A ⇒ a ∈ f –1(A)
⇒ f (a) ∈ f (f –1(A))
⇒ b ∈ f(f –1(A))
⇒ A ⊆ f{f –1(A))
–1
Hence, f (f (A)) = A
THEOREM 3.5.2. Let f : X → Y. For each subset A ⊆ X,
A ⊆ f –1 f (A))
Proof. a ∈ A ⇒ f (a) ∈ f (A) ⇒ a ∈ f –1(f (A))
Hence A ⊆ f –1(f (A)).
COROLLARY. If f is one-to-one function from X onto Y, then
A = f –1(f (A))
Proof. We prove f –1(f (A) ⊆ A.
a ∈ f –1(f (A)) ⇒ f (a) ∈ f (A) ⇒ f (a) = f (a') for some a′ ∈ A
⇒ a = a′ since f is one to one
⇒ a∈A
⇒ f –1(f (A)) ⊆ A. Hence the corollary.
RELATION AND FUNCTIONS 61
PROBLEM 3.3
1. If S = {1, 2} and T = {a, b}, list all the functions in S × T.
2. If S = {1, 2, 3} and T = {x, y}, list ten of the functions in S × T.
3. Consider the following relations:
(a) {(1, 2), (3, 2), (5, 5)},
(b) {(1, 2), (2, 3), (5, 5)},
(c) {(2, 1), (2, 3), (5, 5)},
Are these relations the function? Explain.
4. Let R be the set of real numbers and F that relation in R × R consisting of all pairs listed below.
Determine which, if any, are functions. If F is not a function, exhibit two elements (x1, y1) and (x1,
y2) in F with y1 = y2
(a) F = {(x, x + 2) | x ∈ R}
(b) F = {(x, 2x) | x ∈ R}
(c) F = {(x, x2) | x ∈ R}
(d ) F = {(x, ax + b) | x ∈ R}
(e) F = {(x, | x |) | x ∈ R}
(f ) F = {(x, sin x) | x ∈ R}
(g) F = {(x, y) | x2 + y2 = 4}
(h) F = {(x, 0) | x ∈ R}
(i) F = {(x, y) | y2 = x}
5. Let S = {(1, 2, 3} and T = {a, b}, list all functions F in S × T with domain S, and range T1 where
(a) S1 = S, T1 = {a} (there is one)
(b) S1 = S, T1 = {b} (there is one)
(c) S1 = S, T1 = {a, b} (there are six)
(d ) S1 = {1, 2}, T1 = T (there are two).
6. Let S = {a, b, c}, T = {1, 2, 3}. List all of the one-to-one function in S × T with domain S (there
are six).
7. Determine which are one-to-one mappings in Exercise number 4. In each case find the range of F.
8. Prove the following : If f : X → Y and A, B ⊂ X. then,
(a) f (A – B) ⊇ f (A) – f (B)
(b) f –1(A – B) = f –1(A) – f –1(B) if A, B, ⊂ Y
(c) f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)
(d ) f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B)
(e) f –1(A ∪ B) = f –1(A) ∪ f –1(B) if A, B ⊂ Y
(f ) f –1(A ∩ B) = f –1(A) ∩ f –1(B) if A, B ⊂ Y
9. Given A = {–1, 0, 2, 5, 6, 11},
B = {–2, –1, 0, 18, 108} and f (x) = x2 – x – 2.
Is f (A) = B? Find f (A)
10. Let A = R – {3} and B = R – {1}, where R is the set of real numbers. Let the function f : A → B
be defined by
x−2
f (x) = . Is this function bijective ?
x−3
62 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Again, since f is onto, then for y ∈ Y there exists some x ∈ X such that
f (x) = y.
⇒ x = f –1(y) since f is one-to-one.
This proves f –1 is onto.
Example 3.6.1. The mapping f : R → R be defined by
f (x) = ax + b, where a, b, x ∈ R, a ≠ 0.
has its inverse (i.e., f is invertible).
For, if x1, x2, ∈ R, then
f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ ax1 + b = ax2 + b
⇒ ax1 = ax2
⇒ x1 = x2 [Q a ≠ 0]
This proves f is one-to-one.
Again, if y ∈ R, for some x ∈ R.
y = f (x) ⇒ y = ax + b
y−b
⇒ = x,
a
1
Thus for y ∈ R, there exists ( y − b) ∈ R such that
a
F 1 ( y − b )I F 1 ( y − b )I
f
Ha K = a
Ha K + b = y – b + b = y.
x g(f(x))
f(x)
gof
Fig. 3.6
64 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
and (c).
Now to prove (g o f )–1 = f –1 o g–1 we have to show that for every u ∈ U, the images of u under
(g o f )–1 and f –1 o g–1 are equal.
Now we have
g(t) = u ⇒ t = g–1(u) since g is one-to-one and onto
f (x) = t ⇒ x = f –1(t) since f is one-to-one and onto
(g o f )(x) = g( f (x)) = g(t) = u ⇒ x = (g o f )–1(u) ...(1)
since g o f is one-to-one and onto.
Again
( f –1 o g–1) (u) = f –1(g–1(u))
= f –1(t)
= x. ...(2)
By (1) and (2) we have
(g o f )–1 = f –1 o g–1.
COROLLARY. The function f : A → B is one-to-one and onto if and only if f o f –1 = eB, identity
mapping of B onto itself and f –1 o f = eA, identity mapping of A onto itself.
Proof. Since f : A → B is one-to-one and onto, f –1 : B → A exists and it is also one-to-one and
onto. So for x ∈ A,
f (x) = b ⇒ x = f –1(b).
Now (f o f –1(b) = f (f –1(b))
= f (x)
= eB(b)
⇒ fof –1 = eB
–1
Similarly, we can see that f o f = eA.
Conversely, assume that
f o f –1 =eB
Now
For x1, x2 ∈ A
f (x1) = f (x2)
⇒ f –1 (f (x1)) = f –1(f )(x2))
⇒ (f –1 o f )(x1) = (f –1 o f )(x2)
⇒ eA(x1) = eA(x2)
⇒ x1 = x2
This proves that f is one-to-one and clearly onto.
66 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PROBLEM 3.4
1. If the mappings f and g are given by
f = {(1, 2), (3, 5), (4, 1)}
g = {(2, 3), (5, 1), (6, 3)}
then write down the pairs in the mappings f ο g and g o f.
2. Let f on a mapping of a set S onto a set T. Then if we define (a, b) ∈ R, for a, b ∈ S provided
f (a) = f (b). Prove that R is an equivalence relation.
3. Let f be function from A into B and let g be a function from B into C. Then
(1) Prove that if g is onto C, then g o f is not necessarily onto C.
(2) Prove that if g is one-to-one, then g o f is not necessarily one-to-one.
(3) Prove thaty if f is not onto, then g o f may be onto.
(4) Prove that if g is not one-to-one, g o f may be one-to-one.
(5) Prove that if g o f is one-to-one, then f is one-to-one.
(6) Prove that if g o f is onto then g is onto.
4. Suppose that f and g are two specific functions from the set R into the set R. The following formulas
define functions f + g, f – g, f · g and f/g by specifying the value of these function at each point of their
domain:
RELATION AND FUNCTIONS 67
SOLVED PROBLEMS
11. If the mappings f and g are given by
f = {(1, 2), (3, 5), (4, 1)},
g = {(2, 3), (5, 1), (6, 3)},
then write down pairs in the mapping f o g and g o f.
Solution. Since f and g are functions, then f o g and g o f are functions defined by
f o g = {(s, u) | s ∈ Dg, u ∈ Rf , ½t ∈ Rg, such that (s, t) ∈ g and (t, u) ∈ f }, and
g o f = {(x, y) | x ∈ Df, y ∈ Rg. ½z ∈ Rf such that (x, z) ∈ f and (z, y) ∈ g}.
Here D f = {1, 3, 4}, Rf = {2, 5, 1},
and D g = {2, 5, 6}, Rg = {3, 1}.
Thus,
g o f = {(1, 3), (3, 1)}, (1, 3) ∈ g o f because for 1 ∈ Df . ½2 ∈ Rf such (1, 2) ∈ f and (2, 3)
∈ g, (3, 1) ∈ g o f since for 3 ∈ Df , ½5 ∈ Rf such that (3, 5) ∈ f and (5, 1) ∈ g. For 4 ∈ Rf (4, 1)
∈ f but there exists no ordered pair in g which has I as its first component.
Similarly f o g = {(2, 5), (5, 2), (6, 5)}.
Therefore f o g : D → Rf , and g o f : Df – {4} → Rg.
12. Let α be a mapping of a set S onto a set T. Then if we define (a, b) ∈ R, for a, b ∈ S
provided aα = bα, prove that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution. We have to show that R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
(1) Since aα = a α, V a ∈ S, (a, a) ∈ R. Hence R is reflexive,
(2) (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ aα = bα
⇒ bα = aα
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R.
Hence R is symmetric
(3) (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ aα = bα, bα = cα,
⇒ aα = cα
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R.
Hence R is transitive.
Therefore R is an equivalence relation.
Note: aα is the image of a ∈ S under α. We can write aα instead of α(a).
Example 3.8.1. Let N be the set of all natural numbers. Then the operation of addition on the
set N is a binary operation, for if a, b ∈ N, then so is c where c = a + b.
Example 3.8.2. Let X be the set of all odd integers. Then the operation of addition on the set
X is not a binary operation, for if a, b ∈ X, then c ∉ X where c = a + b.
Commutative, Associative, Distributive and Idempotent Binary Operation
Definition 3.8.2. A binary operation * on a set of elements A is said to be commutative, if and only
if, for a, b, ∈ A,
a * b = b * a.
Definition 3.8.3. A binary operation * on a set of elements A is said to be associative, if and only
if, for every a, b, c ∈ A,
a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c.
Definition 3.8.4. The binary operation * on a set of elements A is said to be distributive over the
binary operation o on the same set of elements, if and only if, for every a, b, c ∈ A,
a *(b o c) = (a * b) o (a * c).
Definition 3.8.5. The binary operation * is said to be idempotent on a set of elements A if and only
if, for every a ∈ A,
a * a = a.
Definition 3.8.6. An element e in a set A is said to be a unit element with respect to the binary
operation * on A if and only if, for every a ∈ A,
a * e = e * a = a.
Definition 3.8.7. An element b in a set A is said to be the inverse element of an element a ∈ A with
respect to the binary operation * if and only if
a*b = b *a =e (If e exists in A).
Example 3.8.3. In the algebra of sets the operations ∪, ∩ are both commutative, associative,
idempotent, and each one is distributive over the other. The null set φ is the unit element for the
operation ∪, and the universal set ∪ is the unit element for the operation ∩.
Example 3.8.4. The binary operations * and · on the set of all real numbers are defined by
a*b = | a – b |, and a · b = a.
Show that * is commutative but not associative, · is associative but not commutative, and that
* is distributive over.
I. Since a*b = |a – b |
= |b–a|
= b * a.
∴ * is commutative.
Again, (a * b) * c = | a – b | * c = | | a – b | – c |
and a * (b * c) = a * | b – c | = | a – | b – c | |
∴ (a * b) * ≠ a * (b * c).
If a = 1, b = 2, c = 5, then
(a * b) * c = | | 1 – 2 | – 5 | = | 1 – 5 | = 4
a * (b * c) = | 1 – | 2 – 5 | | = | 1 – 3| = 2.
Hence* is not associative.
70 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
∗ a b c
a b c b
b a c b
c c b a
PROBLEM 3.5
1. Determine whether or not each of the definition of * given below does give a binary operation on
the given set. In the event that * is not a binary operations, state whether conditions (1). Exactly one
element is assigned to each possible ordered pair of elements of S, (2). For each ordered pair of
elements of S, the element assigned to it is again in S or both are violated,
RELATION AND FUNCTIONS 71
(a) On Z +, define * by a * b = a – b
a
(b) On Z +, define * by a * b = ab =
b
(c) On R, define * by a * b
(d) On Z +, define * by a * b = c (Smallest integer = a, b)
(e) On Z +, define * by a * b = c, where c is largest integer less than the product a, b.
2. Prove that if * is an associative and commutative binary operation on a set S, then
(a * b)*(c * d) = [(d * c)*a] * b
for all a, b, c, d ∈ S.
3. For each binary * defined, determine whether * is commutative and whether * is associative.
(a) On Z, define by a * b = a – b
(b) On Q, define by a * b = ab + 1
(c) On Q, define by a * b = ab/2
(d ) On Z +, define by a * b = 2ab
(e) On Z +, define by a * b = ab
( f ) On R – {–1}, define by a * b = a + b + ab
(g) On R – {+ 1}, define by a * b = a + b – ab
(h) On Z, define by a * b = a + b + 1
(i) On Z, define by a * b = a + b – 1.
4. Let the binary operation * be defined on S = {a, b, c, d, e} by means of the adjoining table
(a) Compute (b * d), c * c and (a*c)*e*a from the table.
(b) Compute (a * b)* c and a*(b * c). Is * associative ?
(c) Compute (b * d)*c and b*(d * c).
(d ) Is * commutative ?
∗ a b c d e
a a b c b d
b b c a e e
c c a b b a
d b e b e d
e d b a d e
an for n = 1, 3, 5,...
f (n) =
bn for n = 2, 4, 6,...
This function relates that the elements of A are in one-to-one correspondence with the odd
positive integers and the elements of B are in one-to-one correspondence with the even positive
integers. So the elements of A ∪ B can be written as
A ∪ B = {a1, b1, a2, b2, a3, b3, ...}
Here A ∪ B is countable.
(ii) Let A ∩ B ≠ φ. Then B – A is countable or finite. We have A ∩ (B – A) = φ, and
A ∪ (B – A) = A ∪ B. If B – A is countable, then by first case A ∪ B = A ∪ (B – A) is countable
and if B – A is finite, B – A = {c1, c2, ...., cm}. Then the set A ∪ B = {c1, c2, ... cm, a1, a2, ...} is
clearly countable.
THEOREM 3.9.3. If A1, A2, ..., An, ... are countable sets, then n∈∪N An is countable.
Proof. Since A1, A2, ... An, ... are countable sets, their elements can be written in sequences as
follows:
A1 = {a , a , a ,..., a ,...} ,
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
n
A2 = {a , a , a ,..., a ,...} ,
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
n
M M M M
An = { },
a1n , a 2n , a 3n , ..., a nn ,...
where akj is the kth elements of the set Aj. We define the height of the element akj by j + k. Then
the a11 is the only element of height 2, a12 , a21 are the only elements of height, 3 and so on. Since
any positive integer k, there are only (k – 1) elements of height k. So we associate 2 with the elements
a11 of height 2, 3 with the elements a12 , a21 of height 3, 4 with the elements of a13 , a22 , a13 of height
4 and so on. Thus we arrange the elements of n∈∪N An according to their heights as
In listing these elements we should be careful to remove any aij that has already been listed
in the sequence. Hence n∪ ∈N
An is countable.
Example 3.9.1. Show that the set Q of rational numbers is countable.
Proof. We know that the set J = {0, 1, –1, 2, –2, ...} is a countable, set
0 1 −1 2 −2
The set An = , , , , ,... is a set of rational numbers with denominator n. For n = 1,
n n n n n
2, 3, ..., we get the sets A1, A2, A3 ... of rationals with denominators 1, 2, 3, ... respectively. A1,
A2, ..., An, ... are countable sets. The set Q = ∪ An is the union of countable sets.
n∈N
PROBLEM 3.6
1. Show that every infinite set contains a countable subset.
2. Show that every infinite subset of countable set is countable.
3. If A and B are countable sets, then show that the cartesian product A × B is countable.
4. Show that the set of all rationals between 0 and 1 is countable.
5. Show that the set of real numbers is uncountable.
6. Prove that the class of all finite subsets of a countable set is countable.
7. If A and B are countable, then show that A – B is countable.
8. Show that the set of all ordered pairs of integers is countable.
❑❑❑
" Ordered Sets and Lattices
In this chapter, we confine our studies to the ordered set and a special type of ordered set known as
lattice. Though we have introduced partial order relation in chapter 3, yet extend this concept to make
it more useful.
4.1 POSET
Definition 4.1.1. Let S be a non-empty set and let R be a non-empty subset of S × S. If this relation
R on a set S satisfies the following three properties:
(i) Reflexive: For all a ∈ S, (a, a) ∈ R or a R a
(ii) Anti-symmetric: For any a, b ∈ S,
(a, b) ∈ R, (b, a) ∈ R ⇒ a = b
or a R b, b R a ⇒ a = b.
(iii) Transitive: For any a, b, c ∈ S
(a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R
or a R b, b R c ⇒ a R c,
Then R is called a partial order relation or simply an order relation and the set S with the
partial order is called a partially ordered set or simply, an ordered set or Poset. We denote by an
ordered pair (S, R) when we went to specify the relation R.
The most familiar order relation, called the usual order, is the relation ≤ (read “less than or equal
to). On the positive integer N or on any subset of the real numbers R. We see that
(i) For all a ∈ N, a ≤ a, so ‘≤’ is reflexive.
(ii) For any a, b ∈ R, a ≤ b, b ≤ a ⇒ a = b, so ‘≤’ is anti-symmetric.
(iii) For any a, b, c ∈ R, a ≤ b, b ≤ c ⇒ a ≤ c, so ‘≤’ is transitive.
Hence the relation ‘≤’ is a partial order relation and the set N is partially ordered Set or Poset.
Example 4.1.1. Let S be any collection of sets. Then prove that the relation ⊆ of set inclusion
is a partial order relation on S.
75
76 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Definition 4.1.2. Let ≤ be a partial order relation in S. The relation ≥ is also a partial order relation
in S, then it is called the dual order. Hence the dual order ≥ is the inverse of the relation ≤, that is,
≥ = ≤–1.
A be a subset of an ordered set (S, ≤) and suppose a, b ∈ A. Define a ≤ b as elements of A
whenever a ≤ b as an elements of S. This defines a partial ordering in A called the induced order on
A. The subset A with induced order is called an order subset of S.
Definition 4.1.3. A subset A of an order set (S, ≤) is called a order subset if (A, ≤) is an order set.
Definition 4.1.4. Suppose < is a relation on a set S satisfying the following two properties:
(i) For any a ∈ S, a a
(ii) For any a, b ∈ S, if a < b and b < c, then a < c.
Then < is called a quasi-order in S.
The relation < on the set N of positive integers is a quasi-order for any a ∈ N, a a, and
a < b, b < c ⇒ a < c.
Definition 4.1.5. Let (A, ≤) be a partially ordered set. A subset B of A is called a chain if every
two elements in the subset B are related.
We note that in chain the relation satisfies the anti-symmetric and transitive property, so in any
chain with a finite number of elements {a1, a2, ..., an} there is an element ai1 which is less than every
other element in the chain, there is an element ai2 which is less than every other element except ai1,
there is an element ai3 which is less than every other element except ai1, ai2 and so on. We shall write
them as
ai1 ≤ ai2 ≤ ai3 ≤ ... ≤ ain.
The number of elements in the chain is called the length of the chain.
Definition 4.1.6. A subset of (A, ≤) is called an anti-chain if no two distinct elements in the subset
are related.
Definition 4.1.7. A partially ordered set (A, ≤) is called a totally ordered set or linearly ordered if
A is a chain. In this case, the binary relation ≤ is called a total ordering relation.
Definition 4.1.8. Suppose a and b are elements in partially ordered set (A, ≤). Then a and b are said
to be comparable if a ≤ b or b ≤ a. That is, in chain every pair are comparable.
Example 4.1.4. (1) If we define the relation of divisibility in the set N of all positive integers.
Then 21 and 7 are comparable since 7/21 but 3 and 5 are not comparable since 3 + 5 and 5 + 3. So
(N, ‘1’) is not linearly ordered by divisibility. We see that the set A = {2, 6, 12, 36} is linearly ordered
subset of N since 2/6, 6/12, 12/36.
(2) The set N with usual order ≤ (less than equal) is linearly ordered and every ordered subset
of N is also linearly ordered.
(3) The power set P(A) of the set A with two or more elements with the relation of inclusion
is not linearly ordered, since a, b ∈ A1, {a} and {b} may not be comparable. We observe that the
set {φ, {a}, A} is linearly ordered subset of P(A) since φ ⊂ {a} ⊂ A.
(2) Since φ ⊂ {a} ⊂ {a, b} ⊂ {a, b, c}, so the Hasse diagram of Fig. 4.1
(P, ⊂) is given in the adjacent figure 4.2.
ORDERED SETS AND LATTICES 79
{a, b, c}
{a, b}
{a}
φ
Fig. 4.2
The two relations defined above are not equal, but they have the same Hasse diagram. Such
situation will occur frequently and will be discussed in the discussion of the order isomorphism of
two partialy ordered sets.
24 36
Example 4.3.2. Let A = {2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 36} and let the relation ≤
be such that x ≤ y iff x|y. Draw the Hasse diagram of (A, ≤). 12
Solution. Since 2 + 3, 2 | 6, 6 | 12, 12 | 24, 12 | 36 and 3 | 6,
6
The Hasse diagram is given in the adjacent figure 4.3.
Example 4.3.3. Let A be a given finite set and let P(A) be its power
2 3
set. Let ⊆ be the inclusion relation on the power set P(A). Draw Hasse
diagram of (P(A), ⊆). Fig. 4.3
(a) A = {a}, (b) A = {a, b}; (c) A = {a, b, c}; (d) A = {a, b, c, d}.
Solution. Hence, (a) P(A) = {φ, {a}},
(b) P(A) = {φ, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}.
(c) P(A) = {φ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}.}.
(d) P(A) = {φ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {d}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c}, {b, d}, {c, d} {a, b, c},
{a, b, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d}; {a, b, c, d}}.
Hasse diagram of different P(A) are given below :
{a, b}
{a, b}
{a}
φ
φ
{a, b, c} φ
{a, b} {b, c}
{a, c}
(c)
φ
80 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
(d) {b, c, d}
A
{b, d}
{a, d}
{a, c}
{a, b} {d}
{c}
{b}
{a}
B
Fig. 4.4
REMARKS: (i) It is clear from example (b) that a Hasse diagram is not unique.
(ii) The Hasse diagram of (A, ≥) can be obtained from a Hasse diagram of (A, ≤) by rotating
the Hasse diagram of (A, ≤) through 180°, so that the points at the top become the points at the
bottom.
(iii) Some Hasse diagrams have a unique point which is above all the other points, and similarly
some Hasse diagram have a unique point which is below all other points. In example 3, all Hasse
diagrams have seen such points and in example 2 the Hasse diagram does not have such point.
Example 4.4.1. Let A = {a, b, c}. Then the power set of A is P(A) = {φ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}
{a, c} {b, c}, {a, b, c}}. and (P(A), ⊆) is a partially ordered set.
Solution. We choose the B ⊆ P(A), let B = {{b}, {c}, {b, c}}. Then {b, c} and A are upper
bounds of B, while φ is its lower bound. For the subset C = {{a, c}} {c}}. The upper bounds are
{a, c} and A, while lower bounds are φ and {c}. If A = {2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 36} and B = {2, 3, 6}. Then
6, 12, 24, 36 are upper bounds for B and there is no lower bound.
Here we observe that upper and lower bounds of a set are not necessarily unique. So we define
the following terms.
Definition 4.4.5. Let (A, ≤) be a poset and let B ⊆ A. An element b ∈ A is called a least upper bound,
or superman, for B if b is an upper bound of B and b ≤ y where y is any upper bound for B. Similarly,
the greatest lower bound, or infimum, for B is an element a ∈ A such that a is a lower bound and
y ≤ a for all lower bounds y.
A least upper bound, if it exists, is unique and so is the true for greatest lower bound. The least
upper bound is written as ‘LUB’ or ‘sup’ and greatest lower bound as ‘GLB’, or ‘inf’.
Example 4.4.2. Let P = {a, b, c, d, e, f } be ordered as in the e f
adjacent figure. and let A = {b, c, d}, the upper bounds of A are e,
and f. Since only e and f succeed every element of A.
We note that e and f are incomparable, hence LUB of A does
not exist. Similarly, the lower bounds of A are a and b, since only
a and b precede every element of A. Hence, b also succeeds a, c d
hence GLB of A is b.
Example 4.4.3. Let N be the set of all positive integers and let b
the relation ≤ be divisibility. (N, ≤) is a partially ordered set. The
greatest common divisor of a and b in N, denoted by
gcd (a, b)
is the largest integer which divides a and b and every common a
divisor of a and b divides gcd (a, b). Thus
Fig. 4.5
gcd (a, b) = GLB or Inf (a, b).
The lowest common multiple of a and b, denoted by LCM (a, b) is the smallest integer divisible
by a and b.
So LUB or Sup (a, b) = LCM (a, b).
In other words, Inf (a, b) and Sup (a, b) do exist for any pair a, b ∈ N, ordered by divisibility.
Example 4.4.4. Let Dm denote the set of alldivisors of positive integer m. For m = 36.
Dm = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36}
Hence, 1|2, 1|3, 2 + 3, 2|4, 2|6, 2|12, 2|18, 2|36
3|6, 3|12, 3|18, 3|36
4|12, 4|36
6|12, 6|18, 6|36
9|18, 9|36
18|36
The Hasse diagram is given below in figure 4.6.
82 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
36
12 18
6
4 9
2 3
Fig. 4.6
Here it is clear that
Inf (a, b) = gcd (a, b)
Sup (a, b) = LCM (a, b) for every pair a, b ∈ D36.
Inf D36 = 1, Sup D36 = 36.
Example 4.4.5. Let X = {2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 36} be ordered by 18 36
divisibility. Let A = {2, 3, 6}. Then A has LUB A = 6, while the GLB
A does not exists. Similarly, for the subset B = {2, 3}, Sup B = 6, but
B has no infimum. For the subset C = {12, 6}, the Sup C = 12 and Inf 12
C = 6.
The partially ordered sets which are such that every subset has a
6
supremum and Infinum form an important class of partially ordered sets
which are known as lattices.
For a partially ordered set (A, ≤) we know that its dual (A, ≥) is also
a partially ordered set. So the least element of A relative to the ordering 2 3
≤ is equal to the greatest element A relative to the ordering ≥ and vice Fig. 4.7
versa. Similarly, maximal and minimal elements are interchanged.
Definition 4.4.6. A partially ordered set is called well ordered if every non-empty subset of it has
a least element.
The set N of positive integer with usual order ≤ is well ordered set. From the definition we note
that
(1) Every well ordered is linearly ordered. For if a, b ∈ A, {a, b} has first element and hence
a and b are comparable.
(2) Every subset of a well ordered set is well-ordered.
Example 4.4.6. (1) The set Z of integers with usual order ≤ is linearly ordered since every
element has a immediate successor and an immediate predecessor but Z is not well ordered. Because
Z has no first element. However, any subset of Z which is bounded from below is well ordered.
(2) The set Q of rational numbers with usual order ≤ is linearly ordered set, but no element in
Q has an immediate successor or an immediate predecessor.
a+b a+b
For if a, b ∈ Q, a< < b, where ∈ Q.
2 2
ORDERED SETS AND LATTICES 83
PROBLEM 4.1
1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,} be ordered by the Hasse diagram in adjacent figure. Insert the correct symbol,
<, >, or O (not comparable), between each pair of elements:
(a) 1 ..... 5 (b) 2 ...... 3 (c) 4 ..... 1 (d) 3 ..... 4
1
2 3
4
5
Fig. 4.8
2. Consider the ordered set in question 1.
(a) Find all minimal and maximal elements of A
(b) Does A has lower bound or a upper bound?
3. Draw the Hasse diagrams of the following sets under the partial ordering relation ‘divides’ and
indicate which are totally ordered.
{2, 6, 24}, {3, 5, 15}, {1, 2, 3, 6, 12}, {2, 4, 8, 16}, {3, 9, 27, 54}.
4. If (X, R) is a partially ordered set with partial ordering R and A ⊆ X, show that R ∩ (A × A) is a partial
ordering relation on A.
5. Given an example of a set A such that (P(A), ⊆) is a totally ordered set.
6. Give a relation which is both a partial ordering relation and equivalence relation on a set.
7. Show that there are only five distinct Hasse diagrams for partially ordered sets containing three
elements. x1
8. Let the partially ordered set (P, R) be given by the Hasse
diagram in the adjacent figure 4.9.
where P = {x1, x2, x3, x4, x5}.
(a) Find which of the following true; x2 x3
x1Rx2, x4Rx1, x3Rx5, x2Rx5, x1Rx1, x2Rx3, and x4Rx5.
(b) Find the least and greatest in P if they exist
(c) Find the maximal and minimal elements of P.
(d) Find the upper and lower bounds of {x2, x3, x4}, {x3, x4, x4 x5
x5} and {x1, x2, x3}.
Fig. 4.9
Also indicate the LUB and GLB of these subsets if they exist.
4.5 LATTICES
The algebra of mathematical statement and algebra of sets provide us the motivation for the study
of algebraic system possessing all essential properties of these algebra. Such an algebraic system
known as Boolean Algebra was originated by English mathematician George Boole in 1854. Before
studying Boolean Algebra we study an algebraic system known as Lattice. We shall see that Boolean
Algebra is a case of special lattice.
84 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
In order to emphasize the role of an ordering relation, a lattice is first introduced as a partially
ordered set, and then defined lattice as an algebraic system.
{1, 2} {2, 3}
{1, 3}
{φ}
Fig. 4.10
Example 4.6.2. Let N be the set of all positive integers. The relation R is defined on N by a
R b if and only iff a | b, a, b ∈ N. Then (N, R) is a lattice in which the meet of a and b, that is,
a*b = GLB = greatest common divisor (GCD) of a and b and the join of a and b, that is, a ⊕ b
ORDERED SETS AND LATTICES 85
= LUB = least common multiple (LCM) of a and b. We know that GCD and LCM of two positive
integers a and b are positive integers and are unique.
Example 4.6.3. Let S = {2, 3, 4, 6} and let the relation R be defined by a R b iff a | b, a, b
∈ S. Then (S, R) is a poset. But the poset (S, R) is not a lattice since LCM {4, 6} = LUB {4, 6} =
12 ∉ S and GCD {2, 3} = GLB {2, 3} = 1 ∉ S. 12
Example 4.6.4. For positive integer 12, let Dm be the set of all
divisors of 12, i.e., Dm = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} and let R be the relation 4 6
defined by a R b iff a | b, a, b ∈ Dm = then (Dm, R) is a partially ordered
set. 3
2
Let a, b ∈ Dm, then LUB {a, b}, the least positive integer c such
that a|c, b|c.
∴ LUB {a, b} = c = LCM {a, b}. 1
Similarly, GLB (a, b) = the greatest integer d such that d|a, d|b Fig. 4.11
⇒ GLB{a, b} = d = GCD {a, b}. The lattice (S, R) is shown in the adjacent
diagram 4.11.
Example 4.6.5. Let (N, ≤) be a partially ordered set, where N is the set of all positive integer
and ≤ is the usual relation ‘‘less than and equal to”.
Here GLB {a, b} = min {a, b} and LUB = max {a, b}. Since GLB {a, b} and LUB {a, b} belong
to N, (N, ≤) is a lattice.
Example 4.6.6. Every chain is a lattice. It is easy to see that in a chain (L, ≤) we have either
a ≤ b or b ≤ a, a, b ∈ L. For clearity suppose a ≤ b, then GLD {a, b} = a and LUB {a, b} = b belong
to L. Hence (L, ≤) is a Lattice.
Example 4.6.7. Explain why the partial ordered sets given in the following figures are not
lattices.
e f
e d
b d c
b c
a
a
(i) (ii)
Fig. 4.12
Solution. In Figure (i) the set L = {a, b, c, d, e} and the relation ≤ is defined by a ≤ b, a ≤
c, b ≤ d, c ≤ d, b ≤ e, c ≤ e.
Upper bound {d, e} = d ∨ e does not exist, upper bounds {b, c} = b ∨ c is not d because e
is also upper bound of {b, c}. So upper bound {b, c} does not exist. Hence (L, ≤) is not a lattice.
(ii) Here L = {a, b, c, d, e, f}.
Lower bound of {e, d} = e ∧ d does not exist because b and c are lower bound of {e, d}.
Upper bound of {b, c} = b ∨ c does not exist because e and d are upper bounds of {b, c}.
86 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
⇒ e ≤ a, and e ≤ d, d ≤ b and d ≤ c
⇒ e ≤ a, e ≤ b, and e ≤ c
⇒ e = LB {a, b, c}.
If f is any lower bound of {a, b, c}, then
f ≤ a, f ≤ b, f ≤ c
Now, f ≤ b, f ≤ c and d = GLB {b, c} ⇒ f ≤ d
and f ≤ a and e = GLB {a, d} ⇒ f ≤ e
Hence, e = GLB {a, b, c}, that is, e = a * (b * c) ...(1)
Similarly, we can show that
e = (a * b) * c ...(2)
Thus from (1) and (2), we get
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c).
(L–3)′ On the pattern of the proof of (L–3) we can easily show that
(a ⊕ b) ⊕ c = a ⊕ (b ⊕ c)
(L–4)′ We know that for a, b ∈ L.
a ≤ a and a ≤ a ⊕ b
⇒ a ≤ a * (a ⊕ b) ...(1)
Again, a * (a ⊕ b) = GLB {a, a ⊕ b} ≤ a ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
a * (a ⊕ b) = a.
THEOREM 4.7.2. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice in which * and ⊕ denote the operations of meet and
join respectively.
For any a, b ∈ L
(i) a ≤ b iff a * b = a, and
(ii) a ≤ b iff a ⊕ b = b.
Proof. (i) Let a ≤ b. We know that a ≤ a. Therefore a ≤ a * b. But from the definition of
a * b, we have a * b ≤ a
Hence, a ≤ b ⇒ a * b = a.
Conversely, Let a * b = a. then
a * b = a ⇒ a ≤ b.
This proves the first result.
Let a ≤ b, then b ≤ b and LUB {a, b} = b, i.e., a ⊕ b ≤ b. ...(1)
But by the definition of a ⊕ b,
a ⊕ b = LUB {a, b}
So, we have b ≤ a ⊕ b ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we a ⊕ b = b
Conversely, let a⊕b = b
Since a ≤ a ⊕ b and a ⊕ b = b, then
a ≤ b.
88 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
This theorem establishes a connection between the partial ordering relation and two binary
operations of meet * and join ⊕ in a lattice (L, ≤). We now prove some elementary inequalities that
hold between the elements of a lattice.
THEOREM 4.7.3. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice. For any a, b, c ∈ L
and
Now a * c ≤ a and a ≤ b ⇒ a * c ≤ b
a * c ≤ c and c ≤ d ⇒ a * c ≤ d }
by transitivity.
b⊕c≥b≥a*b
b⊕c≥c ≥a*c
By using (3) again, we have
b ⊕ c ≥ (a * b) ⊕ (a * c) ...(12)
From (11) and (12) and using (3) again, we have
a * (b ⊕ c) ≥ (a * b) ⊕ (a * c).
THEOREM 4.7.7. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice. For any a, b, c ∈ L. The following inequality, called
modular inequality holds:
a ≤ c iff a ⊕ (b * c) ≤ (a ⊕ b) * c.
Proof. We know that
a ≤ e, ⇔ a ⊕ c = c.
The first distributive inequality.
a ⊕ (b * c) ≤ (a ⊕ b) * (a ⊕ c)
⇒ a ⊕ (b * c) ≤ (a ⊕ b) * c since a ⊕ c = c.
That is a ≤ c ⇔ a ⊕ (b * c) ≤ (a ⊕ b) * c.
Example 4.7.1. Prove that dual of a lattice is a lattice.
Solution. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice, then we have to prove that its dual (L, ≥) is also a lattice, where
the relation ≥ is defined by x ≥ y iff x ≤ y. It is simple to see that (L, ≥) is a partially ordered set.
Since (L, ≤) is a lattice, then for any x, y ∈ L. The LUB {x, y} = x ⊕ y ∈ (L, ≤).
x ≤ x ⊕ y and y ≤ x ⊕ y.
⇒ x ≥ x ⊕ y and y ≥ x ⊕ y by the definition of ≥.
⇒ x ⊕ y is a lower bound of {x, y} in (L, ≥).
Now we shall show that x ⊕ y is the greatest lower bound in (L, ≥).
Let z be any lower bound of {x, y} in (L, ≥).
Then, z ≥ x, z ≥ y
⇒ x ≤ z, y ≤ z
⇒ z is an upper bound of {x, y} in (L, ≤)
⇒ x ⊕ y ≤ z since LUB {x, y} = x ⊕ y.
⇒ z ≥ (x ⊕ y) in (L, ≥).
⇒ x ⊕ y is the greatest lower bound in (L, ≥). Similarly, we can prove that x * y is the
least upper bound in (L, ≥) wherever x * y is the greatest lower bound in (L, ≤).
Example 4.7.2. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice. For any a, b, c, d ∈ L show that
(a) (a * b) ⊕ (c * d) ≤ (a ⊕ c) * (b ⊕ d),
(b) (a * b) ⊕ (b * c) ⊕ (c * a) ≤ (a ⊕ b) * (b ⊕ c) * (c ⊕ a).
Solution. (a) We know that
a * b ≤ a and c * d ≤ c
⇒ (a * b) ⊕ (c * d) ≤ a ⊕ c by (6) ...(1)
Again, a * b ≤ b and b * d ≤ d
⇒ (a * b) ⊕ (c * d) ≤ b ⊕ d. by (6) ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we get
(a * b) ⊕ (c * d) ≤ (a ⊕ c) * (b ⊕ d) by 5.
ORDERED SETS AND LATTICES 91
PROBLEM 4.2
1. Show that in a partially ordered set (P, R). The supremum or infimum of two elements is unique.
2. Show that in a lattice (L, ≤) if a ≤ b ≤ c,
Then a ⊕ b = b * c
and (a * b) ⊕ (b * c) = b = (a ⊕ b) * (a ⊕ c).
3. Show that in a lattice (L, ≤), if a ≤ b and c ≤ d, then a * c ≤ b * d.
4. Show that a lattice with three or fewer elements is a chain.
92 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
5. Prove that every finite subset of a lattice has an LUB and a GLB.
[Hint: Use the mathematical induction.]
6. Prove that for a, b, c in a lattice (L, ≤)
(a) (a * b) ⊕ (a * c) ≤ a * [b ⊕ (a * c)],
(b) (a ⊕ b) * (a ⊕ c) ≥ a ⊕ [b * (a ⊕ c)].
7. Show that every finite lattice has least and greatest elements.
8. Prove that a poset (L, ≤) is a lattice iff every non-empty finite subset of L has a GLB and an LUB.
⇒ a ⊕ b ≤ c.
This shows that a ⊕ b is the least upper bound of a and b.
In similar manner, we can show that a * b is the greatest lower bound of a and b with respect
to partial ordering relation ≤.
4.10 SUBLATTICES
Definition 4.10.1. Let (L, *, ⊕) be a lattice. Let M be the non-empty subset of L. If (M, *, ⊕) is a
lattices under the operations of L, we say that (M, *, ⊕) is a sublattice of lattice (L, *, ⊕). We note
that M is a sublattice of L if and only if M is closed under the operations * and ⊕ of L.
Let (L, ≤) be a lattice and let a, b ∈ L such that a ≤ b. The interval [a, b] = {x ∈ L | a ≤ x
≤ b}.
(|a, b|, ≤) is itself a lattice.
Example 4.10.1. Let S = {1, 2, 3} and let P(S) be the power set of S. Then (S, ⊆) is a lattice
in which the meet and join are the usual operations of intersection and union.
The subset M = {φ, {1}, {2}, {3}} ⊆ P(S) is a sublattice, while the subset N = {φ, {1}, {2}},
is not a sublattice since {1} ∪{2} does not belong to N.
Example 4.10.2. For any positive integer m, let Dm be the set of all divisors of m. Then
(Dm, 1) under the relation of divisibility is a lattice and the set of all positive integers under divisibility
is a lattice (N, 1). Here, Dm ⊂ N. Hence, (Dm, 1) is a sublattice of lattice (N, 1). For example
(D12, 1) is a sublattice of (N, 1), where D12 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} a1
Example 4.10.3. Let L = {a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, a7, a8}
The diagram of lattice
a4
(L, ≤) is given in the adjacent figure. a2
a3
Let S1 = {a1, a2, a4, a6}, S2 = {a3, a5, a7, a8} and S3 =
{a1, a2, a4, a8}. We see that (S1, ≤) and (S2, ≤) are sublattices of
(L, ≤), but (S3, ≤) is not a sublattice, because a2, a4 ∈ S3 but a5
a6 a7
a2 * a4 = a6 ∉ S3.
a8
Fig. 4.13
ORDERED SETS AND LATTICES 95
a2 a4
a8
Fig. 4.14
(2b) {(a1, b1) + (a2, b2)} + (a3, b3) = (a1 ⊕ a2, b1 ∨ b2) + (a3, b3)
= ((a1 ⊕ a2) ⊕ a3, (b1 ∨ b2) ∨ b3)
= (a1 ⊕ (a2 ⊕ a3), (b1 ∨ (b2 ∨ b3))
= (a1, b1) + (a2 ⊕ a3, b2 ∨ b3)
= (a1, b1) + {(a2, b2) + (a3, b3)}.
So + is associative.
(iii) Absorption Law. For (a1, b1), (a2, b2) ∈ L1 × L2
(a1, b1) · {(a1, b1) + (a2, b2)} = (a1, b1) · (a1 ⊕ a2, b1 ∨ b2)
= (a1 * (a1 ⊕ a2), b1 ∧ (b1 ∨ b2)
= (a1, b1) since L1, L2 are lattices.
Similarly, we can show that
(a1, b1) + {(a1, b1) · (a2, b2)} = (a1, b1).
Thus, (L1 × L2, · , + ) is a lattice.
Example 4.11.1. Let L = {0, 1} and the lattice (L, ≤) is shown in the adjacent figure 4.15(a).
Then
1
L × L = L2 = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1)}
L × L × L = L3 = {(0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1), (0, 1, 0)
0
(0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)}
Fig. 4.15 (a)
The lattices (L2, ≤2) and (L3, ≤3) are shown in adjacent figures 4.15 (b).
(1, 1)
(1, 1, 1)
(0, 1, 0) (0, 0, 1)
(1, 0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0, 0)
2 3
1 1
ORDERED SETS AND LATTICES 97
(D4 × D9, · , +) is also lattice which is shown in the following diagram 4.16 :
(4, 9)
(4, 3) (2,9)
(2, 1) (1, 3)
(1, 1)
Fig. 4.16
We also notice that diagram of the lattice of divisors of 36 is the same as given above except
the node (a, b) is replaced by the product ab.
Example 4.11.3. Let (C1, ≤1) and (C2, ≤2) be two chains, where C1 = {0, 1, 2}, C2 = {0, 1}
and ≤1 and ≤2 are usual relation ‘less than and equal to’. Then
C1 × C2 = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1), (2, 0), (2, 1)}
(C1 × C2, ≤) is a lattice which is shown in the following diagram 4.17:
(2, 1)
(1, 1)
(2, 0)
(0, 1) (1, 0)
(0, 0)
Fig. 4.17
which is the same as the diagram of divisors of 20 as D20 = {1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20}.
PROBLEM 4.3
1. Show that the union of two sublattices of a lattice is not necessarily a sublattice.
2. Show that the intersection of two sublattices is a sublattice.
3. Show that the diagram in the figure is a lattice and it is not a sublattice of the lattice in the figure.
a
b c d
e f
Fig. 4.18
4. Show that every interval of a lattice is a sublattice.
5. Find all the sublattices of the lattice (Sn, D) for n = 12.
6. Draw the diagram of a lattice which is the direct product of the five-element lattice given in the figure
Fig. 4.19
7. Let (D4, 1) and (D9, 1) be two lattices of divisors of 4 and 9 respectively. Draw the diagram of the
product lattices of these lattices.
8. Let S = {a, b, c}. Prove that the lattice (P(S), ⊆) is isomorphic to the lattice (D24, 1).
9. Let (L, *, ⊕) and (S, ∧, ∨) be two lattices. Let f : L → S be isomorphism. If a is the greatest element
of L, then show that f (a) is the greatest element of S.
10. Let f : L → S be an isomorphism from a lattice (L, *, ⊕) to a lattice (S, ^, ∨). If f(a) ≤′ f (b), then
show that a ≤ b.
ORDERED SETS AND LATTICES 101
11. Let (Sn, D), for n = 12, be a lattice, that is, the lattice of divisors of 12 in which the partial order
relation means division and let (Sn, ≤) be a lattice in which ≤ denotes the usual relation, ‘‘less than
or equal to’’. Show that f: Sn → Sn defined by f (x) = x is order preserving and bijective, but f –1 is
not order preserving. That is, prove that (Sn, D) and (Sn, ≤) are neither order-isomorphic nor isomorphic.
[Hint: Here Sn = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} and f : Sn → Sn is given by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 2, f (3) = 3,
f (4) = 4, f (6) = 6, f (12) = 12. 12
2 k k −1
where ∗ ai = a1 * a2 and ∗ = ∗ ai ... ∗ ak , k = 3, 4, ...
i =1 i =1 i =1
2 k k −1
and ⊕ ai = a1 ⊕ a2 and ⊕ = ⊕ ai ⊕ ak , k = 3, 4, ...
i =1 i=1 i =1
n n
Since * and ⊕ are associative, we can write them as * = a1 * a2 * ... * an and ⊕ = a1 ⊕ a2
i=1 i=1
⊕ ... ⊕ an.
Definition 4.13.2. A lattice (L, *, ⊕) is called complete if each of its non-empty subset has a least
upper bound and a greatest lower bound.
Bounded Lattice. It is obvious that every finite lattice is complete and every complete lattice
must have a least element and greatest element. The least and the greatest elements of a lattice, if
they exist, are called the bounds of the lattice and are denoted by 0 and 1 respectively.
102 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Definition 4.13.3. A lattice (L, *, ⊕) which has both bounds 0 and 1 is called a bounded lattice
denoted by (L, *, ⊕, 0, 1).
For the lattice (L, *, ⊕, 0, 1) with L = {a1, a2, ... an}.
n n
* ai = 0 and ⊕ ai = 1 ...(2)
i =1 i =1
1 1 1
b
a a
a b b
c
c
0 0 0
The complement of a is b Complements of a are b and c Complements of a are b and c
Complements of b are a and c
Fig. 4.21
Example 4.14.2. The lattice (P(S), ⊆) of the power set of any set S, in which the meet and join
operations are ∩ and ∪ respectively, is a complemented lattice. The bounds P(S) are φ and S. The
complement of any subset of A in S is S − A.
THEOREM 4.14.2. Two bounded lattices (L, *, ⊕) and (M, ∧, ∨) are complemented if and only
if (L × M, ·, +) is complemented.
Proof. Let 0 and 1 are 0′ and 1′ be universal bounds of lattices L and M respectively.
Then (0, 0′) and (1, 1′) will be the least and the greatest elements of L × M.
Let (a, b) ∈ L × M, a ∈ L, b ∈ M.
Since L and M are complemented lattices, then there exist elements a′ ∈ L, b′ ∈ M such that
a * a′ = 0 and a ⊕ a′ = 1
and b ∧ b′ = 0′ and b ∨ b′ = 1′.
Now (a, b) · (a′, b′) = (a * a′, b ∧ b′) = (0, 0′)
(a, b) + (a′, b′) = (a ⊕ a′, b ∨ b′) = (1, 1′)
⇒ (a′, b′) is the complement of (a, b) ∈ L × M.
Hence (L × M, ·, +) is complemented.
Conversely, let (L × M, ·, +) be complemented.
Let (a, b) ∈ L × M, there exist (a′, b′) ∈ L × M. Such that
(a, b) · (a′, b′) = (0, 0′)
and (a, b) + (a′, b′) = (1, 1′)
⇒ (a * a′, b ∧ b′) = (0, 0′)
(a ⊕ a′, b ∨ b′) = (1, 1′)
⇒ a * a′ = 0, b ∧ b′ = 0′
and a ⊕ a′ = 1, b ∨ b′ = 1′
⇒ a′ is the complement of a in L and b′ is the complement of b in M.
Thus, L and M are complemented.
THEOREM 4.14.3. The dual of a complemented lattice is complemented.
Proof. Let (L, R) be a complemented lattice with 0 and 1 as the least and the greatest elements
respectively.
104 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Let (L, R′) be the dual of (L, R), then 1 and 0 are as the least and the greatest elements
respectively.
Let a ∈ L. Since L is complemented, then there exists an elements a′ ∈ L such that
a * a′ = 0 and a ⊕ a′ = 1 in L.
⇒ 0 = GLB {a, a′} in L
⇒ 0 R a and 0R a′ in (L, R)
⇒ a R′ 0, a′ R 0 in (L, R′)
⇒ 0 is the upper bound of {a, a′} in (L, R′)
Let x ∈ (L, R′) be another upper bound of {a, a′}. Then a R′ x, a′ R′ x in (L, R′)
⇒ x R a, x Ra′ in (L, R)
⇒ x is the lower bound of {a, a′} in (L, R)
Since, 0 = GLB {a, a′} in (L, R)
⇒ x R 0 in (L, R)
⇒ 0 R′ x in (L, R′)
As x is arbitrary, 0 is the least upper bound of {a, a′} in (L, R′)
Similarly, we can prove that
1 = GLB {a, a′} in (L, R′)
⇒ (L, R′) is complemented.
b
a x
y
z
c
0 0
Fig. 4.22
ORDERED SETS AND LATTICES 105
Solution. c * (a ⊕ b) = c * 1 = c
and (c * a) ⊕ (c * b) = 0 ⊕ c = c
so c * (a ⊕ b) = (c * a) ⊕ (c * b)
and a * (b ⊕ c) = a * b = 0
and (a * b) ⊕ (a * c) = 0 ⊕ 0 = 0
so a * (b ⊕ c) = (a * b) ⊕ (a * c)
But b * (a ⊕ c) = b * 1 = b
and (b * a) ⊕ (b * c) = 0 ⊕ c = c
Thus, b * (a ⊕ c) ≠ (b * a) ⊕ (b * c)
Hence, the lattice is not distributive.
In second case,
x * (y ⊕ z) = x * 1 = x
and (x * y) ⊕ (x * z) = 0 ⊕ 0 = 0
Thus, x * (y ⊕ z) ≠ (x * y) ⊕ (x * z)
Hence the lattice in this case is also not distributive.
In the following theorem, we see that certain lattices are always distributive.
THEOREM 4.15.1. Every chain is a distributive lattice.
Proof. Let (L1 ≤ ) be a littice. Let a, b, c ∈ L. Now there are two possibilities:
(i) a ≤ b or a ≤ c (ii) a ≥ b or a ≥ c
Case I: Let a ≤ b or a ≤ c. Then
a * (b ⊕ c) = a * b if c ≤ b
= a
and a * (b ⊕ c) = a ⊕ c if b ≤ c
= a
and (a * b) ⊕ (a * c) = a ⊕ a = a
So a * (b ⊕ c) = (a * b) ⊕ (a * c)
Case II: Let a ≥ b or a ≥ c
a * (b ⊕ c) = b ⊕ c
and (a * b) ⊕ (a * c) = b ⊕ c
Hence a * (b ⊕ c) = (a * b) ⊕ (a * c)
This proves the theorem.
THEOREM 4.15.2. The direct product of any two distributive lattices is a distributive lattice.
Proof. Let (L, *, ⊕) and (S, ∧, ∨) be two distributive lattices.
L × S = {(a, b) a ∈ L, b ∈ S}. The meet · and join + are defined by
(a1, b1) . (a2, b2) = (a1 * a2, b1 ∧ b2)
and (a1, b1) + (a2, b2) = (a1 ⊕ a2, b1 ∧ b2).
We have proved that (L × S, ·, +) is a lattice.
Now it remains to show that the meet is distributive over join and vice-versa.
For (a1, b1), (a2, b2), (a3, b3) ∈ L × S,
106 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
THEOREM 4.15.5. Let (L, *, ⊕) be a distributive lattice and let c′ be the complement of an
element c in L. Then b * c′ = 0 ⇒ b ≤ c.
Proof. Let, b * c′ = 0, then
(b * c′) ⊕ c = 0 ⊕ c = c ...(1)
Since the lattice is distributive
(b * c′) ⊕ c = (b ⊕ c) * (c′ ⊕ c)
= (b ⊕ c) * I = b ⊕ c ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
b⊕c = c
⇒ b ≤ c.
Example 4.15.4. Let (L, *, ⊕) be a complemented and distributive lattice. Then prove De
Morgan’s laws given by
(a ⊕ b)′ = a′ * b′ ...(1)
(a * b)′ = a′ ⊕ b′. ...(2)
Solution. To prove (1), we show that
(a′ * b′) ⊕ (a ⊕ b) = 1
and (a′ * b′) * (a ⊕ b) = 0
Now (a′ * b′) ⊕ (a ⊕ b) = (a′ ⊕ (a ⊕ b)) * (b′ ⊕ (a ⊕ b))
= (a′ ⊕ a ⊕ b) * (b′ ⊕ b ⊕ a)
= (1 ⊕ b) * (1 ⊕ a)
= 1*1=1
and (a′ * b′) * (a ⊕ b) = (a′ * b′ * a) ⊕ (a′ * b′ * b)
= (0 * b′) ⊕ (a′ * 0)
= 0 ⊕ 0 = 0.
Thus, (a ⊕ b)′ = a′ * b′
Since the complement of an element is unique.
Hence, (a ⊕ b)′ = a′ * b′.
To prove (2), we show that
(a * b) ⊕ (a′ ⊕ b′) = 1
and (a * b) * (a′ ⊕ b′) = 0
Now (a * b) ⊕ (a′ ⊕ b′) = (a ⊕ a′ ⊕ b′) * (b ⊕ a′ ⊕ b′)
= (1 ⊕ b′) * (1 ⊕ a′)
= 1 * 1 = 1.
and (a * b) ∗ (a′ ⊕ b′) = (a * b * a′) ⊕ (a * b * b′)
= (0 * b) ⊕ (a * 0)
= 0 ⊕ 0 = 0.
Example 4.15.5. Show that in the adjoining figure 4.23(a) the lattice is not distributive while
in figure 4.23(b) the lattice is distributive.
108 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
1
1
c c
d e
d
a a
b
b
0
0
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.23
Solution. In figure (a) L = {0, a, b, c, d, e, 1}
a * (b ⊕ c) = a * 1 = a
(a * b) ⊕ (a * c) = 0 ⊕ 0 = 0
So, this lattice is not distributive.
In figure (b) the lattice is distributive.
(5) If a ≤ b, then
a ≤ c and a ≤ b ⇒ a ≤ b * c
∴ a ⊕ (b * c) = b * c since a ≤ b * c
and (a ⊕ b) * c = b * c since a ≤ b.
Hence the above condition is satisfied.
Thus from conditions (1) to (5) we conclude that whenever a = c or b is comparable with a
and c, the condition of modularity in satisfied. Hence to check modularity of a lattice we check the
condition for triad a, b, c, where a > c and b is not comparable with a or c.
Example 4.16.1. The lattice shown in the adjoining figure 4.24.
1
a is modular
b
c
Fig. 4.24
Solution. Here we need to check the lattice only for triplets a, b, c where a > c and b is not
comparable with a or c. So, we cannot find out triplet a, b, c such that a > c and b is not comparable
with a or c.
Hence, it is modular.
THEOREM 4.16.1. Every distributive lattice is modular.
Proof. Let (L, *, ⊕) be a distributive lattice.
For a, b ∈ L, we shall show that
a ≤ c ⇒ a ⊕ (b * c) = (a ⊕ b) * c.
Since L is distributive, then
a ⊕ (b * c) = (a ⊕ b) * (a ⊕ c) ...(1)
and a≤c⇒a⊕c =c ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
1
a ≤ c ⇒ a ⊕ (b * c) = (a ⊕ b) * c.
Hence (L, *, ⊕) is modular.
But every modular lattice is not a distributive lattice as shown in the
adjoining figure 4.25. a b c
This lattice is not distributive because
a * (b ⊕ c) = a * 1 = a
(a * b) ⊕ (a * c) = 0 ⊕ 0 = 0.
This lattice is referred as M5. (Pentagonal lattice) 0
Fig. 4.25
110 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Similarly, by duality
(a1, b1) + ((a2, b2) . (a3, b3)) = ((a1, b1) + (a2, b2)) . ((a1, b1) + (a3, b3))
⇒ L × M is distributive.
PROBLEM 4.4
1. Find the complements of every elements of the lattice (Sn, D) for n = 75.
2. Show that in a lattice with two or more elements, no element is its own complement.
3. Show that a chain of three or more elements is not complemented.
4. Which of the two lattices (Sn , D) for n = 30 or n = 45 are complemented? Are these lattices
distributive?
5. Show that in a complemented, distributive lattice
a ≤ b ⇔ a * b′ = 0 ⇔ a′ ⊕ b = 1 ⇔ b′ ≤ a′.
6. Show that a lattice is distributive iff
(a * b) ⊕ (b * c) ⊕ (c * a) = (a ⊕ b) * (b ⊕ c) * (c ⊕ a).
7. Show that in a distributive lattice, the distributive law can be generalised as
FG ⊗ b IJ
n n FG * b IJ
n n
a*
H K
i =
i = ⊗ (a * bi) and a ⊕
i = H K
i =1
i = ∗ a ⊕ bi
i =
8. Show that in a bounded distributive lattice, the element which have complements form a sublattice.
❑❑❑
# Boolean Algebra and
Switching Circuits
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Boolean Algebra was originated by the English mathematician Goarge Boole (1815–1864) who, in
1954, published the book ‘an Investigation into laws of thought’’, on which the Mathematical Theories
and Probability are founded.
In this chapter, we shall observe a number of similarities between the concepts and the result
of set Theory and Boolean Algebra and we are going to generalise the concept and results of set
theory which will result in a mathematical system known as Boolean Algebra.
Now we consider a power set P(U) of a non-empty set U together with two binary operations
∪ (Cup), ∩ (Cap), and a unary operation, (complementation) and we observe the following properties:
(1) The power set P (U) is closed with respect to each of these three operations, i.e., for all
A, B ∈ P(U), A ∪ B, A ∩ B, A′ ∈ P(U).
(2) Each of the operations ∪ and ∩ is commutative that is, for all A, B ∈ P(U)
A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A
(3) Each of the binary operations ∪ and ∩ is associative.
That is, for all A, B ∈ P(U)
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C),
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).
(4) Each binary operation is distributive over the other, that is, for all A, B, C ∈ P(U)
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C),
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
(5) There exist in P(U), distinct element φ and U, φ ≠ U such that
A ∪ φ = A and A ∩ U = A.
for every A ∈ P(U).
(6) For each element A in P(X) there exists an element A′ such that A ∪ A′ = U and A ∩ A′ = φ.
In this case, we say that the power set P(U) together with two binary operations ∪ and ∩, and
a unary operation is a Boolean Algebra. Now we give the definition.
112
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND SWITCHING CIRCUITS 113
Definition 5.1.1. A non-empty set B with at least two distinct elements with two binary operations
+ and · and a unary operations, is called a Boolean Algebra, denoted by (B, + , ·,′) if and only if the
following axioms are satisfied:
B (1) Commutative Property. Both binary operations are commutative, that is, for all a, b ∈ B
(1) a + b = b + a
(2) a · b = b · a
B (2) Associative Property. Both binary operations are associative, that is, for all a, b, c ∈ B
(1) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
(2) (a · b) · c = a · (b · c)
B (3) Existence of Identity. There exist two elements 0 and 1 in B, 0 ≠ 1, such that
(1) a + 0 = 0 + a = a
(2) a · 1 = 1 · a = a
0 is the identity with respect to + and 1 is the identity with respect to ·
B (4) Distributive Property. Each binary operation is distributive over the other, that is, for
all a, b, c ∈ B
(1) a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c)
(2) a + (b · c) = (a + b) · (a + c)
B (5) Existence of Complement. For each element a ∈ B there exists an element a′ ∈ B such
that
a + a′ = a′ + a = 1, identity for ·
and a · a′ = a′ · a = 0 identity for + .
Here we wrote the symmetry of the axioms. If we interchange + and · and also interchanges
0 and 1 the same set of axioms are obtained. This property is referred to as the duality of a set of
axioms and is stated as our first theorem.
THEOREM 5.1.1. (Principal of Duality). Any theorems of Boolean Algebra remains valid if
+ is interchanged with · , and 0 is interchanged with I systematically in the theorem.
Example 5.1.1. The set B = {0, 1} with two binary operations + and · and a unary operation′
defined on B by the following operation tables is a Boolean Algebra. For it satisfies the following
properties:
+ 0 1 0 1 a a′
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
Table 1 Table 2
(1) Closure Property. Since every entry of the operation tables is in B, the set B is closed under
all three operations.
(2) Commutative Property. Since Tables 1 and 2 are symmetric, both operations + and · are
commutative.
(3) Associative Property. Both operations + and · are associative.
114 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
= a + a′ By Th. 5.1.2
= I = R.H.S. By B5
(ii) We have
L.H.S. = a·0
= a · (a · a′) By B5
= (a · a) · a′ By B2
= a · a′ By Th. 5.1.2
= 0 = R.H.S. By B5
THEOREM 5.1.4. For 0, 1 ∈ B,
(i) 0′ = 1
(ii) 1′ = 0
Proof. (i) We have
0′ = 0 + 0′ By B3
= 1 By B5
(ii) We have
1′ = 1 · 1′ By B3
= 0 By B5
THEOREM 5.1.5. For any a, b ∈ B,
(1) a + a · b = a
(Absorption Laws)
(2) a · (a + b) = a
Proof. (i) We have
L.H.S. = a + a·b
= a ·1+a·b By B3
= a · (1 + b) By B4
= a ·1 By Th. 5.1.3
= a = R.H.S. By B3
(ii) We have
L.H.S. = a · (a + b)
= (a + 0) · (a + b) By B3
= a + (0 · b) By B4
= a+0 By Th. 5.1.3
= a By B3
THEOREM 5.1.6. 0 and 1 are unique.
Proof. Let 0 and 01 be two identities with respect to the operation +. Then
0 + 01 = 01 + 0 = 01 (when 0 is the identity)
0 + 01 = 01 + 0 = 0 (when 01 is the identity).
It follows 0 = 01
Hence 0 is unique.
116 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Similarly, Let 1 and I1 be two identities with respect to the operation. Then
1· 11 = 11·1 = 11 (when 1 is the identity)
I· 11 = 11 · 1 = I (when I1 is the identity).
It follows 1 = 11
Hence 1 is unique.
THEOREM 5.1.7. For each a ∈ B, a′ is unique.
Proof. Let a′ and a′′ be
two complements of a.
then a + a′= a′ + a = 1,
a · a′
= a′ · a = 0;
and a + a′′= a′′ + a = 1,
a · a′′
= a′′ · a = 0.
Now a′
= a′ · I
= a′ · (a + a′′). Since a + a′′ = 1
= a′ · a + a′ · a′′ By B4
= 0 + a′ · a′′ By B5
= a · a′′ + a′ · an Since a · a′′ = 0
= (a + a′) · a′′ By B4
= 1 · a′′ By B5
= a′′ By B3
∴ a′ = a′′
Hence the complement a′ for a ∈ B is unique.
THEOREM 5.1.8. For each a ∈ B, (a′)′ = a.
Proof. Since a′ is the complement of a, then
a + a′ = a′ + a = 1,
and a · a′ = a′ · a = 0 ...(1)
Let (a′)′ be the complement of a′. Then
a′ + (a′)′ = (a′)′ + a′ = 1,
and a′ · (a′)′ = (a′)′ · a′ = 0 ...(2)
From (1) and (2) it follows that a and (a′)′ are two complements of a′ but the complement of
each element of Boolean Algebra is unique.
Therefore a = (a′)′.
THEOREM 5.1.9. For a, b ∈ B
(1) (a + b)′ = a′ · b′
(2) (a · b)′ = a′ + b′ (De Morgan's Laws)
Proof. (i) For proving the complement of (a + b) is a′ · b′, we have to prove that
(1) (a + b) + a′ · b′ = 1,
and (2) (a + b) · a′ · b′ = 0.
Now (a + b) + a′ · b′ = (a + b + a′) · (a + b + b′) By B4
= (a + a′ + b)· (a + b + b′) By B1
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND SWITCHING CIRCUITS 117
= (1 + b) · (a + 1) By B5
= 1.1 By Th. 5.1.3
= 1.
and (a + b) · (a′ · b′) = (a ·(a′ · b′)) + (b·(a′ · b′)) By B4
= (a ·(a′ · b′)) + (b·(b′ · a′)) By B1
= (a · a′) · b′ + (b · b′) · a′ By B2
= 0 · b′ + 0 · a′ By B5
= 0+0 By Th. 5.1.2
= 0.
∴ (a + b)′ = a′ · b′
(ii) To show that the complement of (a · b) is a′ + b′, we have to show that
(1) (a · b) + (a′ + b′) = 1,
and (2) (a · b) · (a′ + b′) = 0.
Now (a · b) + (a′ + b′) = (a + (a′ + b′)) · (b + (a′ + b′)) By B4
= (a + (a′ + b′)) · (b + (b′ + a′)) By B1
= ((a + a′) + b′) · ((b + b′) + a′) By B2
= (I + b′) · (I + a′) By B5
= I. I By Th. 5.1.3
= 1.
and (a · b) · (a′ + b′) = (a · b) · a′ + (a · b) · b′ By B4
∴ = (b · a) · a′ + (a · b)·b′ By B1
= b · (a · a′) + a · (b · b′) By B2
= b·0+a·0 BY B5
= 0+0 By Th. 5.1.2
= 0.
∴ (a · b)′ = a′ + b′.
Example 5.1.2. For any a, b ∈ B, show that
(i) a + (a + b) = a + b
(ii) a · (a · b) = a · b
(iii) a · b = a ⇒ a · b′ = 0
(iv) a · b′ = 0 ⇒ a + b = b
(v) a + b = b ⇒ a · b = a
(vi) a + a′ · b = a + b
(vii) a′ + a · b = a′ + b
Proof. (i) We have
L.H.S. = a + (a + b)
= (a + a) + b By B2
= a + b = R.H.S. By Th. 5.1.2
118 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
(ii) L.H.S. = a · (a · b)
= (a · a) · b By B2
= a·b By Th. 5.1.2
(iii) We have a · b′ = (a · b) · b′ Since a · b = a
= a · (b · b′) By B2
= a·0 By B5
= 0 By Th. 5.1.3
(iv) We have a+b = (a + b) · 1 By B3
= (b + a) · 1 By B1
= (b + a) · (b + b′) By B5
= b + (a · b′) By B4
= b + 0 Since a · b′ = 0
= b By B5
(v) We have a·b = a · (a + b) Since a + b = b
= a·a+a·b By B4
= a+ a· b By Th. 5.1.2
= a By Th. 5.1.5
(vi) We have R.H.S. = (a + b)
= (a + b) · 1 By B3
= (a + b) · (a + a′) By B5
= (a + b) · a + (a + b) · a′ By B4
= a · a + a · b + a · a′ + b · a′ By B4
= a + a · b + 0 + a′ · b Since a · a′ = 0
= a + a′ · b = L.H.S. Since a + a · b = a
(vii) We have R.H.S. = a′ + b
= a′ · 1 + b · 1
= a′ · (a + 1) + b (a + a′) Since a + 1 = 1
a + a′ = 1
= a′ · a + a′ · 1 + b · a + b · a′ By B4
= a′ + b · a + b · a′ Since a′ · a = 0
= a′ + a · b + a′ · b By B1
= (a′ + a′ · b) + a · b By B1
= a′ + a · b Since a′ + a′ · b = a′ by
= L.H.S. Absorption Law
Example 5.1.3. Show that
b = c ⇔ a + b = a + c and a · b = a · c for some a.
Proof. It is clear that
b = c ⇔ a + b = a + c and a · b = a · c for some a.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND SWITCHING CIRCUITS 119
PROBLEM 5.1
1. (a) Show that any non-empty set S, considered as a universal set, along with the empty set forms
a Boolean Algebra of two elements under the operations of set union, intersection, and
complementation.
(b) Show that the set of all subsets of a given set is a Boolean Algebra under the operations ∩, ∪,
and ′.
122 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
(c) Show that the set {a, b, c, d} together with the operations defined in
+ a b c d a b c d
a a b c d a a a a a
b b b d d and b a b a b
c c d c d c a a c c
d d d d d d a b c d
is a Boolean Algebra.
2. Why is there no Boolean Algebra having just three distinct elements.
3. Using Boolean Algebra prove the following identities:
(i) a + (a · b) = a · (a + b)
(ii) a + (a′ · b) = a + b
(iii) (a · b′) + (b · a′) = (a + b) · (a′ + b′)
(iv) (a + b + c + d) · (a + b + d) · (a + c) +[c·(b + d)]
(v) (x · y′) + [z·(x′ + y + w)] = z +(x · y′)
4. Prove that if a + x = b + x and a + x′ = b + x′, then a = b.
5. If a · x = b · x and a · x′ = b · x′, then prove that a = b.
6. If a · b = a · c and a + b = a + c, then prove that b = c.
7. Simplify:
(a) (a + b) · a′ · b′
(b) (a · b · c) + a′ + b′ + c′
(c) (a · b) + [c ·(a′ + b′)]
(d) [a + (a′ · b)] · [b + (b · c)]
(e) [(x′ · y′)′ + x] · (x + y′)′.
Therefore this important result can be summarised as no multiples or powers appear in the
Boolean polynomials. In one variable, there are only four Boolean polynomials; namely,
a, a′, a · a′ = 0, and a + a′ = 1
We shall now briefly state some definitions and theorems that are useful in switching networks.
Definition 5.2.2. A minimal Boolean polynominal in n variables x1, x2, ..., xn is the product of n
letters in which the ith letter is xi or x′i. For example, the minimal polynomial in two variables x1 and
x2 are:
x1 · x2, x′1 · x2, x1 · x′2, and x′1 · x′2
The minimal polynomial in three variables x1, x2, x3 are:
x1x2x3, x1x2x′3, x1, x′2x3, x′1x2x3,
x1x′2x′3, x′1x′2x3, x′1 x2x′3, x′1x′2x′3,
For a minimal polynomial in n variables there are two ways of selecting the first variable x1
or x′1, two ways of selecting the second variable x2 or x′2 ..., two ways of selecting the nth variable
xn or x′n. Therefore, there are 2n minimal polynomials in n variables.
Now each group of the Boolean polynomial F consists of all letters complemented or
uncomplemented appearing only once connected by · and the groups connected by +. So the above
result is stated in the following theorem.
THEOREM 5.3.1. There is one and only one way to write a given Boolean polynomial as 0
or as the sum of minimal polynomials.
Definition 5.3.1. A Boolean polynomial is in canonical form or disjunctive normal form when it is
expressed as the sum of minimal polynomials.
In the above discussion the form
F = (x · y′ · z) + (x′ · y · z) + (x′ · y′ · z)
is a canonical form of the Boolean polynomial
F = F(x, y, z) = [(x′ + y)′ · z] + [x′ · (x + z)]
n
Since there are 2 minimal polynomials in n variables the canonical form of a Boolean polynomial
in n variables can have at most 2n distinct terms.
Definition 5.3.2. The canonical form containing all of these 2n terms is called the complete canonical
form or complete disjunctive normal form in n variables.
The question of the equality of two Boolean polynomials can be settled by simply expressing
the two functions in canonical form and seeing if they are the same.
We see that a complete canonical form in 3 variables x1, x2, x3 is identically 1. If x1, x2, x3 are
assigned values 1’s, then x′1, x′2, x′3 are assigned values 0’s. Then the complete canonical form in 3
variables.
= x1x2x3 + x1x2x′3 + x1x′2x3 + x′1x2x3 + x1x′2x′3 + x′1x′2x3 + x′1x2x′3 + x′1x′2x′3
= (1·1·1) + (1·1·0) + (1·0·1) + (0·1·1) + (1·0·0) + (0·0·1) + (0·1·0) + (0·0·0) = 1
Moreover, by simplification we can see the complete canonical form in 2 variables x and y is
identically I
(x · y) + (x · y′) + (x′ · y) + (x′ · y′) = {(x · y) + (x · y′)} + {(x′ · y) + (x′ · y′)}
= {x · (y + y′)} + {x′ · (y + y′)}
= x · I + x′ · I Since y + y′ = 1
= x + x′
= I Since x + x′ = 1
The canonical form in three variables x, y, z is identically I,
(x · y · z) + (x · y · z′) + (x · y′ · z) + (x′ · y · z) + (x · y′ · z′) + (x′ · y′ · z) + (x′ · y · z′)
+ (x′ · y′ · z′)
= {(x · y · z) + (x · y · z′)} + {(x · y′ · z) + (x · y′ · z′)} + {(x′ · y · z) + (x′ · y · z′)}
+ {(x′ · y′ · z) + (x′ · y′ · z′)}
= (x · y) (z + z′) + (x · y′) · (z + z′) + (x′ · y)(z + z′) + (x′ y) · (z + z′)
= {(x · y) + (x · y′) + (x′ · y) + (x′ · y′)} · (z + z′)
= {x · (y + y′) + x′ · (y + y′) Since z + z′ = 1
= (x + x′) · (y + y′)
=1·1 Since x + x′ = 1, y + y′ = 1
=1
Now we generalise this concept that the complete canonical form in n variables is identically1.
From this we shall define the complement of a Boolean polynomial.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND SWITCHING CIRCUITS 125
Definition 5.3.3. Let F be a Boolean polynomial expressed in canonical form. Then the complement
F ′ of a Boolean polynomial F is the sum of all terms of the complete canonical form which do not
appear in the canonical form of F.
For example, consider the Boolean polynomial
F(x, y) = (x · y) + (x′ · y) + (x′ · y′)
The complete canonical form in 2 variables x, y is
(x · y) + (x · y′) + (x′ · y) + (x′ · y′).
Then F ′(x, y) = (x · y′)
THEOREM 5.3.2. If in the complete canonical form there are n variables, each variable is
assigned arbitraily the value 0 or 1, then just one term will have the value 1 while others will have
the value 0.
Proof. Let the values be assigned to the variables x1, x2, ... xn. The term whose value is 1
contains x1 if x1 is assigned value 1 or x1′ if x1 is assigned value 0, x2 if x2 is assigned value 1 or
x2′ if x2 is assigned value 0, ..., xn if xn is assigned value 1 or xn′ if xn is assigned value 0. Every other
term of the complete canonical form will have 0 at least one factor and, hence, has value 0. This
proves the theorem.
We consider a Boolean function
F = [(x + y′) · (x · y′ · z)′]′
= (x + y′)′ + ((x · y′ · z)′)′
= (x + y′)′ + (x · y′ · z)
= x′ · (y′)′) + (x · y′ · z)
= (x′ · y) + (x · y′ · z) a sum of products
and F = [(x + y′) · (x · y′ · z)′]′
= (x′ · y) + (x · y′ · z)
= [x′ + (x · y′ · z)] · [y + (x · y′ · z)]
= (x′ + x) · (x′ + y′) · (x′ + z) · (y + x) · (y + y′) · (y + z)
= 1 · (x′ + y′) · (x′ + z) · (x + y) · 1· (y + z)
= (x′ + y′) · (x′ + z) · (x + y) · (y + z)
= (x + y) · (y + z) · (x′ + z) · (x′ + y) a product of sums.
In this expression each bracket does not contain all three variables x, y, z. To make all variable
present in each group we add 0 in each group and see which variable is not present. In first bracket
z is not present, then replace 0 by z · z′.
F = (x + y + 0) · (y + z + 0) · (x′ + z + 0) · (x′ + y′ + 0)
= (x + y + (z · z′)) · (y + z + (x · x′)) · (x′ + z + (y · y′)) · (x′ + y′ + (z · z′))
= (x + y + z) · (x + y + z′) · (y + z + x) · (y + z + x′) · (x′ + z + y)
· (x′ + z + y′) · (x′ + y′ + z) · (x′ + y′ + z′)
= (x + y + z) · (x + y + z′) · (x′ + y + z) · (x′ + y′ + z) · (x′ + y′ + z′)
This expression is called dual canonical form or the conjunctive normal form of the Boolean
function
F = [(x + y′) · (x · y′ · z)′]′
126 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
In the expression of dual canonical form of the Boolean function F each group consists of all
letters complemented or uncomplemented appearing only once connected by + and the groups connected
by · so we have this concept in the following definition.
Definition 5.3.4. A Boolean polynomial is in the dual canonical form or the conjunctive normal
forms when it is expressed as the product of factors of letters such that each factor is a sum of all
letters complemented or uncomplemented appearing only once.
Definition 5.3.5. The dual canonical form containing 2n distinct factors is called the complete dual
canonical form of the complete conjunctive normal form in n variables.
Therefore, the dual canonical form if a Boolean function can have at most 2n distinct factors.
The complement F′ of Boolean Function F expressed in dual canonical form is the product of all
factors of the complete dual canonical form which do not appear in the dual canonical form F.
Example 5.3.1. Find the canonical and dual canonical form of a Boolean function.
F = [x + (x′ + y)′] · [x + (y′ · z′)′]
Solution. Here F = [x + (x′ + y)′] · [x + (y′ · z′)′]
= [x + (x′)′ · (y)′] · [x + ((y′)′ + (z′)′)]
= [x + (x · y′)] · [x + (y + z)]
= (x · 1 + x · y′) · (x + (y + z))
= x · (1 + y′) · (x + (y + z))
= x · 1 · (x + (y + z))
= x · (x + (y + z))
= x · x + x · (y + z)
= x+x ·y+x·z
= x+x ·z Since x + x · y = x
= x Since x + x · z = x
= x·1·1
= x · (y + y′) · (z + z′)
= (x · y + x · y′) · (z + z′)
= (x · y + x · y′) · z + (x · y + x · y′) · z′
= (x · y · z) + (x · y′ · z) + (x · y · z′) + (x · y′ · z′)
is the canonical form of the Boolean function F. Again
F = [x + (x′ + y)′] · [x + (y′ · z′)′]
= x
= x+0+0
= x + y · y′ + z · z′
= (x + y) · (x + y′) + (z · z′)
= [(x + y) + (z · z′)] · [(x + y′) + (z · z′)]
= (x + y + z) · (x + y + z′) · (x + y′ + z) · (x + y′ + z′)
is the dual canonical form of the Boolean function F. We observe that if we replace + by · among
groups and · by + in each group in the canonical form we get the dual canonical form of the Boolean
function F.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND SWITCHING CIRCUITS 127
1 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1
∑ 2n n n
= Cr = (1 + 1) 2 = 2 2
r =0
Example 5.4.2. If a Boolean function f (x, y) is a function of two Boolean variables x, y, then
determine all its fundamental forms.
128 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
2
Solution. Since n = 2, there are 22 = 24 = 16 fundamental forms of f (x, y) which are shown
in the following table.
We know that x and y can assume 0 and 1 values. Therefore, there are only four possible
ordered pairs (x, y):
(1, 1), (1, 0), (0, 1), (0, 0).
Here 1. f1(x, y) = 1
2. f2(x, y) = 1 if x≠0, y≠0
0 if x = 0, y = 0
⇒ f2(x, y) = x + y
3. f3(x, y) = 0 if x = 0, y = 1
= 1 if x ≠ 0, y ≠ 1
⇒ f3(x, y) = x + y′
4. f4(x, y) = 0 if x = 1, y = 0
= 1 if x ≠ 1, y ≠ 0
⇒ f4(x, y) = x′ + y
5. f5(x, y) = 0 if x = 1, y = 1
= 1 if x ≠ 1, y ≠ 1
⇒ f5(x, y) = x′ + y′
6. f6(x, y) = 1 if (x, y) = (1, 1), (1, 0)
= 0 if (x, y) = (0, 1), (0, 0)
⇒ f6(x, y) = 1 if x =1
0 if x =0
⇒ f6(x, y) = x
7. f7(x, y) = 1 if (x, y) = (1, 1), (0, 1)
= 0 if (x, y) = (1, 0), (0, 0)
⇒ f7(x, y) = 1 if y =1
0 if y =0
⇒ f7(x, y) = y.
8. f8(x, y) = 1 if (x, y) = (1, 1), (0, 0)
0 if (x, y) = (1, 0), (0, 1)
⇒ f8(x, y) = xy + x′ y′.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND SWITCHING CIRCUITS 129
Let f (x1, x2, ..., xn) be a Boolean function without constant term. If it has few terms of the form
(x + y)′ and (xy)′, then by De Morgan’s Law
(x + y)′ = x′ . y′ and (xy)′ = x′ + y′
Again we can remove brackets by applying distributive law for + and if in any term xi or xi′
are missing, then we multiply it by (xi + xi′).
In the end by using x + x = x, x . x = x the Boolean function can be expressed in disjunctive
normal form.
Therefore, the Boolean function can be written in the disjunctive normal form
f (x1, x2 ..., xn) = θ1x1x2 ... xn + θ2x1′x2 ... xn + ... + θn x1′x2′ ... xn′ ...(1)
where the value of θ is 0 or 1.
If x 1 = x2 = ... = xn = 1, then
f (1, 1, ..., 1) = θ1(1, 1, 1 ... 1) = θ1 ...(2)
If x 1 = 0, x2 = x3 = ... = xn = 1, then
f (0, 1, 1, ..., 1) = θ2(1. 1 ... 1) = θ2 ...(3)
If x 1 = x2 = ... = xn = 0, then
x1′ = x2′ = ... = xn′ = 1
f (0, 0, ..., 0) = θn (1. 1 .1 ... 1) = θn ...(4)
putting the values of θ1, θ2, ..., on form (2), (3), ... (4) in (1), we obtain
f (x1, x2, ..., xn) = f (1, 1, 1, ... 1) x1 x2 ... xn + f (0, 1, 1, ... 1) x1′x2x3 ... xn
+ f (0, 0, 1, 1 ... 1) x1′x2′x3 ... xn) + ... + f (0, 0 ..., 0) x1′x2′ ... xn′.
Example 5.4.3. Express (x, y, z) = x + yz′ in the form of Boolean expansion.
Solution. We prepare the truth table for the given Boolean function.
1 1 1 1 xyz
1 1 0 1 xyz′
1 0 1 1 xy′z
1 0 0 1 xy′z′
0 1 1 0 x′yz
0 1 0 1 x′yz′
0 0 1 0 x′y′z
0 0 0 0 x′y′z′
1 1 1 0 xyz
1 1 0 0 xyz′
1 0 1 1 xy′z
1 0 0 0 xy′z′
0 1 1 1 x′yz
0 1 0 1 x′yz′
0 0 1 1 x′y′z
0 0 0 0 x′y′z′
PROBLEM 5.2
1. Write the fundamental forms of the following Boolean functions:
(i) x11 + x6 + 1
(ii) x2(x′)6 + (x′)3 + (x′)2
(iii) x7 + x5.x1
2. Prove that there are sixteen fundamental forms of two independent Boolean variables.
3. Write the Boolean expansion of the Boolean function:
(i) f (x, y, z) = xz + x′y′z′
(ii) g(x, y, z) = xz′ + y′z
4. From the following table determine the Boolean functions g and h.
x y z g h
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
x Switch open
Switch closed
Fig. 5.1
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND SWITCHING CIRCUITS 133
When the switch is closed the current will flow and the current will not flow if the switch is
open. We will say that the switch has value 1 if it is closed and 0 if it is open. As there is only one
switch, the circuit has the same value as the switch has. This, the circuit has value 1 if the current
flows and 0 if the current does not flow.
Consider a network consisting of two switches x and y connected in series as shown in
diagram (2).
x y
Fig. 5.2
It is clear that the current will flow, that is, the network has value 1 if and only if both switch
are closed (i.e., both switches have value 1).
While the current will not flow, the network has value 0 if either switch is open (i.e., either
switch has value 0).
Let F represent the state of the series network. Then F = 1 if the network is closed and F = 0
if the network is open. Since the state of this network is completely determined by the state of two
switches, F must be a function of two variables x and y, therefore F = F(x, y). Thus, F(x, y) = 1
if both switches are closed and F(x, y) = 0 if either switch is open as indicated in the following
Table 1:
Table 1
Switches State of switches State of network
x closed, y closed x = 1, y = 1 F(x, y) = F(1, 1) = 1
x closed, y open x = 1, y = 0 F(x, y) = F(1, 0) = 0
x open, y closed x = 0, y = 1 F(x, y) = F(0, 1) = 0
x open, y open x = 0, y = 0 F(x, y) = F(0, 0) = 0
The function F(x, y) is called the switching functions of the network. To indicate symbolically
that the switches are connected in series we write
F(x, y) = x · y
then F(x, y) = x · y is the switching functions of two switches x and y connected in series.
In Table 2 the result of Table 1 are fused to indicate the switching function F(x, y) = x · y. This
Table suggest the ‘multiplication’· Table in Table 3. Note that 0 · 0 = 0, 0 · 1 = 0, 1 · 0 = 0, 1 · 1 = 1.
Table 2 Table 3
x y F(x1 y) • 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
Next let us consider a network consisting of two switches connected in parallel as indicated in
Figure 5.3.
134 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Fig. 5.3
Let F(x, y) = x + y be the switching function of two switches connected in parallel, the network
is closed if either or both switches are closed, and open if both switches are open. This can be
indicated in the following Table :
x y F(x1 y)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
0 0 1
1 1 1
Another similarity between a switching network and the elements of Boolean Algebra will be
observed if we denote switches having opposite states by x and x′. Thus, if x is open, x′ is closed
and if x is closed, x′ is open. This behaviour presented in tabular form in table can be compared with
the table giving the result of complementation on 0 and 1 in Boolean Algebra.
Table Table
x x′ a a′
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
We have seen in example 1. That the set B = {0, 1} with operations +, ·, and ′ forms a Boolean
Algebra of two elements.
We are now ready to set up a correspondence between a switching network and our mathematical
system, Boolean Algebra.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND SWITCHING CIRCUITS 135
Boolean Algebra x x′ + · 0 1
q q q q q q
Switching Network x x′ connected connected open closed
in parallel in series
(+) (·) (0) (1)
With the help of this correspondence a Boolean function can be transformed in switching
network and a switching network can be expressed as a Boolean function. Two switching networks
S1 and S2 are equivalent, denoted by S1 ~ S2, if both are open or both are closed for the same state
of switches in S1 and S2.
Now we show that switching network does satisfy all axioms of Boolean Algebra with the help
of correspondence eastablished in the following table :
Boolean Algebra or Switching network
Switching Function
a b
B1 . a + b = b + a
b a
a·b=b·a a b b a
a
a
b
B2. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c b
c
c
a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c a b c a b c
b a b
B3. a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c a
c a c
a a a
a + (b · c) = (a + b) · (a + c)
b c b c
a
B4 . a + 0 = a a
0
a·1= a 1
a a
B5. a + a′ = 1 a a¢
a
a · a′ = 0
a¢
All theorems of Boolean Algebra can be applied to switching functions.
Let us apply Boolean Algebra to the simplification of switching networks. A given network,
with the help of correspondence set up, will be represented by its switching function, which may be
simplified using Boolean Algebra. Then this simplified expression can be reinterpreted as a switching
network. If these are fewer switches in the resulting network, then we shall say that the network has
been simplified.
Example 5.5.1. F(x, y) = x + x · y
= x ·1 + x · y
136 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
= x · (1 + y)
= x·1
= x
In the switching network two switches are indicated by the same letter x. This does not necessarily
mean that they are the same switch; only that they are always opened or closed together.
x
x y
Fig. 5.4
Example 5.5.2. F(x, y) = xy′ + xy
= x ·(y′ + y)
= x·1
= x
Here y and y′ may be different switches, so that the network of four switches may replaced by
one switch.
x y
x y
Fig. 5.5
Example 5.5.3. Replace the network of Boolean function.
F(a, b, c) = a · b · c + a · b′ · c + a′ · b′ · c
by simpler one.
Solution. F(a, b, c) = a · b · c + a · b′ · c + a′ · b′ · c
= c · [a · b + a · b′ + a′ · b′]
= c · [a · (b + b′) + a′ · b′]
= c · [a · 1 + a′ · b′]
= c · [a + a′ · b′]
= c · [(a + a′) · (a + b′)]
= c [1 · (a + b′)]
= c · (a + b′)
Since only one of the two switches b and b′ remains in the simplified diagram it can be
designated either by b′ or by b.
a b c a
a b′ c c
a′ b′ c b′
Fig. 5.6
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND SWITCHING CIRCUITS 137
z s
y t
Fig. 5.7
by switching function.
Solution. The corresponding function for this network consists of the product of three factors:
F(x, y, z, r, s, t) = (x + y)· z · (r + s + t)
Example 5.5.5. Replace the network :
r s′ t
By switching
t function
r′
s
Fig. 5.8
Solution. The corresponding function of this network consists of the sum of two factors:
F(r, s, t) = (r · s′ · t) + ((t + s) · r′)
Example 5.5.6. Discuss the possible networks consisting of three switches x, y, z.
Solution. There are four cases:
(i) If the switches are connected in series, the network is
x y z
Fig. 5.9
and the function is
F(x, y, z) = x · y · z
(ii) If the switches are connected in parallel. The network is
x
Fig. 5.10
and the function is
F(x, y, z) = x + y + z
(iii) If the switches are connected in series parallel connection, the network is
y
Fig. 5.11
138 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
y z
Fig. 5.12
and the function is
F(x, y, z) = x + (y · z)
Example 5.5.7. Replace the network
r t
s′ r′
s
t s t′
Fig. 5.13
by simpler one.
Solution. The Boolean function of this network is
F(r, s, t) = (r · t) + [s · (s′ + t) · {r′ + (s · t′)}]
= (r · t) + [s · {(s′ + t) · (r′ + (s · t′))}]
= (r · t) + [s · {(s′ + t) · r′ + (s′ + t) · (s · t′)}]
= (r · t) + [s · {(s′ + t) · r′ + s′ · s · t′ + t · s · t}]
= (r · t) + [s · {(s′ + t) · r′ + 0 + 0}]
= (r · t) + [s · (s′ + t) · r′]
= (r · t) + (s · s′ + s · t) · r′
= (r · t) + (0 + s · t) · r′
= r · t + s · t · r′
= (r + s · r′) · t
= (r + s) · (r + r′) · t
= (r + s) · I · t
= (r + s) · t
The simpler network is
r
Fig. 5.14
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND SWITCHING CIRCUITS 139
PROBLEM 5.3
1. Change the following Boolean functions to canonical form
(a) f (x, y, z) = [(x, y′)′ + z′] · [z + x′]′
(b) f (x, y, z) = (x′ + y)′ · (x + z)′ + (y · z)′.
2. Express each of the following in both canonical form and dual canonical form in three variables.
(a) x′ + y′
(b) (x · y′) + (x′ · y)
(c) (x + y) · (x′ + z′)
3. Express each of the following in both canonical and dual canonical form in the mininum number of
variables
(a) x + (x′ · y)
(b) [x · (y + z)] + [x · (y + z′)]
(c) (x + y + z) · [(x · y) + (x′ · z)]
(d) (x · y · z) + [(x + y)· (x + z)]
4. Write the switching functions, f, for each of the following.
z
y x y
x′
x y′
z y
x′
(i) (ii)
z
y
x′
x
y′
z
x′
(iii)
5. Draw a switching network that represents each of the following switching functions:
(a) f (x, y) = x · (x + y′) + x′ · y
(b) f (x, y, z, w) = xy (z + w′) + (x + z) · (x + w)
(c) f (x, y, z) = (x′ + y)′ · (x · z + y)
6. Establish the equivalence of the following networks.
x
y z x
(a)
x y
1
x y
x
x x
y x
(b) y
z z y
w z
w w
❑❑❑
$ Matrices
6.1 REVISION
Consider the following simultaneous linear equations :
2x + 3y + z = 7
2x + z = 5
y + 2z = 3
The coefficients of unknowns x, y, z on the left hand side form a rectangular array of numbers
2 3 1
2 0 1
0 1 2
in which we inserted a zero in the place of every missing unknown. In this we see that 2 3 1,
2 0 1, 0 1 2 are ordered sets of three numbers which we call them rows and if we change the order
of rows, then we have different array. Thus, above array of numbers has 3 ordered rows and each
row is an ordered set of three numbers such a rectangular array of numbers is called a matrix. It is
generally enclosed within the square brackets [ ] and thus,
LM 2 3 1 OP
MM 2 0 1 PP
N0 1 2 Q
is a 3 × 3 matrix.
In general, a system of m linear equations in n unknowns x1, x2, ...., xn has the form
a11x1 + a12x2 + . . . + a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + . . . + a2nxn = b2
®
am1x1 + am2x2 + . . . + amnxn = bn
Similarly, the rectangular array
LM a11 a12 L a1n OP
MM a|
21 a22 L a2 n
PP
Nam1 am2 L amn Q
of mn coefficient of n unknowns x1, x2, ..., xn is called an m × n matrix. Now we define the matrix.
140
MATRICES 141
Definition 6.1.1. A system of mn numbers arranged in the form of a rectangular array which has m
ordered rows and each row has n ordered elements is called an m by n matrix (written as m × n
matrix). Its elements are real or complex numbers. The matrices are denoted by capital letters such
as A, B, C etc. and its element by the symbol aij, where subscript i represents rows and j represents
columns and aij denotes the (i, j)th entry in A, that is, aij is an element of A which occurs at the
intersection of ith row and jth column. Thus, we can represent the matrix A = aij .
m×n
Definition 6.1.2. The number m of rows and the number n of columns of matrix A is called the size
or order of the matrix, and the size or order of the matrix is denoted by m × n and read as m by n.
For example,
LM 1 2 3OP
N4 6Q
The matrix
5
is a matrix of order 2 × 3 and the matrix
LM 1 2 OP
N2 3 Q
is of order 2.
Definition 6.1.3. An 1 × n matrix A is called a row matrix or row vector.
For example [a11 a12 ... a1n] is a row matrix.
Definition 6.1.4. An m × 1 matrix A is called a column matrix or column vector, column matrix has
n rows and only one column.
Definition 6.1.5. If m ≠ n, an m × n matrix A is called a rectangular matrix.
Definition 6.1.6. If m = n, an n × n matrix A is called a square matrix of order n. When A is a square
matrix of order n, then the elements a11, a22, ...., amn constitute the main diagonal.
Definition 6.1.7. If all elements of the matrix of any size are zero, it is called a null matrix or zero
matrix denoted by symbol O = [aij].
Definition 6.1.8. An m × n matrix which is obtained from an m × n matrix A by changing the sign
of all its elements is called the negative of A denoted by – A. For example if
LM –1 2 –3 OP
N2 Q
A = ,
1 0
LM 1 3O
0 PQ
–2
then –A =
N –2 –1
Definition 6.3.1. Two matrices A = aij m × n and B = bij m × n are said to be equal, denoted by A =
B if and only if
(i) they have same size,
(ii) their corresponding elements are equal, i.e.,
aij = bij, for all i and j.
Example 6.3.1. The two matrices are equal
LM x + y a+b OP LM 5 –1 OP
N x−y a −b Q =
N1 3 Q
if x + y = 5, a + b = – 1, x – y = 1, a – b = 3.
MATRICES 143
LM 3 2 OP LM 3 2 OP , C = LM 3 2 OP,
0
A=
N1 1 Q
, B =
N1 1 0Q N1 0Q
D= M
L1 1O LM 3 3O
,F= M
L 3 2 OP
N0 0 PQ N0 P
1Q N 2/2 1 Q
, E =
LM 2 3 OP LM 3 5 –2 OP
A= M1 PP
4 , B =
MM 5 4 1 PP
MN 5
1 3 5 ,C=
6 Q N −2 1 7 Q
LM 1 OP LM 3 OP
L2 OP
5 –2
and A′ = M 3
N
1 5
Q
6 , B′ =
MM 3 PP , C′ = MM 5 4 1 PP
4
N5Q N –2 1 7 Q
Definition 6.4.2. A sqaure matrix A is called symmetric if A = A′
Example 6.4.2
LM 1 4 5 OP
A = MM 4 –3 0 , PP
N5 0 7 Q
LM 1 5O
0 PP = A
4
then A′ =
MM 4 –3
N5 0 7 PQ
so A is symmetric.
It is easy to recognize symmetric matrix by inspection that the entries on the main diagonal are
arbitrary, but mirror images of entries across the main diagonal are equal.
1 4 5
4 –3 0
5 0 7
144 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LM 0 2O
3 PP = A.
1
and – A′ = –1
MM 0
N –2 –3 0 PQ
so A is skew symmetric matrix.
It is easy to recognize skew symmetric matrix by inspection that all diagonal elements are zero
and all symmetric pairs across the main diagonal would be negative of each other.
0 a b
–a 0 c
–b –c 0
cannot be added. That is, if A = aij m×n and B = bij m×n then
LM 2 3 4OP + LM 0 −2 −7 OP
Then A−B =
N1 2 1Q N−1 +3 −5 Q
LM 2 + 0 3 + b–2g 4 + b–7gO
P
=
N 1 + b–1g 2+3 1 + b–5g Q
LM 2 1 –3 OP
=
N0 5 –4 Q
We observe that A – B can be obtained directly by subtracting the entries of B from the
corresponding entries of A.
A+ B = B+A
L.H.S. = A + B = [aij] + [bij]
= [aij + bij] By addition of matrices
= [bij + aij] By commutative law of addition
= [bij] + [aij] in real numbers
= B + A = R.H.S.
3. Associative law of addition: For any three matrices A = aij m × n, B = bij m × n, C = cij m × n,
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
L.H.S. = (A + B) + C = [aij + bij] + [cij]
= [(aij + bij) + cij]
= [aij + (bij + cij)] Since + is associative in Real numbers
= [aij] + [bij + cij]
= A + (B + C) = R.H.S.
4. Existence of identity for addition: For all A = aij m × n,
there exists a null matrix O = [0ij]
of the same size such that
A + O = [aij] + [0ij] = [aij + 0ij] = [aij] = A
and similarly, O+A = A
so A+O = O+A=A
The null matrix is called the indentity for addition.
5. Existence of inverse for addition: For each matrix A = [aij], there exists a matrix – A =
– [aij] such that
A + (– A) = – A + A = 0
A is called the negative of A or inverse of A for addition of matrices.
146 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LM 2a 2b 2c OP
N 2 p 2q 2r Q
or 2A =
LM 1 2 4OP LM 4 1 4 3 OP
A=
N2 Q
,B= MM 0 –1 3 1 PP
N2 Q
6 0
7 5 2
Since A is a 2 × 3 and B is 3 × 4, the product AB can be determined and AB is a 2 × 4 matrix. To
determine, for example (2, 3)rd entry of AB, we single out 2nd row of A and 3rd column of B. Then
we multiply the corresponding entries together and add up there products as follows:
LM 1 O LM 4 LM
1 4 3 OP OP
0 PQ MM 0 PP
2 4
N2 MM
–1 3 1 PP =
N2 N Q Q
6
7 5 3 26
MATRICES 147
LM 4 LM OP OP
LM [1 O
1 4 3 13
2
0 PQ
4]
MM 0 –1 3 M 1 P P
N2 7 5 MN 2 PQ PQ
=
6
N2 26
LM a 11 a12 L a1n OP
MM a 21 a22 L a2n PP
In general, if A = MM aM ai 2 L a P
P
MM M PP
i1 in
MN a m1 am2 L a PQ
mn
LM b bp O
b p PP
11 b12 b1 j 1
and B = MM b
21 b22 b2 j 2
PP
MM bM b p PQ
N
n1 bn 2 bnj n
LM a 11 a12 L a1n OP
MM a 21 a22 L a2 n PP
Then (i, j)th entry of AB = MM Mai1 ai 2
L
ain PP
MN a m1 am2 amn PQ
LMb 11 b12 LM
L bij OP L b1 p OP
MMb 21 b22 MM
L b2 j PP L b2 p PP
MMbM M
L MN b
PP L b p PQ
P
N n1 bn 2 nj Q n
148 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
is equal to
LM b 1j OP
MM b2 j PP
L
cij = a i1 ai2 ain
MM M PP
MN b
nj
PQ
= a1i b1j + ai2 b2j + ..... + ainbnj
n
= ∑ aik bkf
k =1
the definition requires that the number of columns of the first factor A must be equal to the number
of rows of the second factor B in order to form the product AB. If this condition is not satisfied, the
product is undefined. If this condition is satisfied, then we say that A and B are conformable for the
product.
Example 6.8.2. Find the product AB and BA of matrices
LM 2 1 3 OP LM –3 1 OP
,B= M 2 P
A =
MN 4 –1 2 PQ 2×3 MN 0
5
2 PQ 3×2
Solution. Since A and B are conformable for the product AB and B and A are also conformable
for the product BA, AB and BA can be determined.
LM 2 1 3 OP LM –32 51 OP
Now, AB =
N 4 –1 2 Q MMN 0 2 PPQ
2×3
3×2
LM 2 × –3 + 1 × 2 + 3 × 0 2 × 1 + 1 × 5 + 3 × 2 OP
=
MN 4 × –3 + –1 × 2 + 2 × 0 4 × 1 + –1 × 5 + 2 × 2 PQ
LM –4 13 OP
N –14 3 Q
=
2×2
LM –3 1 OP L 2 1 3 O
and BA = MM 2 5 PP MN 4 –1 2 PQ
N 0 2Q 2×3
LM –3 ⋅ 2 + 1 ⋅ 4 –3 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ (–1) –3 ⋅ 3 + 1 ⋅ 2 OP
= MM 2 ⋅ 2 + 5 ⋅ 4 2 ⋅ 1 + 5 ⋅ b–1g 2 ⋅ 3 + 5 ⋅ 2 PP
N 0 ⋅ 2 + 2 ⋅ 4 0 ⋅ 1 + 2 ⋅ b–1g 0 ⋅ 3 + 2 ⋅ 2 Q
LM –2 –4 7 OP
= MM 24 –3 16 PP
N 8 –2 4 Q 3× 3
PROBLEM 6.1
1. Choose the correct answer
LM 1 O LM 3 OP , then
2 PQ
2 3 1 2
If A=
N0 1
and B =
N1 1 1 Q
(a) AB does not exists. (b) AB is a 2 × 2 matrix.
(c) AB is a 3 × 3 matrix. (d) AB is a 2 × 3 matrix.
(e) AB is a 3 × 2 matrix.
2. Choose the correct answer:
LM 2 O and B = LM –3 1 OP
2 PQ MM 2 PP
1 3
N4
If A = 5 , then
–1
N0 2 Q
AB is
LM – 4 13OP , LM – 4 10 OP ,
(a)
N –14 3Q (b)
N –14 3Q
LM 0 13 O LM – 4 13 O
(c)
N –14 3 PQ , (d)
N –14 0 PQ .
3. Put a tick (√) against the correct answer :
(a) If A and B are two matrices such that AB exists and AB = 0, A = 0 or B = 0
(b) If A, B, C are three matrices such that
AB = AC, then B = C
(c) If A and B are square matrices of the same order, then
(AB)2 = A2 ± 2AB + B2
(d) If A, B and C are conformable for addition, then
A+B = A+C⇒B=C
(e) If A and B are square matrices of the same order then
(A + B) (A – B) = A2 – B2 and AB = BA
4. Let A and B be 4 × 5 matrices and let, C, D, and E be 5 × 2, 4 × 2, and 5 × 4 matrices respectively.
Determine which of the following matrix expressions are defined. For those that are defined, give the
size of the resulting matrix.
(a) BA (b) AC + D (c) AE + B
(d) AB + B (e) E(A + B) (f ) E(AC).
5. Show that if AB and BA are both defined, then AB and BA are square matrices.
LM 3 –2 7 OP LM 6 –2 4 OP
MM 6 5 4 P B = M0 1 3 P
NM 7 5 QP
6. Let A = and
N0 4 9 PQ 7
then find,
(a) The first row of AB (b) The third row of AB
(c) The second row of AB (d) The first column of BA
(e) The third row of AA (f) The third column of AA.
150 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
L1 OP LM 1 5 2 OP LM 6 1 3 OP
C= M MM –1 PP MM –1 PP
4 2
N3 Q
7. Let , D= 0 1 ,E= 1 2
1 5
N3 2 4 Q N4 1 3 Q
determine the entry in row 2 and column 3 of C(DE).
8. Show that the product of diagonal matrices is again a diagonal matrix.
9. Find the product AB of two matrices.
(a) A = M
L1 OP , B = LM 10 2 0 OP
MM PP
–1 2
N3 1Q
–1 1
0
N1 2 –1 Q
LM 1 2O L0 1 OP
0 PP , B = MM 0 2
0
(b) A = M 3 1 P
MN 4 0 PQ MN 2 3 0 PQ
LM 2 1 3O
P
10. If A = M 1 –1 2 P
MN 1 2 1 PQ
show that A3 – 2A2 – 9A = 0, but
A2 – 2A –2I3 ≠ 0.
LM 0 1 0 OP
11. If A = MM 0 0 1 P,
P
MN p q r PQ
LM 0 1 0 OP LM 0 0 0 OP
13. If E = MM 0 0 1 ,F=PP MM 1 0 0 , PP
N0 0 0 Q N0 1 0 Q
calculate the matrices EF and FE, and show that
E2F + FE2 = E.
LM a b OP LM 1 0 OP ,
14. If A =
Nc d Q and I =
N0 1 Q
show that A2 – (a + d) A = (bc – ad) I.
15. If A and B are sqaure matrices, show that
(i) (A + B)2 = A2 + BA + AB + B2
(ii) (A – B)2 = A2 – AB – BA + B2
(iii) (A + B)(A – B) = A2 – AB + BA – B2
(iv) (A – B)(A + B) = A2 + AB – BA – B2.
MATRICES 151
If ab – bc ≠ 0, then
LM OP LM d −b OP
= M ad – bc PP
1 d –b ad – bc
A –1 =
ad − bc – c N a Q MN ad––cbc a
ad – bc Q
We varify that A · A–1 = A–1 · A = I2
THEOREM 6.9.2. If A and B are invertible matrices of the same size, then
(i) AB is invertible
(ii) (AB)–1 = B–1A–1.(Reversal Law of inverse)
Proof. We have (AB)(B–1A–1) = A(BB–1)A–1
= AIA–1 = AA–1 = I
and (B–1A–1)(AB) = B–1(A–1A)B
= B–1IB = B–1 B = I
This implies that AB is invertible and
(AB)–1 = B–1.A–1
Example 6.9.4. Consider the matrices
LM1 2 OP LM 3 2 OP , AB = LM 7 6 OP
A =
N1 Q
3 ,B= N2 2Q N9 8Q
1 L d –b O
Applying the formula A–1 = M
ad – bc N – c a PQ
, then
LM 3 –2 OP , B = LM 1 –13 OP ,
A–1 =
N –1 1 Q MN –1 2 PQ
–1
LM 49 –37 OP
(AB)–1 =
MN − 2 2 PQ .
LM 1 –13 OP L 3 –2 O LM 49 –37 OP
Also B–1.A–1 =
MN –1 2 PQ MN –1 1 PQ = MN – 2 2 PQ
therefore, (AB)–1 = B–1A–1
In the next section we shall show how to find inverses of invertible matrices whose size are
greater than 2 × 2.
PROBLEM 6.2
1. Use the formulae in example 6.9.4 to compute the inverses of the following matrices
LM
3 1 OP LM 2 –3 OP , C = LM 2 0 OP
N
A= 5
Q
2 , B= N4 4 Q N0 3 . Q
MATRICES 153
2. Varify that matrices A and B in exercise 1 satisfy the relationship (AB)–1 = B–1.A–1.
3. Let A be an invertible matrix whose inverse is
LM 3 4 OP
N5 6 Q
Find the matrix A.
4. Let A be an invertible matrix, and suppose that the inverse of 7A is
LM –1 2 OP
N4 –7 Q
Find the matrix A.
5. Let A be the matrix
LM 1 0 OP
N2 3 . Q
Compute A3, A–3, and A2 – 2A + I.
ax + by, x + dy
x, y
O x
F L 1 OI = LM 1 + 2 ⋅ 0 OP = LM 1 OP
Then T(e1) = T GH MN 0 PQJK N 1 – 0 Q N 1 Q
L 0 O L 0 + 2 ⋅1 O L 2 O
= T M 1 P = M 0 – 1 P = M –1 P
and T(e2)
N Q N Q N Q
bg
T e1 b g
T e2
B B
1 2
A =
1 −1
More generally, if
LM a OP , T(e ) = L a O
T(e1) =
Na Q
11
21
MN a PQ
2
12
22
LM a a OP
11 12
then A =
Na a Q
21 22
LM x OP
or
NyQ = xe1 + ye2
Therefore by linearity of T
F L x OI
T GH MN y PQJK = T(xe1 + ye2)
NyQ
12
⇒
21 22
LxO
AM P
⇒
NyQ = x T(e1) + y T(e2)
LxO
AM P
LM x OP
⇒
NyQ = T
NyQ by (1)
Example 6.11.1. Let T : R2 → R2 be the linear transformation that maps each point into its
symmetric image about y-axis. Find the standard matrix for T.
( –x, y) (x, y)
Fig. 6.2
Solution. Here T : R2 → R2 is given by
F L x OI LM – x OP
T GH MN y PQJK =
NyQ
L 1 O L –1 OP
TM P = M
Now T(e1) =
N0Q N 0 Q
L 0 O L– 0 O L 0 O
TM P = M 1 P = M1P
and T(e2) =
N1Q N Q N Q
Therefore standard matrix for T is
LM –1 0OP
A =
N0 1 Q
LM x OP LM –1 0OL xO
P LM – x OP .
N0 1QM yP
NyQ N Q NyQ
As a check A = =
So that multiplication by A maps the point (x, y) into symmetric image (– x, y) about the y-axis.
We shall pay attention to five types of plane linear transformations that have special importance:
rotation, reflections, expansions, compressions, and shears.
6.12 ROTATION y
Let θ be a fixed angle, and let T : R2 → R2 be linear transformation
which T maps the point (x, y) into the rotation point (x′, y′) through Q (x ¢, y¢ )
an angle θ.
In the plane P(x, y) is any point such that OP = r and ∠POX g
= φ. If OP is rotated through an angle θ, then the point P acquires P (x, y)
g
the new position Q′ (x′, y′) such that
q
OQ = r, ∠QOX = θ + φ f
x
O
Now x = r cos φ, y = γ sin φ
Fig. 6.3
MATRICES 157
LM cos θ – sin θ OP LM x OP
=
N sin θ cos θ Q N y Q
F L x OI AM P
LxO
or T GH MN y PQJK =
NyQ
is the linear transformation given by the standard matrix
LM cos θ – sin θ OP
A =
N sin θ cos θ Q
and it is called the rotation of R2 through the angle θ and the matrix
LM cos θ – sin θ OP
A =
N sin θ cos θ Q
is called rotation matrix.
6.13 REFLECTION
Reflection: A reflection about a line l through the origin is a transformation that maps each point
in the plane into its mirror image or symmetric image about the line l. It can be shown that reflections
are linear transformations. The most important cases are reflection about the coordinate axes and
about the line, y = x.
Example 6.13.1. Let T : R2 → R2 be the linear transformations which maps each point into
symmetric image about x-axis. Find the standard matrix for T.
158 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
(x, y)
(x, – y)
Fig. 6.4
Solution. Here T : R2 → R2 is given by
F L x OI LM x OP
T GH MN y PQJK =
N −y Q
F L 1O I =
GH MN0PQ JK
LM 1 OP
Now for T(e1) = T
N0Q
F L0O I
T G M1P J =
LM 0 OP
and T(e2) =
H N QK N –1 Q
therefore the standard matrix for T is
LM 1 0 OP
A =
N 0 –1 Q
LM 1 0 OP LM x OP LM x OP .
As a check
N0 –1 Q NyQ =
N –y Q
So that multiplication by A maps the point (x, y) into the point. (x, – y).
Example 6.13.2. Let T : R2 → R2 be the linear transformation that maps each point into
symmetric image about the line y = x. Find the standard matrix for T.
y=x
(y, x)
(x, y)
Fig. 6.5
MATRICES 159
1 h
(— x, y)
2 (2x, y)
(x, y)
Initial figure 1
K=— K=2
2
(Compression) (Expansion)
Fig. 6.6
Similarly, the standard matrix for an expansion or compression in the y-direction is
LM 1 0 OP
N0 k Q
(x, 2y)
(x, y) 3
(x, — y)
4
Initial figure 3
K=2 K= —
4
(Expansion) (Compression)
Fig. 6.7
6.15 SHEARS
Shears: A shear in the x-direction with factor k is a transformation that moves each point (x, y)
parallel to the x-axis by an amount ky to the new position (x + ky, y). Under such a transformation,
MATRICES 161
points on the x-axis are unmoved since y = 0. However, as we progress away from the x-axis, the
magnitude of y increases, so that points farther from the x-axis move a greater distance than those
closer.
K>0 K<0
Fig. 6.8
A shear in the y-direction with factor k is a transformation that moves each point (x, y) parallel
y-axis by an amount kx to the new position (x, y + kx). Under such transformation points on the
y-axis remain fixed and points farther from the y-axis move a greater distance from those closer.
F L x OI = FG x + kyIJ in the x-direction with constant
We see that a shear T : R2 → R2 given by T GH MN y PQJK H y K
factor k is a linear transformation. For,
FG IJ FG IJ
x x′
HK H K
y , y′
R L x O L x ′ O UV = T RS L ax + bx ′ O UV
T Sa M P + b M
T N y Q N y ′ PQ W T MN ay + by ′ PQ W
R L (ax + bx′ ) + k (ay + by′ ) O UV
= SM PQ W
TN ay + by ′
= M
L ax + kay + bx′+ kby′ OP
N ay + by′ Q
L ax + kay OP + LM bx′+ xby′ OP
= M ay
N Q N by′ Q
L x + ky O L x′+ky′ O
= a M y P + b M y′ P
N Q N Q
F L x OI F L x′ OI
= aT G M PJ + bT G M P J
H N y QK H N y′ QK
Hence shear T is a linear transformation.
Example 6.15.1. If T : R2 → R2 is a shear in the x-direction with constant factor k, find the
standard matrix for T.
Solution. Here T : R2 → R2 is given by
F L x OI LM x + xy OP
T GH MN y PQJK =
N y Q
162 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
F L 1 OI LM 1 + k ⋅ 0 OP = L 1 O
Then T(e1) = T GH MN 0 PQJK =
N 0 Q MN 0 PQ
F L 0 OI L 0 + k.1 O L k O
T G M 1 PJ = M 1 P = M 1 P.
and T(e2) =
H N QK N Q N Q
Therefore the standard matrix for T is
LM 1 k OP
A =
N0 1 Q
Similarly, the standard matrix for a shear in the y-direction with factor k is
LM 1 0 OP
Nk Q
A = .
1
6.16 TRANSLATION
Let T : R2 → R2 be a linear transformation that maps
(x + h, y + k)
(x, y)
Fig. 6.9
each point (x, y) of the plane into the point (x′, y′) such that x′ = x + h, y′ = y + k, where h and k
are constants. Therefore
FG x IJ = FG x + h IJ
T
H yK H y+k K
FG x′ IJ = LM 1x + 0 y + h OP
⇒
H y ′ K N 0 x + 1y + k Q
LM x OP
FG x′ IJ LM 1 0 h OP MM y PP
⇒
H y′ K =
N0 1 k Q N1Q
MATRICES 163
LM 10 h OP
It follows that the matrix
N0 1 k Q
is the standard matrix for this transformation known
as translation. But the standard matrix of square form is preferred. Therefore this matrix can be
written as 3 × 3 matrix.
1 0 hLM OP
0 1 k MM PP
0 0 1 N Q
As a check we see that
LM x′ OP LM 1 0 h OP LM x OP
MM y′ PP = MM 0 1 k PP MM y PP
N1Q N0 0 1 QN1Q
x′ = x + h
y = y+k
1 = 1.
Definition 6.16.1. If T is a transformation by an indentity matrix of order 2 which maps each point
onto itself, T is called an identity transformation. This transformation can be viewed as a rotation
through an angle 0°, or as shear along either axis with k = 0 or as a compression or expansion along
either axis with factor k = 1.
If finitely many matrix transformation from R2 → R2 are performed in succession, then the same
result can be obtained by a single matrix transformation. The following example makes this point
clear.
Then point (x′, y′) transformed by the shear to the point (x″, y″) given by
LM x″ OP LM 1 k OP LM x′ OP
N y″ Q =
N0 1 Q N y′ Q
Since the standard matrix for shear is
LM 1 k OP
N0 1 . Q
164 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LM x″ OP LM 1 k OP L cosθ – sin θ OP LM x OP
N y″ Q =
N 0 1 Q MN sin θ cos θ QN y Q by (1)
(1, 2)
(5, 2)
(2, 1)
(1, 4)
(2, 1) (4, 1)
Fig. 6.10
Example 6.17.3. Show that if T : R2 → R2 is multiplication by an elementary matrix, then the
transformation is one of the following:
(i) A shear along coordinate axis.
(ii) Reflection about y = x.
(iii) A compression along coordinate axis.
(iv) A expansion along coordinate axis.
(v) A compression or expansion along coordinate axis followed by a reflection about
coordinate axis.
Solution. If we apply elementary row operations to the 2 × 2 identity matrix, we get the
following elementary matrices
LM 1 0 OP LM
1 k 0 OP LM 1OP LM
k 0 OP LM
1 0 OP
Nk QN QN QN QN Q
, , , ,
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 k
LM 0 1O
N1 0 PQ represents reflection about y = x.
LM k 0O L1 0O
N0 1 PQ MN 0 k PQ
, represents compression or expansion.
LM 1 0O LM 1 OP L1 0 O L1 0 O
k PQ = M 0 –1 P M 0 k PQ
0
and
N0 =
N0 –k1 Q N QN 1
...(2)
Since k1 > 0, the product in (1) represents a compression or expansion along x-axis followed
by a reflection about y-axis. The product (2) represents compression or expansion along the y-axis
166 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
followed by a reflection about the x-axis If k = – 1, (1) and (2) are simply reflections about the y
and x-axis, respectively.
It follows from these equations that if multiplication by A maps (x, y) to (x′, y′), then multiplication
by A–1 maps (x′, y′) back to the point (x, y). For this reason multiplication by A and multiplication
by A–1 are said to be inverse transformations.
Example 6.18.1. If T : R2 → R2 compresses the plane by a factor 1/3 in the y-direction, then
it is obvious that we must expand the plane by a factor 3 in y-direction to move each point back to
the original position. The standard matrix for compression by factor 1/3 in y-direction is
LM 1 0 OP
A =
N0 1/ 3 Q
and the standard matrix for the expansion by factor 3 in y-direction is
LM 1 0 OP
N0 Q
A1 =
3
We see that compression by a factor 1/3 in y-direction followed by an expansion by a factor
3 in y-direction is an identity transformation.
LM 1 OP LM 1 OP = L 1 OP
Q MN 0
0 0 0
Since, A 1A =
N0 3 QN0 1/ 3 1 Q
A–1 = A1
therefore expansion is the inverse transformation of compression.
Example 6.18.2. If T : R2 → R2 is multiplication by a matrix
LM cos θ – sin θ OP
A =
N sin θ cos θ Q
then the multiplication by A rotates the points in the plane through an angle θ. To bring a point back
to its original position, it must be rotated through an angle – θ, that is, if the (x, y) is mapped by A
on to the point (x′, y′), then
LM x′ OP LM cosθ – sin θ OP LM x OP
N y′ Q =
N sin θ cos θ QN y Q
LM x OP LM cosθ – sin θ O L x ′ O
–1
we see that (x′, y′) is brought back to the original point (x, y) by multiplication by
LM cos b–θg b g OP
– sin –θ
N sin b–θg cos b–θg Q
A1 =
LM cos θ sin θ O
=
N − sin θ cos θ PQ
R –2 R
2 →
LM 1 0 OP
N0 Q
1
1
The three successive row operations can be performed by multiplying on the left successively
by elementary matrices
LM 1 0 OP LM 1 0 OP LM 1 −2 OP
E1 =
N –3 1 Q
, E2 =
MN 0 − PQ
1 , E3 =
2 N0 1 Q
Inverting these matrices
LM 1 0OP LM 1 0 OP LM 1 2OP
A = E1–1 E2–1 E3–1 =
N3 1QN0 –2 Q N 0 1Q
It follows that the effect of multiplying by A is equivalent to:
(1) Shearing by a factor of 2 in the x-direction.
(2) Then expanding by a factor of 2 in the y-direction.
(3) Then reflecting about the x-axis.
(4) Then shearing by a factor of 3 in the y-direction.
THEOREM 6.18.2. If T : R2 → R2 is multiplication by an invertible matrix, then:
(a) The image of a straight line is a straight line.
(b) The image of a straight line through the origin is a straight line through the origin.
(c) The images of parallel straight lines are parallel straight lines.
(d) The image of line segment joining points P and Q is the line segment joining the images
of P and Q.
(e) The image of three points lie on a line if and only if the points themselves do.
REMARK. It follows from parts (c), (d) and (e) that multiplication by an invertible matrix A
of order 2 maps triangles into triangles and parallelograms into parallelograms.
Example 6.18.4. Sketch the image of the sqaure with vertices A (0, 0), B (1, 0). C (0, 1) and
D (1, 1) under multiplication by
–1 2 LM OP
A = 2 –1 . N Q
Solution. Since
LM –1 2 OP LM 0 OP LM 0 OP , LM –1 2 OP LM 1 OP = LM –1 OP ,
N2 –1 QN0Q =
N0Q N 2 –1 QN0Q N 2 Q
LM –1 2 OL0O LM 2 OP , LM –1 2 OL1O LM 1 OP .
N2 –1 PQ MN 1 PQ =
N −1 Q N 2 P M
–1 Q N 1 Q P =
N1Q
the image is a parallelogram with vertices (0, 0), (–1, 2), (2, –1), and (1, 1).
MATRICES 169
(–1, 2)
C D (1, 1) (1, 1)
(0, 1)
A
(0, 0) B (1, 0) (0, 0)
(2, –1)
Fig. 6.11
LM 3 1 OP
Example 6.18.5. According to theorem 6.18.2 the invertible matrix A =
line y = 2x + 1 into other line. Find its image.
N2 1 Q maps the
Solution. Let (x, y) be a point on the line y = 2x + 1 and Let (x′, y′) be its image under
multiplication by A. Then.
LM x′ OP LM 3 1 OP LM x OP
N y′ Q =
N2 1 QN yQ
LM x OP LM 3 1 OP LM x′ OP
–1
⇒
NyQ =
N 2 1 Q N y′ Q
LM x OP LM 1 –1 OP LM x′ OP
⇒
NyQ =
N –2 3 Q N y′ Q
⇒ x = x′ – y′
y = – 2x′ + 3y′
Substituting in y = 2x + 1, we get
– 2x′ + 3y′ = 2(x′ – y′) + 1
⇒ 5y′ = 4x′ + 1 Y R
4 1 Q
⇒ y′ = x′ +
5 5
which is the required equation.
Example 6.18.6. Prove that two 2-D rotations of P (x, y)
the object about the origin, commute, that is, R1 R2 =
R2 R1. q2
q1
Solution. Let R1 be the rotation of an object at
f
P(x, y) through an angle θ1 which is given by rotation X
O
matrix.
LMcos θ 1 – sin θ1 OP Fig. 6.12
R1(θ1) =
N sin θ
1 cos θ1 Q
and attains the position Q. It is again rotated through an angle θ2 to reach the point R by rotation
matrix
170 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LMcos θ – sin θ OP
2 2
R2(θ2) =
N sin θ cosθ Q
2 2
LM cosbθ + θ g – sinbθ + θ g OP
N sin(θ + θ ) cosbθ + θ g Q = R(θ + θ ).
1 2 1 2
= 1 2
1 2 1 2
Similarly, if we rotate an object first through an angle θ2 and then rotate through an angle θ1,
the resultant matrix is
cos θ1 – sin θ1 LM
cos θ 2 – sin θ 2 OP LM OP
R1(θ1) R2(θ2) =
sin θ1 cos θ1 N
sin θ 2 cos θ 2 QN Q
LM cosbθ + θ1 g b
– sin θ 2 + θ1 g OP
b g Q = R(θ
2
=
N sin(θ 2 + θ1 ) cos θ 2 + θ1 2 + θ1) = R(θ1 + θ2)
Hence, R1 R2 = R2 R1.
Example 6.18.7. Describe the transformation that rotates an object point, Q(x, y), θ° about a
fixed centre of rotation P(h, k).
Solution. We determine the transformation Rθ, P in three steps.
(1) Transtate the point P to the origin by translation matrix
LM 1 0 –h OP Q¢ (x¢, y¢)
T−v = M0 1 –k PP
MN 0
Q (x, y)
0 1 Q q°
(2) Rotate through an angle θ° about the origin by the
rotation matrix.
OP LM OP
P (h, k)
LM
cos θ – sin θ cos θ − sin θ 0
Rθ = sin θ
N cos θ = sin θ cos θ 0
0 0 1
Q MMN PP
Q
(3)Translate P back to (h, k) by the matrix
LM cos θ − sin θ 0 OP
Tv = M sin θ 0P .
MM cos θ
P Fig. 6.13
N 0 0 1 PQ
So we have transformation matrix
LM 1 0 h OP LM cos θ − sin θ 0 OP LM 1 0 −h OP
R ,P = M 0 1 k PP MM − sin θ cos θ 0 PP MM 0 1 −k PP
θ
MN 0 0 1 Q N 0 0 0 Q N0 0 1 Q
LM cosθ – sin θ – h cos θ + k cos θ + h OP
= M PP .
sin θ cos θ – h sin θ – k cos θ + k
MN 0 0 1 Q
MATRICES 171
Example 6.18.8. Perform a 45° rotation of triangle A(0, 0), B(1, 1) C(5, 2) (a) about the origin
(b) about P(–1, –1).
Solution. We represent the triangle by a matrix formed from the homogeneous coordinates of
the vertices.
LM
A B C OP
MM 0 1 5P
2 P
MN 01 1
1 1Q
P
LM cos 45° – sin 45° OP LM 2 – 22 0
OP
M P
0 2
(a) The rotation matrix is MM sin 45° cos 45° 0 PP =
MM 22 2 0P
N 0 0 1 Q MN 0
2
0 1PQ
P
so the coordinates of A′B′C′ can be determined by
LM A′ B′ C′ OP
LM 2 OP L 0 OP MM 0 3 2 P
P0P MM 0
– 22
2 P
0 1 5 0
[ABC] = M 2 2P
2
MM 2 MM P
P1PQ MMN 1 P 7 2 P
[A′B′C′] = Rθ 2 1 =
1 PQ MM 0 2 P
2
MN 0
2
0 1
MN 1 1 1 PQ
P
F 3 2 , 7 2I
Thus A′ =(0, 0), B′ = 0, 2 , = C′ =e j GH 2 2 JK .
(b) The rotation matrix is given by
LM 1 –1 O L 2 O
0P L 1 OP
0
M
PP M – 22
P MM
0 1
MM 0 P
2
–1 P M 2 0P M
1P
M P
R45°, p = Tv·R45·T−V = 1 2 0 1
MM P MM P
1 PQ MM 0 P
2 2
N0 1PQ N 0 1 PQ
0
N 0 0
LM 2 – 2 –1 P
O
MM 2 2
PP
=
MM 22 2
e 2 – 1j P
MN 0
2
PP
0 1 Q
LM 2 O LM A B C OP
–1 P M
5 PP
– 2
MM 2 2
PP M 0 1
MM 22 e 2 – 1j P M
M P
2 P
and [A′B′C′]= R45°, p [ABC] = 2
2
P M 0 1
PP
NM 0 0 1 PQ MM 1 1
N 1 PQ
172 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LM –1 FH 3 –1 2 –1 IK OP
= M
M 2
P
2 – 1j e2 2 – 1j F 9 2 – 1I P
MM e H2 K PP
MN 1 1 1 PQ
e e jj e e jj FG 3 9 I
2 – 1J .
Thus A′ = –1, 2 – 1 , B′ = –1, 2 2 – 1 , C′ =
H2 2 – 1,
2 K
Example 6.18.9. Magnify the triangle with vertices A(0, 0), B(1, 1) at C(5, 2) to twice its size
while keeping C (5, 2) fixed.
Solution. We can write the required transformation matrix as
S22·C = Tv.S2,2.T-v
LM 1 0 OP LM 2 5 0 0 OP LM 1 0 –5 OP
= MMN 00 1
0
PPQ MMN 00
2
1
2
0
0
1
PPQ MMN 00 1
0
–2
1
PPQ
LM 2 0 –5 O
2 –2 P .
=
MMN 00 0 1 PQ
P
LM 2 0 –5 O L 0 OP
2 –2 P M 0
1 5
So [A′B′C′] = S22,c [ABC] =
MMN 00 0
PM
1 PQ MN 1
1
1
2
1
PPQ
LM –5 –3 5 O
2P
=
MMN –21 0
1 1 PQ
P
Thus, A′ = (–5, –2), B′ = (–3, 0) C′ = (5, 2).
Example 6.18.10. Find the form of matrix for reflection about a line L(y = mx + b) with slope
m and y intercept (0, b). Y
Solution. We perform the reflection of a point about L
the line L in following steps:
(1) Translate B(0, b) to the origin (0, 0).
(2) Rotate by – θ° so that L falls on x-axis.
B
(3) Mirror reflect about x-axis. (0, b)
(4) Rotate back by θ° q
X
(5) Translate back to B.
So, in transformation notation, we have
ML = Tv Rθ Mx R−θ T−v
LM 1 0 0 OP LM cos θ – sin θ 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP Fig. 6.14
= MM 0 1 b PP MM sin θ cos θ 0 PP MM 0 –1 0 PP
N0 0 1 QN 0 0 1 QN0 0 1 Q
MATRICES 173
LM 1 0 0 OP LM –1 0 1 0 OP LM A′ B′ C′ D′ OP
[A′ B′ C′ D′] = M .V = M
0
MN 0
–1 4 PP MM 0 –2 0 2 PP = MM –14 0 1 0 PP
L
0 1 QN 1 1 1 1 Q M 6 4 2
PQ
N1 1 1 1
Thus A′ = (–1, 4), B′ = (0, 6), C′ = (1, 4), D′ = (0, 2).
(b) To find the matrix for reflection about the line x = 2.
Which cuts x-axis at (2, 0), we translate (2, 0) to the origin, then
the line falls on y-axis. Then we take reflection about y-axis and
translate origin back to (0, 2). So the required matrix for reflection x=2
N0 0 1 PQ
LM – 1 0 4 OP LM – 1 0 1 0 OP LM 5 4 3 4 OP
MM 0 1 0 P MM 0 –2 0 2 P = M
0 –2 0 2 P
1 QP 1 QP NM 1 1 QP
Finally, ML.V =
N0 0 N 1 1 1 1 1
Thus, A′ = (5, 0), B′ = (4, –2), C ′ = (3, 0), D′ = (4, 2).
(c) To find out the reflection matrix about the line L
Y
2
y = x + 2 which cuts y-axis at B(0, 2) and inclined at x+
=
angle of 45° with x-axis. We perform the following steps: y
LM 1 0 OP LM 1 – 1 LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 1
OP OP L 1 OP
PP MM 0
0 0 0 0 0
M P MM 2 2
MM 0 –1 0 PP MM 21 12
P P
= M0 1 2P 0P 0 M –2 P
MM PP PP MM − 2 2 PP M
1 1 1
MM P MM P
1 PQ 1 Q MN 0 1 PQ
2 2
N0 0 N 0 0 1Q N0 0 1QN 0 0 0
LM 1 OP L 1 0O L 1 2 O
PP MM 2 2 – 2 PP
1 1
PP MM 0
– 0 0
= M 1
M 2 2
–1 0 P M 1
2 M − 2 P
MM 2 PP M M 2 P
1 1
PP M 2 2 –
P
1 Q MN 0
2
N0 0 0 1Q N 0 0 1 Q
LM 1 0OL 1
PP MM 2 – 2 O LM 0 1 –2 OP
2 P
– 1 1
= M 1
M 2 2 2
PP = M 1 0 2 P
2PM 1 MM PP
MM 2 PP MM 2 2 P
1 – 1 2
N 0 0
2
1QN 0 0
2
1 Q
P MN 0 0 1 PQ
The required coordinates of A′, B′, C′, D′ can be obtained as
LM 0 1 –2 OP LM –1 0 1 0 OP LM –2 –4 –2 0 OP
[A′ B′ C′ D′] = ML.V =
MMN 10 0
0
2
1
PPQ MMN 01 –2
1
0
1
2
1
PPQ =
MMN 11 2
1 1
3 2
1
PPQ
Thus, A′ = (–2, 1), B′ = (–4, 2) C′ = (–2, 3), D′ = (0, 2)
Example 6.18.12. Find the transformation matrix that transforms a given square ABCD to half
its size with centre still remaining at the same position. The coordinates of the square are A(1, 1),
B(3, 1), C(3, 3) and D(1, 3) centre at (2, 2).
1
Solution. Here Sx = Sy = and v = 2i + 2j
2
We know that scaling with respect to given point is given by
Ssx, sy , P = Tv· Ssx, sy T–v
LM 1 0 2 OP LM 21 0 0
OP L 1
MM 0
0 –2 OP LM 1 OP
2 P MM 0 P
0 1
MM 0 0P M –2 P MM 2 P
PM P 1P
= 1 1 1 = 1
MN 0 1 PQ M 0
PM 1 PQ
MM 00 P
1 PQ N 0 1 PQ
2
N
2
0
N 0 0 0
LM 1 OP LM A B C DOP L 3 OP
MM 2
5 7 3
MM 20
0 1
P MM 1 3 3 1P
P = M3
2 2 2
PP
1P MM 1 3P
1 3 5 5
MM P PP MM 2 PP
=
1 3 2 2 2
1 PQ
2
N0 0 MN 1 1 1 1Q N1 1 1 1Q
176 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LM 1 0 OP LM 1 a OP = LM 1 a OP
Nb QN0 Q Nb Q
S0,b · Sa,0 = ab + 1 ...(2)
1 1
From (1) and (2), we get Sa, b ≠ S0, b · Sa, 0.
Example 6.18.14. Give the explicit form of the 3 × 3 matrix representing the transformation:
Scaling by factor 2 in the x-direction and then rotating about (2, 1).
Solution. To do this question, we perform the following steps:
LM 2 0 0 OP
(1) Consider the scaling matrix S2, 0 = MM 0 1 0 PP .
N0 0 1 Q
LM 1 0 –2 OP
(2) Translate the point (2, 1) to (0, 0) by T–v =
MM 0 1 –1 . PP
N0 0 1 Q
LM cosθ – sin θ 0 OP
(3) Rotate it through an angle + θ by MM sin θ cos θ 0 PP
N 0 0 1 Q
LM 1 0 2 OP
(4) Translate back origin to the point by T−v = M0 1 1 PP .
MN 0 0 1 Q
Thus the required matrix for the transformation is
= Tv Rθ T–v S2, 0
MATRICES 177
LM 1 0 2 OP LM cosθ – sin θ 0 OP LM 1 0 – 2 OP LM 2 0 0 OP
MM
= 0 1 1
PP MM sin θ cos θ 0 PP MM 0 1 – 1 PP MM 0 1 0 PP
N0 0 1QN 0 0 1Q N 0 0 1 Q N 0 0 1 Q
LM 1 0 2 OP LM cosθ – sin θ 0 OP LM 2 0 – 2 OP
MM
= 0 1 1
PP MM sin θ cos θ 0 PP MM 0 1 – 1 PP
N0 0 1QN 0 0 1Q N 0 0 1 Q
(x, y)
(x, y)
(a) (b)
178 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
(x, y )
(c) (d)
Fig. 6.18
3. For each part of Exercise 2, use the matrix you have obtained to compute to T(2, 1).
4. Sketch the image of the rectangle with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 2), and (0, 2) under:
(a) a reflection about the x-axis;
(b) a reflection about the y-axis;
(c) a compression of factor k = 1/4 in the y-direction;
(d) an expansion of factor k = 2 in the x-direction;
(e) a shear of factor k = 3 in the x-direction;
(f) a shear of factor k = – 2 in the y-direction.
5. Sketch the image of the square with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1) and (1, 1) under multiplication by
LM –3 0OP.
A=
N0 1Q
6. Find the matrix that rotates a point (x, y) about the origin through:
(a) 45° (b) 90° (c) 180° (d) 270° (e) – 30°
7. Find the matrix that shears by
(a) a factor of k = 4 in the y-direction;
(b) a factor of k = – 2 in the x-direction.
8. Find the matrix that compresses or expands by:
(a) a factor of 1/3 in the y-direction
(b) a factor of 6 in the x-direction.
9. In each part, describe the geometric effect of multiplication by the given matrix
LM 3 0OP LM 1 0 OP , LM 1 4 OP .
N0 Q N0 Q N0 Q
(a) , (b) (c)
1 –5 1
10. In each part, find a single matrix that performs the indicated succession of transformations
1
(a) Compress by a factor of in the x-direction, then expands by a factor of 5 in the y-direction.
2
(b) Expands by a factor of 5 in the y-direction; then shears by a factor of 2 in the y-direction.
(c) Reflects about y = x; then rotates through an angle 180°.
11. In each part, find a single matrix that performs the indicated succession of operations.
(a) Reflects about the y-axis; then expands a factor of 5 in the x-direction; and then reflects about
y = x.
MATRICES 179
(b) Rotates through 30°, then shears by a factor of 2 in the y-direction and then expands by a factor
of 3 in the y-direction.
12. Express the matrix as a product of elementary matrices, and then describe the effect of multiplication
by the given matrix in term of compression, expansions, reflections, and shears.
LM 2 0 OP , LM 1 4OP ,
N0 3Q N2 Q
(a) (b)
9
LM 0 –2 OP , LM 1 –3 O
N4 0 Q N4 6 PQ
(c) (d) ,
numbers and the set M2 of all 2 × 2 matrices with their elements real numbers which preserve the
operation of addition and multiplication.
To obtain our goal we defined a function f : C → M2 by
LM α β OP
f(α + iβ) =
N –β Q
α , α, β real.
For α + iβ, γ + iδ∈C,
f(α + iβ) = f(γ + iδ)
LM α βOP LM γ δ OP
⇒
N –β αQ =
N –δ γ Q
⇒ α = γ, β=δ
⇒ α + iβ = r + iδ.
Therefore f is a one to one mapping.
LM α β OP
Moreover for each matrix
N –β α Q there exists a complex number (α + iβ) such that
LM α β OP
f(α + iβ) =
N –β α Q
Thus, f is a one to one correspondence between C and M2.
Again f(α + iβ) + (r + iδ) = f(α + γ) + i(β + δ)
LM a + γ β+δ OP
=
N –bβ + δg α+γ Q
LM α β OP LM γ δ OP
=
N –β α Q +
N –δ γ Q
= f(α + iβ) + f(γ + iδ)
and f(α + iβ) (r + iδ) = f(αγ – βδ + i(αδ + βγ)
LM αγ – βγ αδ + βγ OP
=
N –bαδ + βγ g αγ – βδ Q
LM α β OP LM γ δ OP
=
N –β α Q N – δ γ Q
= f(α + iβ) f(γ + iδ)
LM α −β OP
Moreover, b g
f α + iβ = f(α – iβ) =
Nβ α Q
f bα + iβg + bγ + iδg = c
f α+ γ +i β+δ b gh
= f(α + γ – i(β + δ))
LM α + γ – β+δb g OP
=
N β+δ α+γ Q
MATRICES 181
LM α −β OP + LM γ −δ OP
=
Nβ α Q Nδ γ Q
= f bα + iβg + f bγ + iδg
LM 1 0O
P L 0 1 OP .
,i=0+i= M
So particularly, 1 = 1 + i0 =
N0 1Q N –1 0 Q
Let P(x, y) be any point in plane R2
Let y
x = r cos θ, y = γ sin θ
Then
x2 + y2 = γ 2 P (x, y)
⇒ OP = γ
y g
tan θ =
x y = g sin q
FG y IJ
⇒ θ = tan–1 H xK q
O x = g cos q f (g, 0) x
y
i.e., ∠POX = θ = tan–1
x Fig. 6.19
Then x + iy = γ cos θ + iγ sin θ
LM γ cos θ γ sin θ OP
=
N – γ sin θ γ cos θ Q
LM cos θ sin θ OP LM γ 0 OP
N – sin θ QN0 Q
=
cos θ γ
182 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
This shows that a point Q(γ, 0) is rotated through an angle θ and the point Q(γ, 0) acquires the
new position P(x, y). This rotation through an angle θ is given by the matrix
LM cos θ sin θ OP
N – sin θ cos θ Q
=
De Moivre’s Theorem: This theorem is very useful in multiplying any number of complex
numbers, any integral power of a complex number or to find out any nth root of a complex number.
A complex number of magnitude 1 can be written as cos θ + i sin θ.
De Moivre’s theorem says that
(cos θ + sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
LM cos θ sin θ OP
Since, cos θ + i sin θ =
N – sin θ cos θ
,
Q
then (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
LM cos θ sin θ OP n
LM cos nθ sin nθ OP
N – sin θ cos θ Q =
N – sin nθ cos nθ Q ...(1)
q
O P (1, 0) x
Fig. 6.20
To prove (1) Let P(1, 0) be any point on OX. P1(x′, y′) is the new position of P after rotation
through an angle θ.
LM x′ OP LM cos θ sin θ OP LM 1 0 OP
N y′ Q =
N – sin θ cos θ QN0 1 Q
then [(x′, y′)] is rotated through an angle θ and acquires a new position (x2, y2) then
LM x OP
2 LM cos θ sin θ OP LM cos θ sin θ OP LM 1 0 OP
Ny Q
2
=
N – sin θ cos θ Q N – sin θ cos θ QN0 1 Q
LM cos θ sin θ O
2
N – sin θ cos θ PQ
=
MATRICES 183
(x2, y2) is again rotated through an angle θ and reaches new point (x3, y3). Then
LM x OP = LM cos θ sin θ OP LM x OP 2
N y Q N – sin θ cos θ Q N y Q
3
3 2
= M
L cos θ sin θ O L cos θ sin θOP 2
= M
L cos θ sin θ O
3
N – sin θ cos θ PQ
If the point P(1, 0) is rotated through an angle θ n times successively. Then P(1, 0) acquires
the final position Pn(xn, yn) where
LM x OP = L cos θ sin θ OP n
N y Q MN – sin θ
n
Q
...(1)
n cos θ
On the other hand if the P(1, 0) is rotated through an angle nθ, then P reaches the point
Pn(xn, yn)
LM x OP = LM cos nθ
n sin nθ OP LM 1 0 OP
N y Q N – sin nθ
n
cos nθ QN0 1 Q
= M
L cos nθ sin nθ O
N – sin nθ cos nθ PQ
...(2)
LM cosθ sin θ OP n
LM cos nθ sin nθ OP
N – sin θ cosθ Q
=
N – sin nθ cos nθ Q
Thus it proves the De Moivre’s Theorem.
❑❑❑
7 Rank and Equivalence
7.1 THE CONCEPT OF A RANK
In the present chapter the square submatrix of a matrix A which are defined to be either A or any
matrix remaining after certain lines are deleted from A, are of particular importance to us. For
example, the 3 × 4 matrix.
LM 1 2 –1 3 OP
A= M 2 4 –4 7 PP
MN –1 –2 –1 –2 Q
has 4 square submatrices of maximum order 3,
LM 1 2 –1 OP LM
1 2 3 OP
i.e., MM 2 4 –4
, PP MM
2 4 7
,PP
N –1 –2 –1 QN
–1 –2 –2 Q
LM 1 3 O L 2 3 O
7 PP MM 4 7 PP
–1 –1
MM 2 –4 –4
–2 PQ MN –2 –2 PQ
, ,
N –1 –1 –1
and it has many square submatrices of order 2 as
LM 1 2 OP
N2 4 . Q
Now we recall the definition of a minor of a given matrix that the determinant of a submatrix
of order r of a given matrix will be called a (determinant) minor of order r of the matrix.
Definition 7.1.1. The rank of a matrix A is the order say r, of its largest non-zero minor.
In this definition, all minors of this order r may be non-zero, only some may be non-zero, or
only the one may be non-zero. But every minor of order (r + 1) must be zero. Thus, A matrix is said
to be of rank r if and only if it has at least one (determinant) minor of order r which is not zero,
but it has every minor of order (r + 1) which is zero. A matrix is said to be of rank zero if and only
if all its elements are zero.
Thus the rank r of an m × n non-zero matrix A is a positive number which is less than and equal
to the minimum of m and n i.e., r ≤ min (m, n). By this the rank of a non-singular matrix A of order
n is always n. The rank of a matrix A may be denoted by ρ(A).
184
RANK AND EQUIVALENCE 185
LM 1 4 O LM 2 4 O
8 PP , 8 PP ,
3 3
A3 = MM 2 6 A = M4 6
N3 12 PQ MN 6 12 PQ
4
6 9
Now we compute the minors of A1, A2, A3 and A4.
1 2 3 1 2 3
A1 = 2 4 6 =2 1 2 3 = 0,
3 6 9 3 6 9
1 2 4 1 2 4
A2 2 4 8 =2 1 2 4 = 0.
=
3 6 12 3 9 12
Similarly, A3 = 0, and A4 = 0.
186 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LM 1 3 O
LM 1 a b 0OP
7 P , ρ(A) = 2 MM 01 PP
2
c d 1
(iii)
MMN 23 4
10 PQ
P (iv) , ρ(A) = 2
MN 0 PQ
a b 0
6
c d 1
LM 1 0 2O
LM 1 OP
1 3P
–1
MM 22 P , ρ(A) = 2
7 1
0
(v)
3 1P
(vi)
MMN 24 3
P
4 ,ρ(A) = 3
7 PQ
MN 3 4 2 PQ
4
5
5
LM 1 3 O
LM 2 OP , ρ(A) = 2.
6 P , ρ(A) = 1
2
–1 3 15
(vii)
MMN 24 4
8 12 PQ
P (viii)
N3 2 0 21 Q
2. Show that A, A, A* have the some rank.
The inverse of an elementary transformation is defined to be the operation which transforms the
transformed matrix by elementary transformation to the original matrix. That is, if we apply the
1
elementary transformation Rij to a matrix A, then Rji, is the inverse of Rij. Similarly, R is the
k i
inverse of kRi and Ri–kRj Ri is the inverse of Ri + kRj. Thus we have the inverse of an elementary
transformation is an elementary transformation of the same type.
LM 1 3 4 5 OP C –∼3C LM 1 2 1 0 0 4 OP
A = M 3 9 12 3 P C – 4C M 3 0 0 0 PP
MN 1 3 4 1 PQ C – C MN 1 3
4
1
1
0 0 0 Q
C
LM 1 4 0 0 OP 1 R LM 1 4 0 0 OP
∼ M
( 2 ,4 )
3 0 0 0P3 M 1 2 0 0 0 PP
NM 1 0 0 0 PQ MN 1
∼ 0 0 0 Q
R –R M
L 1 4 0 0 OP
∼ M
3 2
1 0 0 0P
MN 0 0 0 0 PQ
It is clear that all third order submatrices of this last matrix are singular.
But one minor of order 2
1 4
1 0 = 0 – 4 = –4 ≠ 0
Hence ρ(A) = 2.
Example 7.4.3. Determine the rank of the matrix
LM 1 2 3 1 OP
A = MM 2 4 6 2 PP
N1 2 3 2 Q
LM 1 1 O R – 2R L 1 OP
2 PP MM 0
2 3 2 1 2 3 1
Solution. We have A = MM 2 4 6 ∼ 0 0 0 PP
N1 2 3 2 PQ R – R MN 0
3 1 0 0 1 Q
LM1 1O
1PP
2 3
R(2, 3) =
MM0 0 0
N0 0 0 0PQ
It is clear that all third order submatrices of the last matrix are singular.
But we have a minor of order 2.
LM 3 1 OP
N0 1 Q = 3 – 0 = 3 ≠ 0.
Hence, ρ(A) = 2.
RANK AND EQUIVALENCE 191
PROBLEM 7.2
1. Find the rank of the following matrices:
LM 1 3 4 OP3 LM 8 1 3 6 OP
(a) A = M 3 9 12 9 P (b) A = MM 0 3 2 2 PP
MN –1 –3 –4 –3 PQ N –8 –1 –3 4 Q
LM 6 8 O LM 2 –1 O
–1 PP –4 PP
1 3 3 –1
(c) A = M MM 1
4 2 6 –1 –2
MM 10 7 P
P
(d) A =
–2 P
N 16
3
4 12
9
15 Q
MN 63 1
3 0
3
–7 Q
P
LM 3 –2 0 –1 –7 OP LM 4 −2 OP
(e) A = M PP
3 0
0 2 2 1 −5
MM 1 (f) A = MM 3 4 −1 −3 P
PQ 5 PQ
−2 −3 −2
N −7
1
−7
N0
1
1 2 1 −6
LM 1 1 1 −1 OP
(g) A = M 1 2 3 4 PP
MN 3 4 5 2 Q
2. Given that A has rank r, prove that not all submatrices of any orders less than r can be singular.
3. Under what conditions, if any, will the rank of the matrix
LM 1 0 0 OP
MM 0 h−2 2 PP
A= 0
MN 0 h −1
0
h+2
0
PQ
be less than 3, and what will that rank be ?
4. If the m × n matrices A and B are of rank rA and rB respecitvely, show that the rank of A + B can not
exceed rA + rB.
5. Show that the rank of a matrix whose elements are 1’s is 1.
6. Show that the rank of a Skew-symmetric matrix cannot be 1.
LM 0 a OP
Hint. Let A =
N −a 0 , Q A = a2, ρ(A) = 2
∴ ρ(A) > 1
MN 0 PQ , [I : 0], r
MN 0 : 0PQ or Ir
192 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
where r is its rank and Ir is an identity matrix of order r. The above given four forms are called as
Normal form or Canonical form of the given matrix A.
We get the normal form of the matrix A by subjecting to A the elementary transformations in
the following manner:
(1) We first use the elementary transformation of the type (a), if necessary, to obtain a non-
zero element (preferable a 1) in the first row and the first column of the given matrix.
(2) We divide the first row by this element, if it is not 1.
(3) We substract appropriate multiples of the first row from other rows so as to obtain zeros
in the remainder of the first column.
(4) We substract appropriate multiples of the first column from the other columns so as to
obtain zeros in the remainder of the first row.
(5) We repeat steps (1) to (4) starting with element in the second row and the second column.
(6) We continue thus down the “main diagonal”, either until the end of the diagonal is reached
or until all the remaining elements in the matrix are zero.
The final matrix then has one of the forms.
LM I.. OP
r LM I.. ..: 0..OP
r
MN 0 PQ , [I : 0],r
MN 0 : 0PQ or Ir
We know that elementary transformation do not alter the rank or order of the matrix. Therefore
the rank of the normal form will be the same as the rank of a given matrix A.
Example 7.5.1. Reduce the following matrices to their normal forms and find their ranks.
LM 8 1 3 6 OP LM 1 4 3 2 OP
(1) MM 0 3 2 2 PP (2) MM 1 2 3 4 PP
N –8 1 –3 4 Q N2 6 7 5 Q
LM –2 –1 –3 –1 OP LM 2 3 −1 −1 OP
MM 1 2 3 −1 P MM 13 −1 −2 −4 PP
1 P
(3) (4)
MN 10 0 1
P MN 6 1 3 −2
PQ
1 1 −1 Q 3 0 −7
Solution.
(1) We have
LM 8 1 3 6 OP R + R LM 8 1 3 6 OP 1
A= MM 0 3 2 2 PP ∼ MM 0 3 2 2 PP ~ 8 C
3 1
1
N −8 −1 −3 4 Q N 0 0 0 10 Q
LM 1 1 3 6 OP C − C LM 1 0 0 0 OP 1
2 1
= MM 0 3 2 2 PP C −∼3C MM 0 3 2 2 PP ∼ 3 C
3 1 2
N 0 0 0 10 Q N 0 0 0 10 Q
C4 − 6C1
RANK AND EQUIVALENCE 193
LM 1 0 0 0 C3 − 2C2 1 0 0 0 OP LM OP b g
MM 0 PP MM PP
C 3,4
= 1 2 2 ∼ 0 1 0 0
∼
N0 0 0 10 C4 − 2C2 0 0 0 10 Q N Q
LM 1 0O
P L1 M 0O
C M P
0 0 0 0
1
MM 0 1 0 0 P 10 M 0 3 1 0 M 0 P = [I ®0]
0 PQ
~ M
M 0 PQ
= 3
N0 0 10 N0 0 1
Hence ρ(A) = 3.
(2) We have
LM 1 4 3 OP
2 R2 – R1 1 LM 4 3 2 OP
A= MM 1 2 3 4 ∼ PP 0 MM –2 0 2 PP
N2 6 7 Q
5 R3 − 2 R1 0 N –2 1 1 Q
C2 – 4C1
∼
1 LM 0 0 0OP1
− C2
1 LM 0 0 0 OP
C − C3
C3 − 3C1
0 MM −2 0 2 PP
2 0 MM 1 0 2 2
∼ PP
C4 − 2C1
0 N −2 1 1 Q
~ 0 N 1 1 1 Q
LM 1 0 0 0 OP
C4 − 2C2
1 LM 0 0 0OP
C4 − C3
1 LM 0 0 M OP
0
MM 0 1 0 2 PP 0 MM 1 0 0 PP 0 MM 1 0 M 0PP
N0 Q N Q N Q
~ ~
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 M 0
A= MM 1 2 3 PP b g MM 1 2 3 −1 PP ∼
−1 R 1,3 2 1
MN 10 0
1
1
1
1
PQ MN −02 −11 −13 −−11 PQ R + 2 R
−1
~
3 1
LM 1 0 1 1 O
P C −C M
L 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 00 2 2 −2 P
1 P
C −C M
3
0 2 1
2 −2 P
M 0 −1 −1 1 PP
MN 0 −1 −1
P ∼ M
4 1
1 1 −1 Q N 0 1 1 −1 Q
1 LM 0 0 0 O
P R +R M
L 1 0 0 0 OP
1
R2 0 MM 1 1 −1 P
P ∼ M
M
0 1 1 −1 P
3 2
2 0 P
~ 0
0
MN −1
1
−1
1
1
P
−1 Q
R −R M
N 0 0 0 0 PQ
0 0 0
4 2
194 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LM 1 0 M 0 0 OP
~
MM 0 1 M 0 0 P LM I M 0 OP
L P
2
C4 + C2
MM L0 L L L
P = MM L L L PP
C3 − C2
MN 0
0 M 0 0 P N0 M 0 Q
0 M 0 0 PQ
Hence ρ(A) = 2.
(4) We have
LM 2 3 −1 −1 OP LM 1 −1 −2 −4 OP
1 −1 −2 −4 P Rb1, 2g M 2
A= M
3 −1 −1 P
MM 3 1 3 −2 PP ∼ MM 3 1 3 −2 PP
N 6 3 0 −7 Q N 6 3 0 −7 Q
R − 2 R L 1 −1 −2 −4 O C + C L 1 0 0 O
M P M 7 PP
2 1 2 0 1
R − 3R M 0 5 3 7 P ∼ M 0 5 3
MM 0 4 9 10 PP C + 2C MM 0 4 9 10 PP
3 1
∼ 3 1
4 R − 6R N 0
1 9 12 17 Q C + 4C N 0 9 12 17 Q
4 1
LM 1 0 0 0 OP R − 4 R LM 1 0 0 0 OP
R − R M 0 1 −6 −3 P 3
M 0 1 −6 −3 P
2
∼ M0 4
MN 0 9 129 1710 PPQ R − 9 R MMN 00 00 6633 2244 PPQ
2 3
∼
4 2
C + 6C M
L 1 0 0 0 OP 1 C LM 1 0 0 0 OP
C + 3C M
0 P 33 M 0 1 0 0 P R − 2 R
3 2 3
0 1 0
MM 0 0 33 22 PP 1 ∼ MM 0 0 1 1 PP ∼
4 3
4 2
∼
MN 0 0 66 44 PQ 22 C MN 0 0 2 2 PQ
4
LM 1 0 0 0 OP C − C LM 10 01 00 MM 00 OP
MM 0 1 0 0 PP ∼ MM 0 0 1 M 0 PP LM LI OP
4 3
3 M 0
MN 00 00 10 10 PQ MM L L L L PP = M L L PP
MN 0 0 0 M 0 PQ MN 0 M 0 Q
Hence ρ(A) = 3.
RANK AND EQUIVALENCE 195
PROBLEM 7.3
1. Reduce the following matrices to their normal forms and hence obtain their ranks.
LM 6 1 3 8 OP LM 3 −1 −1 3 OP
(i) MM 16 4 12 15 PP (ii) MM −1 −4 −2 −7 PP
MN 45 3
2
3
6
4
−1 Q
P MN −21 −11 33 00 PQ
ρ(A) = 3. ρ(A) = 4.
LM 1 1 2 3 OP LM 6 1 3 8 OP
(iii) MM 1 3 0 3 PP (iv) MM 4 2 6 −1 PP
MN 111
−2 −3
2
−3
3Q
P MN 10 3 9 7
16 4 12 15 Q
P
ρ(A) = 3. ρ(A) = 2.
LM 0 1 2 3 4 OP
LM 1 1 1 −1 OP MM 1 1 2 3 3 PP
(v) MM 1 2 3 4P (vi)
MM 23 23 20 21 21 PP
N3 2 PQ
MN 4 3 2 1 0 PQ
4 5
ρ(A) = 2. ρ(A) = 4.
LM 2 3 −1 −1 OP LM 3 −3 0 −1 −7 OP
MM 31 −1 −2 −4
P MM 0 2 2 1 −5 PP
−2 P
(vii) (viii)
MN 6
1
3
3
0 −7 PQ
MN 01 −2
1
−3
2
−2
1
1
−6
PQ
ρ(A) = 3. ρ(A) = 4.
LM 1 2 −1 3 OP LM 4 3 0 −2 OP
(ix) MM −2 −4 4 −7 P (x)
MM −73 4 −1 −3
PP
N 1 2 1 2 PQ N −7 1 5 Q
ρ(A) = 2. ρ(A) = 2.
LM 6 1 3 8 OP LM 1 1 2 3OP
(xi) MM 16 4 12 15 PP (xii) MM 1 3 0 3 PP
MN 45 3
2
3
6
4
−1 Q
P MN 11 −2
1
−3
2
−3
3Q
P
ρ(A) = 3. ρ(A) = 3.
2. Give an example to show that the normal form of a product of two matrices is not necessarily the
product of their normal form.
3. Give an example to show that the rank of a product of matrices may be less than the rank of any other
factor.
4. Show that it is possible, by using only row operations, to reduce a matrix A to an equivalent matrix
[aij] such that aij = 0 if i > j. If A has rank r, then no more than r of the elements aij, may differ from
zero.
5. Prove that not every matrix A can be reduced to a normal form by row transformation only.
Hint. Exhibit a matrix which cannot be reduced to a normal form.
196 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Na Q
21
Na Q
1 0
1Q
31 a32 a33 a34 31 a33 a32 a34
0 0
From this, it is obvious that a 1 on the diagonal leaves the corresponding (row, column)
unaltered, but an off-diagonal 1 selects the elements of the (row, column) corresponding to the
(column, row) in which that 1 situated.
Next suppose we wish to multiply a row or a column by a constant k:
LM 1 0 0 OP LM a 11 a12 a13 OP LM a 11 a12 a13 OP
MM 0 k 0 PP MM a 21 a 22 a 23 PP = MM ka 21 ka22 ka23 PP
N0 0 1 QNa 31 a 32 a 33 Q Na 31 a32 a33 Q
LM a OP LM 0O LM a OP
0 PP
11 a12 a13 1 0 11 a12 ka13
MM a a22 a23 . 0 PP MM 1 MM a a22 ka23 PP
k PQ
and 21 = 21
b PQ M 0
a2 a3 1 0 1
0P Nb Q
and 1 4 =
Nb b2 + kb3
. b3 b4
MN 0 P
b2 b3 k 1 1
1 4
0 0 1Q
RANK AND EQUIVALENCE 197
Here an off-diagonal k in the ij-position of the pre- or post multiplier adds to the ith row
(jth column) of the multiplied k times its jth row (ith column).
From above discussion we conclude that any elementary row transformation on a given matrix
can be accomplished by pre-multiplying it by a suitable elementary matrix and any column
transformation can be accomplished by post multiplying it by suitable elementary matrix.
THEOREM 7.6.2. If A and B are equivalent matrices then there exists non-singular matrices
C and D such that B = CAD.
Proof. Since A and B are equivalent matrices, then B is obtained from A by applying to A a
sequence of elementary row and column transformations. But elementary row transformation can be
accomplished by pre-multiplying A by elementary matrices of appropriate order and elementary
column transformation can be accomplished by post-multiplying A by elementary matrices of
appropriate order.
Hence, C1.C2..CrAD1D2...Ds = B
∴ CAD = B.
where C = C1.C2...Cr,
and D = D1.D2...Ds.
Since elementary matrices are non-singular, C and D are non-singular.
COROLLARY 1. Every non-singular matrices can be expressed as a product of elementary
matrices.
Proof. Let A be a non-singular matrix of order n and In be the identify matrix of order n. Since
A and In are equivalent, we have
A = C1.C2...CrInD1D2...Ds
= C1C2...D1D2...Ds.
COROLLARY 2. If A is m × n matrix of rank r, then there exists two non-singular matrices
C and D of order m and n respectively such that
LM I
r M 0 OP
CAD = MM L M L .PP
N0 M 0 Q
Proof. By a sequence of elementary row and column transformations A can be reduced to the
LM Ir M 0 OP
normal form M L M L PP
MN 0 M 0 Q LM I r M 0 OP
So we can say the matrices A and M L M L PP are equivalent.
MN 0 M 0 Q
But elementary row and column transformations can be effected by pre-and post-multiplying A
by elementary matrices.
So we have
LM I
r M 0 OP
C1C2...CpAD1D2...Dq = MM L M L PP
N0 M 0 Q
198 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LM I r M 0 OP
CAD = MM L M L PP
N0 M 0 Q
where C = C1C2...Cp,
D = D1D2...Dq,
and each Ci and Dj are elementary matrices. Since elementary matrices are non-singular, C and D are
non-singular.
Example 7.6.1. For the following matrices, find non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ
is in the normal form:
LM 1 1 2 OP LM 1 −1 2 −1 OP
(i)
MM 1 2 3 PP (ii)
MM 4 2 −1 2 PP
N0 −1 −1 Q N2 2 −2 0 Q
LM 1 OP LM 3 −1 1O
1 PP
2 3 2
MM 3 2 1 P MM 1 4 6
2P 1P
(iii) (iv)
MN 21 3
1 3Q
P MN 77 −11
2
−6
12 3Q
P
Solution. We write A = IAI, i.e.,
LM 1 1 2 OP LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP
A= M1 PP = MMN 00 PP A M PP
1 0 0 1 0
MN 0
2
−1
3
−1 Q 0 1 Q MN 0 0 1 Q
Now we reduce the matrix A on the left hand side to the normal form by applying elementary
transformations. In reducing the matrix A on the left hand side to the normal form. If we apply any
elementary row (column) transformation, the same elementary row (column) of transformation will
be applied to the prefactor (post-factor) of A on the right hand side.
Applying C2 – C1, C3 – 2C1
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 −1 −2 OP
MM 0 PP A M0 PP
MM 1 1 1 PP = 1 0
MN 0
1 0
Q
N0 −1 −1 Q N0 0 1 Q 0 1
Applying R2 – R1
LM 10 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 −1 −2 OP
MM −1 PP A M0 PP
MM 0
1 1 PP = 1 0
MN 0
1 0
Q
N0
−1 −1 Q N 0 0 1 Q 0 1
Applying C3 – C2
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 −1 −1 OP
MM 0 1 0 PP = MM −1 1 0 PP A MMN 00 1 −1 PP
Q
N0 −1 0 Q N0 0 1 Q 0 1
RANK AND EQUIVALENCE 199
Applying R3 + R2
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 −1 −1 OP
MM 0 1 0 PP = M −1
MN −1
1 0 PP A MMN 00 1 −1 PP
Q
N0 0 0 Q 1 1 Q 0 1
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 −1 −1 OP
Where P = M −1
MN −1
1 0 PP and Q = MM 00 1 −1 PP
1 1 Q N 0 1 Q
(2) We write A = I3 AI4
LM 1 OP LM 1 OP
LM 1 0 0 0OP
−1 2 −1 0 0
MM 0 1 0 0 P
A= M
4 2 −1 2 PP =M
0 1 0 PP 0P
MN 2 2 −2 0 Q MN 0 0 1 Q
A 0
MN 0 0
0
1
0 1Q
P
Applying C2 + C1, C3 – 2C1, C4 + C1
LM 1 OP LM 1 OP LM 1 1 −2 1 OP
M0 PP
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0
MM 4 6 −9 6 PP = MM 0 1 0 P A M0
N2 2Q N0 1 PQ MN 0 PQ
0 1 0
4 −6 0
0 0 1
Applying R2 – 4R1, R3 – 2R1
LM 1 OP LM 1 OP LM 01 1 −2 1OP
PP A MM 0 P
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0
MM 0 6 −9 6 = PP MM −4 1 0
0P
N0 Q N −2 Q MN 0 P
0 1
1Q
4 −6 2 0 1
0 0
1
Applying R
6 2
LM 1 0 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 1 −2 1 OP
MM 0 1 −
3
1 PP = MM − 23 1
0 PP M0
A M0
1 0 0 PP
MN 0
2
4 −6 2 PQ MN −2
6
0 1 PQ MN 0 0
0
1
0
0
1
PQ
3
Applying C3 + C , C – C2,
2 2 4
LM 1 1 −1 OP
LM 1 0O LM 1 0 0 OP MM 0 2
0
PP
0 PP = M − 2
0 0
MM 0 1 0
MM 3
1
0 PP MM 0
1 3 −1
PP
−2 PQ
A 2
N0 4 0
N −2
6
0 1 PQ MMN 0 0 1 0
P
0 0 1 PQ
200 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Applying R3 – 4R2
LM 1 1 OP
LM 1 0O
LM 1 0 0OP MM
1 −
2
0
P
−1 P
0 PP = MM − 3 0P
0 0 3
A M PP
2 1 0 1
MM 0 1 0
MM 2 PP MM 0 2
−2 PQ
6
N0 0 0
1P
0P
MM PP
−2 0 1
N 3 3 Q
N0 0 0 1Q
1
Applying – R,C
2 3 (3, 4)
LM 1 1OP
LM 1 0 0O
PP MM 0
1 0 −
PP
LM 1 0O
2
0 0 M
M 2
0 PP = M −
1
0P A M
1 −1
3
PP
MM 0 1 0 M
MM 31 MM 0 2
N0 0 PQ 1P 1P
6
− P
0 1 M
MM PP
1 0 0
N −3 3 2 Q
N0 0 1 0Q
This is the required normal form, where
LM 1 OP
LM 1 OP
1
1 0 −
0 0
MM 2
PP
M 2
P= M −3
1 P
0 P, Q = M 0 1 −1
3
PP
MM 1 6
1P
MM 0 2
1P
N −3
1
3
−
2 Q
P MM
0 0
PP
N0 0 1 0Q
LM 1 2 3 OP LM 1 0 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP
MM 3 2 1 PP = MM 0 1 0 0 PP A M0 1 0 PP
MN 21 3
1
2
3
PQ MN 00 0
0
1
0
0
1
PQ MN 0 0 1 Q
Applying R2 – 3R1, R3 – R1, R4 – 2R1
LM 1 2 3 OP LM 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 0 −4 −8 PP MM −3 1 0 0 PP LM 01 0 0 OP
MN 00 −1
PQ = MN −−21 PQ A MMN 0 PP
1 0 1 0 1 0
−3 −3 0 0 1 0 1 Q
RANK AND EQUIVALENCE 201
MN 00 1
−3 −3 Q
P N −2
0
0
0
0 1Q
P MN 0 0 1 Q
1
Applying – R
4 2
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 3 LM 1 OP
MM 0 2 PP 0 PP
−2 −3
1
PP A MM 0 P
1 0
MM PP = MM 4 4
1 0P
MM 0 1 −1
PP MM −1 0 1 0
PP MMN 0 1 1 PQ
P
MN 0 −3 −3 PQ MN −2 0 0 0 PQ
Applying R3 – R2, R4 + 3R2
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 0 2 PP
MM 3 0P
P L1 −1 −3 OP
PP A MM 0
1 0
1
MM PP = MM 47 4
1 0 PP
MM 0 0 −3
PP MM – 4 –1
4
1 0
PP MN 0 1 1 Q
MN 0 0 3 PQ MN 41 3
4
0 1P
Q
Applying C3 – 2C2
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 0 0 PP
MM 3 1 0P
P L1 OP
PP A MM 0
0 –2 1
PP = MM – 47
1
MM 4
1 −2 PP
MM 0 0 −3
PP MM 41
–1
4
1 0
PP MN 0 1 −1 Q
MN 0 0 3 PQ MN 4 3
4
0 1P
Q
1
Applying – R
3 3
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 0 0 PP MM 3 0P
P L1 OP
PP A MM 0
1 1 0 –2 1
MM PP = MM 74 4
1 −2 PP
PP MN 0 Q
1 −1
MM 0 0 1
PP MM 12 12 3
0 1 −1
MN 0 0 3 PQ MN 14 3
4
0 1P
Q
202 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Applying R4 – 3R3
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 0 0 PP
MM 3 0P
P L1 OP
PP A MM 0
1 0 –2 1
1
MM PP = MM 74 4
1 −2 PP
PP MN 0 Q
1 −1
MM 0 0 1
PP MM 12 12 3
0 1 −1
MN 0 0 0 PQ MN – 46 2
4
1 1P
Q
This is the required normal form, where
LM 1 0 0 0 OP
MM 3 1 0 0P
P LM 1 –2 1 OP
P= M PP , Q = M 0 PP
4 4
−2
MM 12
1
7 1 −1 0
PP MN 0 1 −1 Q
MM – 6
12 3
1P
N 4 Q
2 1
4
(4) We write A = I4 AI4.
LM 3 −1 OP L 1 OP L 1 OP
PP = MM 0
2 1 0 0 0
PP A MM 0
0 0 0
MM 1 4 6 1 1 0 0
P
MM 0
1 0 0
P MM 00 0P
A=
MN 77 −11 −6 1
3Q
P N0
0 1 0
1Q
0 1
P
2 12 0 0
N 0 0 1Q
Applying R (1, 2)
LM 1 4 6 1 OP LM 0 1 0 0OP LM 1 0 0 0OP
MM 3 −1 2 1 PP = MM 1 0 0 0 P M0 1 0 0 P
0P A M0 0P
MN 77 −11
2
−6
12
1
3Q
P M
N0
0 0
0
1
0 1Q
P MN 0 0
0
1
0 1Q
P
Applying R2 – 3R1, R3 – 7R1, R4 – 7R1
LM 1 OP LM 0 OP L 1 OP
PP A MM 0
4 6 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
MM 0 −13 −16 −2 PP MM 1 −3 0 0 1 0 0 PP
PQ MM 00
=
MN 00 −39 −48 −6
PQ MN 00 −7 1 0 0 1 0
PQ
−26 −30 −4 −7 0 1 N 0 0 1
Applying C2 – 4C1, C3 – 6C1, C4 – C1
LM 1 OP L 0 OP L 1 − 4 − 6 −1 OP
PP = MM 1 PP A MM 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
MM 0 −13 −16 −2 −3 0 0 1 0 0 PP
MN 00 −39 −48 −6
−26 −30 −4
PQ MMN 00 −7
−7
1
0
0
1
PQ MMN 00 0
0
1 0
0 1
PQ
RANK AND EQUIVALENCE 203
1
Applying – C
13 2
LM 1 0 0 0 OP L 0
MM
1 0 0 OP LM 1 + 4 −6 −1 OP
MM 0 −2 P P 0 PP
MM 0 13
0P
P
PP = MM
1 −16 −3 0 1
PP A MM PP
1
MM –
13
0
MM 0 3 −48 −6
PP MM 0 −7 1 0
PP MM 0 0 1 0P
P
MN 0 −4 PQ
MM 0 1 PQ MN 0 1 PQ
2 −30 N −7 0 0 0
Applying C4 + 2C2, C3 + 16C2
LM 1 0 0 0 OP LM 0 1 0 0 OP LM 1 4 − 14 − 5 OP
MM 0 0 PP MM 1 0 PP
MM 13
1
13 13
PP
−3 0 – 16 – 2
M PP
1 0
MM P=M P M
0 –
13 13 13
0P M0 0P
A
MM 0 3 0
PP MM −7 1
PP MM 0 0 1 0P
PP
MN 0 2 2 0 PQ MN 0 −7 0 1 PQ MN 0 0 0 1Q
Applying R3 – 3R2, R4 – 2R2
LM 1 0 0 0 OP LM 0 1 0 0 OP LM 1 4 − 14 − 5 OP
MM 0 0 PP MM 1 −3 0 0 PP
MM 0 13
– 1
13
– 16
13
– 2
PP
A M PP
1 0
MM P = MM P MM 0
13 13 13
0P 0P 0P
MM 0 0 0
PP MM −3 2 1
PP MM
0 1
P
MN 0 0 2 0 PQ MN −2 −1 0 1 PQ
N0 0 0 1 PQ
1
Applying R, R
2 4 (3, 4)
LM 1 0 0 0 OP LM 0 1 0 0 OP LM 1 4 − 14 − 5 OP
MM 0 MM 0 13 13 13
PP
0 PP MM 1 0 PP – 1 – 16 – 2
A M PP
1 0 −3 0
MM P = MM 1 PP MM 0
13 13 13
0P 0P
1
MM 0 0 1
PP MM −1 −
2
0
2P
P MMN 0
0 1
P
MN 0 0 0 0 PQ MN −3 2 1 0 PQ 0 0 1 PQ
This is the required form, where
LM 0 1 0 0 OP LM 1 4 − 14 − 5 OP
MM 1 −3 0 0 PP
MM 0 13
– 1
13
– 16
13
– 2
PP
P= M , Q= M PP
1 PP
13 13 13
MM −1 1 MM 0 0P
2 P
− 0 0 1
MM −3 2
P MM P
N 2 1 0 PQ N0 0 0 1 PQ
204 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PROBLEM 7.4
1. Find non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ is in the normal form for the following matrices,
A.
LM 1 1 1 OP LM 3 2 −1 5 OP
(a) M 1 −1 1P , (b) MM 5 1 4 −2 P ,
MN 3 1 1 PQ N1 −4 11 −19 PQ
LM 1 OP LM 0 1 2 3O
3 2 1 PP
0
MM 0
2 1 2
0
(c) M 2 PP 0 5 6P
1 2 1 , (d) ,
MN 1 5 4 3 Q MN 21 0
0 4 2 8Q
P
LM 1 2 −2 3 OP LM 2 1O
(e) M
2 5 −4 6 PP MM 1
2 2 5
1 3 −1 P ,
P
MM −1 −3 −2
,
PQ
(f ) 1
4 PQ
N2 4
2
−1 6
N3 5 4 2
LM I r M 0 OP
PAQ.Q2...Qp =
MM L M L PP ..(2)
N0 M 0 Q
Again multiplying (2) by Qp–1, Qp–1–1...Q1–1 on the right we get
LM I M 0 OP
PA =
MM L M L PP Q p
–1
, Qp–1–1...Q1–1
N0 M 0 Q
RANK AND EQUIVALENCE 205
LM I r M 0 OP
PAQ =
MM
N= L M L PP
N0 M 0 Q
then A = P–1 NQ–1
⇒ AB = P–1NQ–1 B
⇒ P–1 NQ–1 B = 0 since AB = 0
⇒ P P–1 NQ–1 B = P. 0
⇒ NQ–1 B = 0.
Since A is m × p, Q is of order p and Q–1 B is of order p × n, NQ–1 B = 0 implies that the first
r-rows of Q–1 B must be zeroes while the remaining p–r rows may be arbitrary. Thus the rank of
Q–1 B and, hence, the rank of B can not exceed p–r. This proves the theorem.
Example 7.6.2. If A is of order n and rank n–1, then prove that adj A is of rank 1.
Proof. Since A is of rank n –1, there is at least one non-zero cofactor, and
A = 0.
PROBLEM 7.5
1. Let S be symmetric and non-singular matrix. Prove that there exists a non-singular matrix C such that
S–1 = C1C
[ Hint. There exist non-singular matrices C and D such that
CSD = I. ]
2. Prove that if A is non-singular, it can be reduced to normal form by row transformation only and also
by column transformation’s only.
3. Show that A*, A* A, and AA* all have the same rank.
4. Show that if A is a real m × n matrix (m n) which has rank m, then the rank of AA′ is m, so that
AA′ is in fact a non-singular matrix, symmetric matrix of order m. If A has rank <m, AA′ is singular.
5. If A is of order m × n and if B is a non-singular matrix of order n, then the product P = AB has the
same rank as A.
[Hint P = AB
ρ(P) = ρ(AB) ρ(A) ...(1)
Since B is non-singular
P = AB ⇒ PB–1 = A.
ρ(A) = ρ(PB–1) ρ(P) ...(2)
Hence from (1) and (2)
We have ρ(A) = ρ(P) ]
LM 1 −2 OP LM 2 OP LM 0 1 2 2OP
(1) MM −1
2
3 0 , PP (2) MM 0
4
1
3
1 PP , (3) MM 1 1 2 3 PP
N 0 −2 1 Q N2 2 1 Q MN 23 2
3
2
3
3
3Q
P
Solution. (1) We have A = I3A
LM 1 2 −2 OP LM 1 0 0 OP
A = MM −1 3 0 PP = MM 0 1 0 PP A
N 0 −2 1 Q N0 0 1 Q
Applying R2 + R1
LM 1 2 −2 OP LM 1 0 0 OP
MM 0 5 −2 PP = M1 1 1 PP
NM 0
A
N0 −2 1 Q 0 1 Q
Applying R1 + R3
LM 1 0 −1 OP LM 1 0 1 OP
MM 0 5 −2 PP = M1 1 0 PP A
N0 −2 1 Q MN 0 0 1 Q
Applying R2 + 2R3
LM 1 0 −1 OP LM 1 0 1 OP
MM 0 1 0 PP = M1 1 2 PP
MN 0
A
N0 −2 1 Q 0 1 Q
Applying R3 + 2R2
LM 1 0 −1 OP LM 1 0 1 OP
MM 0 1 0 PP = M1 1 2 PP
NM 2
A
N0 0 1 Q 2 5 Q
Applying R1 + R3
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 3 2 6 OP
MM 0 1 0 PP = M1 1 2 PP
MN 2
A
N0 0 1 Q 2 5 Q
RANK AND EQUIVALENCE 209
LM 3 2 6 OP
Hence, A –1
= MM 1 1 2 PP
N2 2 5 Q
(2) We have A = I3A
LM 2 4 3 OP LM 1 0 0 OP
A = MM 0 1 1 PP = M0
MN 0
1 0 PP A
N2 2 −1 Q 0 1 Q
Applying R3 – R1
LM 2 4 OP
3 LM 1 0 0 OP
MM 0 1 1P = M 0 1 0 P
− 4 PQ MN−1 1 PQ
A
N0 −2 0
LM 2 0 0 OP LM 3 −5 –1 OP
= M 0 PP A
2 2
MM 0 1 −1 PP MM 1 0
N0 0 −2 Q N −1 2 1Q
P
1 1
Applying R, – R
2 1 2 3
LM 3 5 OP
1
LM 1 OP
– –
0 0 M
= M 0
4 2
0P
P
4
MM 0 1 1 PP MM 1
1
P A
N0 0 1 Q –1 P
NM 2 −1
2 QP
Applying R2 – R3
LM 3 –5 –1 OP
LM 1 0 0 OP MM – 41 2 4
PP
MM 0 1 0 PP =
MM 2 2 1
PP A.
N0 Q
2
0 1
MN 12 −1 –1
2 PQ
210 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LM 3 –5 –1 OP
MM – 41 2 4
1
PP
Hence A–1 =
MM 2 2
2 PP
MN 12 −1 –
1
2 PQ
(3) We have A = I4 A
LM 0 1 2 2OP L 1 OP
MM 0
0 0 0
MM 1 1 2 3P 1 0 0P
A = 3P = M0 1P
A
MN 23 2 2
3Q
P M0 0 1
P
3 3 N 0 0 1Q
Applying R (1, 2)
LM 1 1 2 3 OP LM 0 1 0 0OP
MM 0 1 2 2 PP = MM 01 0 1 0
0P
P A
MN 23 2
3
2
3
3
3Q
P MN 0 0
0
1
0 1Q
P
Applying R3 – 2R1, R4 – 3R1
LM 1 1 2 OP
3 LM 0 1 0 0OP
MM 0 1 2 2P = M
1 0 0 0 PA
−3 P MM 0 0P
MN 00 0 −2
−6 Q
P −2 1
P
0 −3 N0 −3 0 1Q
Applying R1 – R2, R4 – 2R3
LM 1 0 0 1OP LM − 1 1 0 0 OP
MM 0 1 2 2 P MM 1 0 0 0 P
−3 P 0 P
= A
MN 00 0
0
−2
1 0Q
P MN 00 −2
1
1
−2 1Q
P
Applying R2 – 2R4, R3 + 2R4
LM 1 0 0 1 OP L −1 OP
PP = MM 1
1 0 0
MM 0 1 0 2 −2 4 −2 PP
PQ MM 00
A
MN 00 0 0 −3 0 −3 2
PQ
0 1 0 N 1 −2 1
1
Applying – R
3 3
LM 1 0 0 1 OP LM −1 1 0 OP0
MM 0 PP M 1 −2 P
= M P A.
1 0 2 −2 4
MN 00 0 0 1
PQ MM 0 0 1 –2 P
3P
0 1 0
MN 0 1 −2 1 PQ
RANK AND EQUIVALENCE 211
Applying R1 – R, R2 – 2R3
LM −1 1 −1 2 OP
LM 1 0 0 0O MM 1 3
PP
1 0 0 PP
2
MM 0 = M
−2 2 –
PP A
0 0 1P
3
MN 00 P MM 0 –2 PP
0 1 0Q
0 0
MM 3
N 0 1 −2 1 PQ
Applying R(3, 4)
LM −1 2 O
3P
1 −1
LM 1 0 0 0O
P MM P
– P
2
MM 0 1 0 0P
M 1 −2 3
3P
0 1 0P MM 0 PA
=
MN 00 0 0 1Q
P 1 −2 1P
MM P
– P
N 0 3Q
0 0 2
LM −1 2 O
3P
1 −1
MM P
3 –2 P
Hence A–1 = MM 1 −2
3P
P
MM 0 1 −2 1P
P
MN 0 0 0 –2 P
3Q
PROBLEM 7.6
Compute the inverse of the following matrices:
LM 1 −3 OP LM −1 0 −2 2 OP
2. A = M
1P
2
−2 1 0
A = M2 PP
1.
MN 1
0 0
MM 1 −1 P
P
Q
0 2
4 1
N −4 1 −3 1Q
LM −1 −3 3 −1 OP LM 1 OP
A= M PP
2 1
1 1 −1 0
4. A = M 2 P
3.
MM 2 −5 2 −3
P MN 0
−1 1
2 PQ
N −1 1Q
1
1 0
212 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PROBLEM 7.7
Objective Type Questions:
1. Choose the correct answer:
LM 1 x x2 OP
A= MM 1 y y2 PP , where x ≠ y ≠ z.
MN 1 z z2 PQ
ρ(A) is (a) 1, (b) (2), (c) 3, (d) 4
2. Choose the correct answer:
If A is a square matrix of order 4 with rank 2 and B is a square matrix of order 4 whose rank is 4.
Then the rank of AB is
(a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 3, (d) 4 (e) 6.
3. Choose the correct answer:
If A is a non-singular matrix of order 3 and B is a non-zero singular matrix of order 3 in which every
minor of order 2 is zero, then the rank of AB is
(a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 3, (d) 4, (e) 6.
4. Choose the correct answer:
If A is a row matrix of order 1 × n and B is a column matrix of order n × 1, then the rank of
AB is
(a) 1, (b) n, (c) n –1, (d) n2.
5. Choose the correct answer:
LM 1 3 3 OP LM 5 0 0 OP
If A = M1 4 3P , B = M0 2 0P
MN 1 3 4 PQ MN 0 0 3 PQ
LM 1 0 0O
P LM 1 0 0 OP
C = M0 0 1 P , and D = M 0 1 0 P
NM 0 1 0 QP MN 0 0 −3 QP
then the rank of ABCD is
(a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 3, (d) 4.
6. Mark each of the following true or false
(a) ρ(A) = ρ(A′)
(b) ρ(A) = ρ(–A)
(c) ρ(A) = ρ( A ) = ρ(A*)
(d) ρ(AB) ρ(B)
(e) ρ(AB) ρ(A)
(f) ρ(A) + ρ(B) ¦ ρ(A + B)
(g) ρ(A + B) = ρ(A) + ρ(B) –3 if A and B are square matrix of order 3.
7. Fill in the blanks:
LM 1 0 0 OP LM 1 2 3 OP
(a) If A = MM 0 1 PP
0 , ρ(A) = ... (b) If A = MM 2 3 PP
4 , ρ(A) = ...
N0 0 1 Q N1 1 1 Q
RANK AND EQUIVALENCE 213
LM 1 1 1 1OP LM 2 OP
(c) If A = M PP
3 4
1 1 1 1
If A = M 0 2 P , ρ(A) = ...
MM 1 1 1 1
, ρ(A) = ...
P
(d)
MN 0
0
8 PQ
N1 1 1 1Q
0
LM 0 2 3 OP
(e) If A = M 0 4 PP
6, , ρ(A) = ...
MN 0 6 9 Q
8. Mark each of the following : (True or False)
(a) The rank of non-singular matrix of order n is n–1.
(b) The rank of an m × n matrix whose elements are unity is 1.
(c) If A is a non-singular matrix of order n and B is an n × p matrix of rank r, then the rank of AB
is r.
(d) If A is a square matrix of order n and of rank n–1, then the rank of adj A is 1.
(e) Equivalance of matrices is symmetric, transitive but not reflexive.
(f) The Elementary matrices are non-singular.
(g) Every non-singular matrix can be written as the product of elementary matrices.
(h) A non-singular matrix A of order n is equivalent to an identily matrix In.
(i) The matrices A, BA, AC, and ABC, where B and C are non-singular, all have the same rank.
(j) The rank of the product two matrices can exceed the rank of either factor.
(k) If A is an m × n (m n) matrix of rank m, then AA′ is matrix of rank m.
❑❑❑
& Linear Equations
8.1 SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND CONSISTENCY
In the present chapter we shall discuss how to find the solutions of a system of m linear equations
in n unknowns, where m > n, m = n, m < n. Let such a system be
a11x1 + a12x2 + ... + a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + ... + a2nxn = b2
®
am1x1 + am2x2 + ... + amnxn = bm
which can be represented by the matrix equation
AX = B
214
LINEAR EQUATIONS 215
Definition 8.1.4. If ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) = r, then r is called the rank of the system.
One method of finding a solution for a set of equations is known as the triangular method. In
this procedure, one equation is used to eliminate one unknown from each of the other equations. The
process is then repeated on the new set of equations with this first unknown to obtain equation
without two unknowns. This technique is repeated over and over until one equation with only one
unknown is obtained.
This process will yield a new system of equation called equivalent system of equations with the
solution as the original system.
The new equivalent system of equations can be obtained from this original system of equations
by the following three operations:
(a) By inter changing any two equations in the system.
(b) By multiplying an equation by a non-zero constant.
(c) By adding a constant multiple of equation to an other equation.
These three operation one called elementary operations. This technique can be carried out more
efficiently by utilizing the language of matrices. The elementary operations are readily adaptable for
use with the augmented matrix. We note that each row of this matrix contains all the coefficients and
constant of the given equations of the system. Thus instead of referring to an equation one can apply
the elementary operation to the row vectors of the augmented matrix and accumplish the same result,
since these elementary operations are the same as elementary row transformations.
Now by these elementary transformations we have to reduce an augmented matrix to a triangular
matrix or to a particular matrix known as row reduced Echelon matrix.
Definition 8.1.5. An m × n matrix A is called an Echelon matrix if
(a) The first non-zero entry in each non-zero row of A is equal to 1.
(b) Each column of A which contains the leading non-zero entry of some row has all its other
entries 0.
(c) Every row of A which has all entries zero occurs below every row which has non-zero
entry.
(d) If rows 1, 2,..., r are the non-zero rows of A and if the leading non-zero entry of row i
occurs in columns k,
i = 1, 2,...,r, then k1 < k2 <... < kr.
Example 8.1.1. The matrix
LM 0 1 −3 0
1 OP
(1) A = MM 0 0 0 1
2
2 PP is an Echelon matrix.
MMN 0 PP
Q
0 0 0 0
LM 1 0 0 0 OP
(2) I4 = MM 0 1 0 0 PP is an Echelon matrix.
MN 00 0
0
1
0
0
1
PQ
216 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LM 1 0 0 0 OP
(3) A =
MM 0 1 −1 0 PP is not an Echelon matrix.
N0 0 1 0 Q
LM 0 2 1 OP
(4) A = MM 1 0 −3 PP is not an Echelon matrix.
N0 0 0 Q
Definition 8.1.6. The number of non-zero rows of an Echelon matrix is the rank of the matrix.
Example 8.1.2. In above example
(1) ρ(A) = 2
(2) ρ(I4) = 4
Now we shall prove a very important theorem which will determine whether the system AX =
B has a solution or not.
THEOREM 8.1.1. A system AX = B of m linear equation in n unknowns is consistent if and
only if the coefficient matrix A and the augmented matrix [A, B] have the same rank.
Proof. Since A is sub matrix of the matrix [A, B],
then ρ(A) (ρ[A, B]).
Now by applying the elementry row transformations to the augmented matrix [A, B], we reduce
the matrix [A, B] to the row reduced Echelon matrix R
LM 1 0 LLL 0 LM β1 OP
i.e., R = MM 0 1 0 LM β2 PP
MN 0: 0
:
0 LM M
PQ
LM 0 0 LLL 1 L: βr OP
rth row
MM : : : : : PP
N0 0 0 L: βm Q
If at least one of βr +1, ......, βm is not zero, then the number of non-zero rows in the coefficient
matrix is not equal to the number of non-zero rows in the augmented matrix.
Hence A, and [A, B] do not have the same rank i.e.
ρ(A) < ρ([A, B])
which shows at least one of equations βj = 0, j = r + 1,..., m which is false. So the system is
inconsistent.
If all βr + 1 = βr + 2 = ... = βm = 0.
then ρ(A) = ρ([A, B])
which shows that the system has one or more solutions.
Again, if ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) = r = n, then it has unique solution.
And if ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) < n, then it has infinite solutions.
LINEAR EQUATIONS 217
Note: This method is applied to the system to get its solution in the following cases:
(1) When we have the system of n linear equations in n unknowns i.e., AX = B, where A is a sqaure matrix
and |A| = 0, then here Cramer’s rule would fail and we shall do by the above method. We shall apply it even
if |A| ≠ 0.
(2) When we have the system of m linear equations in n unknowns in both cases m < n and m > n.
[A, B] = MM 3 −1 2 M −6 PP
∼
N3 1 1 M Q
−18 R3 − 3R1
LM 1 −1 1 : 2 OP 1 R
MM 0 2 −1 : −12 PP 2 ∼ 2
N0 4 −2 : 24 Q
LM 1 −1 1 : 2O R +R
P ∼ 1 2
MM 0 1 −
1
: −6 P
N0 24 PQ R − 4 R
2
4 −2 : 3 2
LM 1 0
1
−4
OP
MM 0 2
1
−6 P
P
MM 0 1 –
2
0P
P
MN PQ
0 0
Hence ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]), therefore the system is consistent and it has infinite solutions.
218 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
1
which gives x1 + x = –4
2 3
1
x2 – x3 = – 6
2
1
or x1 = – 4 – x
2 3
1
x 2 = – 6 + x3
2
LM x OP LM − 1 λ −4
OP
If x3 = λ, then MM x
1
PP = MM 21 λ −6 P
P has infinite values as λ varies.
MM 2 λ PP
2
Nx 3 Q N Q
Example 8.2.2. Show that the following system of equations is inconsistent.
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 2
2x1 + 4x2 + 3x3 = 3
3x1 + 6x2 + 5x3 = 4.
Solution. The system can be written as AX = B. Here the augmented matrix is
LM 1 2 1 : OP
2 R2 – 2 R1 LM 1 2 1 : 2 OP
[A, B] = MM 2 4 3 : 3 PP
∼ MM 0 0 1 : −1 PP
N3 6 5 : Q
4 R3 − 3R1 N0 0 2 : −2 Q
LM 1 3O
−1 PP
R1 – R2 2 0 :
∼ MM 0 0 1 :
R3 − 2 R2 N0 0 0 : 0 PQ
Which shows the coefficient matrix A and the augmented matrix [A, B] have the same rank.
Hence the system is consistent. We can write the system as.
LM 1 2 0 OP LM x1 OP LM 3OP
MM 0 0 1 PP MM x
2 PP = MM−1PP
N0 0 0 QN x 3 Q N 0Q
which gives
x1 + 2x2 = 3
x3 = – 1
∴ x 1 = 3 – 2x2
LINEAR EQUATIONS 219
So the solution is
LM x1 OP LM 3 –2λ OP
MM x PP = MM PP
λ if x = λ
N Q
2
Nx Q
2 2
3
−1
∴ The system has infinite solutions as λ varies.
Example 8.2.3. Show that the following system:
2x + 6y = – 11
6x + 20y – 6z = – 3
6y – 18z = –1
is inconsistent
Solution.
LM 2 6 0 OP LM x OP LM −11 OP
MM 6 20 −6 PP MM y PP = MM −3 PP
N0 6 −18 QN zQ N −1 Q
Now we consider the augmented matrix,
LM 2 6 0 M −11 1OP
MM 6 20 −6 M PP
R
−3 2 1
N0 6 −18 M −1 ∼ Q
LM 1 3 0 :
11 O
− P
MM 6 20 −6 :
2 R
−3 P
P 2 − 6 R1
MM 0 P
−1 PQ
∼
N 6 −18 :
LM 1 11 OP LM 1 3 0 M
11 O
− P
MM 0
3 0 M −
PP
2 1 R2 MM 0 1 −3 M
2
P
15 P
MM 0
2 −6 M 30 2
∼PP MM 0 P
−1 P
N 6 −18 M −1 Q N 6 −18 M
Q
R1 − 3R2 LM 1 0 9 M −
101 OP
∼ MM 0 1 −3 M
2
15
PP
R − 6 R MM 0 −91 PQ
P
3
N 2 0 0 M
Here the coefficient matrix has the rank 2 and the augmented matrix has the rank 3. Therefore
the system is inconsistent.
Example 8.2.4. Solve the following equations
x +y +z = 9
2x + 5y + 7z = 52
2x + y – z = 0
220 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Solution. We can write the system of equation in the form of matrix equation AX = B, where
the coefficient matrix.
LM 1 1 1 OP
A = MM 2 5 7 PP
N2 1 −1 Q
and the augmented matrix
LM 1 1 1 OP : 9
[A, B] = MM 2 5 7 PP : 52
N2 1 −1 Q : 0
LM 1 9 O R – 2R
7 : 52 PP
1 1 : 2 1
Now [A, B] =
MM 2
5 ∼
N21 −1 , 0 PQ R − 2 R 3 1
LM 1 1 1 M 9 OP
MM 0 3 5 M 34 PP R + R 1 3
N 0 − 1 − 3 M − 18 Q ∼
LM 1 0 −2 M −9 O
PP 1 R LMM
1 0 −2 M −9 O
PP R + R
MM 0 34 P
PP ∼ MMM 3 P
2 3 2
3 5 M 3 0 1 5 M 34
MM 3
PP ∼
N0 −1 −3 M −18 Q N 0 − 1 −3 M −18 Q
LM 1 0 −2 M −9 O
PP – 3 R LM 1 0 −2 M −9 OP
MM 0 5 M 34
P 4 MM 0 1 53 M 343 PP
3
MM 1
3 3 P
P ∼ MMN 0 0 1 M 5 PPQ
MN 0 0 −4
3
M − 20 P
3 Q
R + 2R L 1 0 0 M 1 O
1
∼
3
MM 0 1 0 M 3 PP
R − R MN 0 0 1 M 5 PQ
5
2 3
3
So ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) = 3.
Thus the system is consistant and has unique solution. So we have
LM 1 0 0 OP LM x OP LM 1 OP
MM 0 1 0 PP MM y PP MM 3 PP
N0 0 1 QN zQN5Q
which gives
x = 1, y = 3, z = 5.
LINEAR EQUATIONS 221
Example 8.2.5. Investigate for what values of λ and µ the simultaneous equations.
x+ y+z=6 U|
x + 2 y + 3z = 10 V| have
x + 2 y + λz = µ W
(i) no solution; (ii) unique solution; (iii) infinite solutions.
Solution. The system of equation is represented by the matrix equation AX = B, where the
coefficient matrix
LM 1 1 1 OP
A = MM 1 2 3 PP , and
N1 2 λ Q
the augmented matrix
LM 1 1 1 : 6 OP
[A, B] = MM 1 2 3 : 10 PP
N1 2 λ : µ Q
We know
(1) If ρ(A) ≠ ρ([A, B]), then the system has no solution.
(2) If ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) = 3, i.e., the number of columns of A, then, the system has unique solution.
(3) If ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) < 3, then the system has infinite solutions.
Now we consider augmented matrix
LM 1 1 1 : 6 OP R 2 − R1 LM 1 1 1 : 6 OP
[A, B] = MM 1 2 3 : 10 PP ∼ MM 0 1 2 : 4 PP
N1 2 λ : µ QR3 − R1 N0 1 λ −1 : µ−6 Q
R1 − R2 LM 1 0 −1 : 2 OP
∼ MM 0 1 2 : 4 PP
R3 − R2 N0 0 λ − 3 : µ − 10 Q
From this matrix it is clear that
if λ – 3 = 0, and µ –10 ≠ 0, then
ρ(A) = 2, ρ([A, B]) = 3
ρ(A) < ρ([A, B]).
(1) Hence when λ = 3, and µ ≠ 10, then the system has no solutions.
(2) If λ –3 ≠ 0, and µ – 10 ≠ 0, then ρ(A) = 3 = ρ([A, B]). Hence the system has unique solution.
(3) If λ – 3 = 0 and µ – 10 = 0, i.e.,
λ = 3, µ = 10, then
ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]) = 2.
Thus the system has infinite solutions.
222 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LM 1 OP L x O LM 3 OP
MM 41 PP
0
MM 0 1 PP MN x PQ
1
=
N0 0 Q 2
MM 80 PP
N Q
3 1
or x1 =
,x =
4 2 8
Example 8.3.2. Show that the system of equations
2x1 – x3 + x2 = 4
3x1 – x2 + x3 = 6
4x1 – x2 + 2x3 = 7
– x1 + x2 – x3 = 9
is inconsistent.
Solution. The system can be written in the form of matrix equation. AX = B. Here the augmented
matrix is
LM 2 −1 1 M 4 OP
MM 3 −1 1 M 6 P1 R
P2
[A, B] =
MM 4 7 P ∼
1
MN − 1
−1 2 M
P
1 −1 M 9 PQ
LINEAR EQUATIONS 223
LM 1 − 1 1 M 2 OP R – 3R 2 1
MM 3 −21 21 M 6 PP R – 4 R
MM 4 −1 2 M 7 PP ∼
3 1
MM PP
N −1 1 −1 M 9 Q R +R
4 1
LM 1 − 1 1 M 2 OP R + R
MM 0 21 – 21 M 0 PP ∼
1 2
MM 2 2 PP
MM 0 1 0 M −1 PP R − 2 R 3 2
MN 0 21 − 21 M 11 PQ R − R 4 2
LM 1 0 0 M 2 OP
MM 0 21 − 12 M 0 PP 2 R2
MM 0 0 1 M −1 PP ∼
MM P
N 0 0 0 M 11 PQ
LM 1 0 0 M 2 OP LM 1 0 0 M 2 OP
MM 0 1 −1 M 0 PP R + R MM 0
2 3 1 0 M −1 P
P
MM 0 0 1 M −1 PP ∼ MM 0 0 1 M −1 P
P
MN 0 0 0 M 11 PQ MN 0 0 0 M 11 PQ
Here the augmented matrix [A, B] has rank 4 while the coefficient matrix A has rank 3. Hence
the system is inconsistent.
Example 8.3.3. Find the solution of the system.
5x1 – 3x2 – 7x3 + x4 = 10
– x1 + 2x2 + 6x3 – 3x4 = – 3
x1 + x2 + 4x3 – 5x4 = 0.
Solution. Here we have the augmented matrix
LM 5 −3 −7 1 M 10 OP R(1, 3)
MM −1 2 6 −3 M −3 P
0 PQ
[A, B] =
N 1
~
1 4 −5 M
LM 1 1 4 −5 M OP
0 R2 + R1
MM −1 2 6 −3 M −3 ∼ PP
N 5 −3 −7 1 M Q
10 R3 − 5R1
224 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LM 1 1 4 −5 OP 1
0
MM 0 3 10 −8 −3 P 3
P∼
R 2
MN 0 −8 −27 26 10 PQ
LM 1 1 4 −5 0O
PR − R
MM 0 1
10
−
8
−1 P
PP ∼
1 2
MMN 0 3 3
−8 −27 26 10 PQ
LM 1 0 2
−
7 M 1O
PP –3R
MM 0 3 3
1 10 − 8 M −1 P
3
MM 3 3 PP ∼
MN 0 0 −
1 14 M
3 3
2P
Q
LM 1 0 2
−
7 M 1O R − 2 R
PP 3
MM 0
1 3
3 3
1 10 − 8 M −1 P
MM 3 3 PP ∼
MN 0 0 1 −14 M −6 P R − R
Q 32
10
3
LM 1 7 M 5O
44 M 19 PP
0 0
MM 0 1 0
N0 0 1 −14 M −6 PQ
which shows ρ(A) = ρ([A, B]).
Hence the system is consistent and has infinite solutions.
And we have
LM 1 0 0 7 OP LM xx 1 OP LM 5 OP
MM 0 1 0 44 PP MM x 2 PP = MM 19 PP
N0 0 1 −14 Q MN x 3
4
PQ N −6 Q
which gives x1 + 7x4 = 5
x2 + 44x4 = 19
x3 – 14x4 = –6,
If x4 = λ,
LM x 1 OP LM 5 –7λ OP
then
MM x 2 PP = MM 19 −44λ PP
MN xx
3
4
PQ MN −λ6 +14λ
PQ
has infinite solutions as λ varies.
LINEAR EQUATIONS 225
LM 1 −2 −1 M −1 O
−1 PP
1
MM 0 6 −5 6 M
N0 6 −5 6 M 2 PQ
LM −2 −1 −1 O R + 2 R
1P
1 1 1 2
1
6
R2
0 MM 1 −
5
1 – P
6P
∼
MN 2 PQ R − 6 R
6
∼
0 6 −5 6 3 2
LM 1 0 –
2
1 −
4 OP
MM 0 3
5
3
1 PP
MM 1 −
6
1 –
6 PP
N0 0 0 0 3 Q
Hence ρ (A) = 2, ρ ([A, B]) = 3.
Therefore the system is inconsistent.
PROBLEM 8.1
By using elementary row operations, find solution or solutions, if they exist, for the following system
of equations.
1. 2x1 + 3x2 – 4x3 = 2 2. x1 – x2 – x3 – x4 = 2
x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 1 2x1 + 4x2 – 3x3 = 6
3x1 – 5x2 – 4 = 0 3x2 – 4x3 – 2x4 = –1
– 2x1 + 4x3 + 3x4 = –3
3. x1 + x2 – x3 = 0 4. x1 – 2x2 – 3x3 = 2
5x2 – x1 + x3 = –6 x1 + 4x2 + 3x3 = 14
2x3 – x2 – 2x1 = –1 – 3x1 + 5x2 + 4x3 = 0
5. 4x1 + 5x3 = 6 6. – 4x1 + 3x2 + 2x3 = –2
x2 – 6x3 = –2 5x1 – 4x2 + x3 = 3
3x1 + 4x3 = 3
7. 2x – y + 3z = 9 8. x + 2y = 3z = 4
x+y+z=6 2x + 3y + 8z = 7
x–y+z=2 x – y – 1z = 1
226 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
9. x + 2y – z = 3 10. 2x – y + 3z = 8
3x – y + 2z = 1 x + 2y + z = 4
2x – 2y + 3z = 2 3x + y – 4x = 0
x–y+z = –1
11. 2x + 3y + z = 9 12. x + 2p + 3z = 2
x – 2y + 3z = 6 2x + 4y + 5z = 3
3x + y + 2z = 8 3x + 5y + 6z = 4
13. x+y+z=6 14. x + 2y + 3z = 14
x–y+z=2 3x + y + 2z = 11
2x + y – z = 1 2x + 3y + z = 11
15. x + 2y + z = 2
2x + 6y + 5z = 4
2x + 4y + 3z = 3
N2 1 3 Q R − 2R N 0 3 3 1 1Q
MN 0 13 31 PQ
R +R L1 0 1O LM 1 1 OR − 1R L 1 0 OP
MM P 0
3P 3 M
0
MM 0 1 − 3 PPP 3 MMM 0 P
1 2 1 3
MM 0 1 P
3 1
− P
R
0P
2 3 2
∼ ∼
3P
2 MM P
1
R − 3R MM 0 0 PP ∼ MM 0 P 1 PQ
N Q N 1 PQ 3 N
3 2 3 0 R +
2 R 0 0 3
MN 2
−4 −5 Q R − 2 R N 0 3 1 0 −7 Q
LM 1
−2 1O
MM 0
0 1 PP
N00 −7 PQ
R + 7 R L 1 −2 0 O
∼
3
MM 0 0 1 PP
2
R − R MN 0
1 2 0 0 PQ
Hence ρ (A) = 2. So the system has infinite non-trivial solutions.
We can write this matrix in the form of equations, that is,
LM 1 −2 0 OP LM x 1 OP LM 0 OP
MM 0 0 1 PP MM x
2 PP = MM 0 PP
N0 0 0 QN x 3 Q N0Q
228 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LM 2 3 −1 1OP 1 LM 1 3
−
1 1OP
P RM P
2 2 2
MM 3 2P2 M3
1
2P
PP ∼ MM PP
= 2 −2 2 −2
MM
N5 0 −4 4Q MN 5 0 −4 4P
Q
LM
R2 − 3R1 1 3 –1 1 OP LM 1 3 –1 1 OP
MM 2 2 2
P– 2 R M
1 P 5 M0
2 2 2
P
– P
2
MM 0 – 2 2P M 5P
∼ 5 1 1 1
– 1
P ∼ M P
2 5
R − 5R M 0 –
15 –3 3P MN 0 – 15 –3 3P
3
N 2 1
2 2Q 2 2 2 Q
R − R L1 0 – OP
MM
3 4 4
PP
1 2
2 5 5
∼ MM 0 1 15 –1
5 PP
15 M
R + R M0 0 0P
3
2 N 2 0
Q
Hence the coefficient matrix has rank 2. Therefore it possesses non-trivial solution.
LM 1 –4 4 OP LM x OP
M
0
5 5
PP MM x
1
PP LM 0 OP
We have M 0 MM 0 PP
1 1 2
MM 1
5
–
5 PP MM x 3 PP
=
N0Q
N0 0 0 0Q Nx 4 Q
4 4
which gives x1 – x + x4 = 0
5 3 5
LINEAR EQUATIONS 229
1 1
x2 + x3 – x4 = 0
5 5
LM 1 x 1 OP = x
∴ x1 – 4
N5 3 − x4
5 Q 1 + 4x2 = 0
or x 1 = –4x2
If x3 = λ1, x4 = λ2, we have
LM x 1 OP = LM 45 λ – 4 λ2 OP
PP = MM – 1 λ PP
1
MM x
5
1
PP MM 5 PP
+ λ2
MM
2 1
5
MM x3
PP = MM λ 1 PP
MN x
4 PQ = MN λ2
PQ
has infinite solutions as λ1 and λ2 vary.
PROBLEM 8.2
By using elementary row operations, find solution or solutions if they exist, for the following systems of
equations.
1. x + 3y – 2z = 0 2. x+ y–z+ t=0
2x – y + 4z = 0 x – y + 2z – t = 0
x – 11y + 14z = 0 3x + y + t = 0
3. x + y + 3z = 0 4. 5x + 3y + 7z – 4 = 0
x–y+ z = 0 3x + 26y + 2z – 9 = 0
x – 2y = 0 7x – 2y + 10z – 5 = 0
x–y+ z = 0
5. 2x – y + 3z = 0 6. 2w + 3x – y – z = 0
3x + 2y + z = 0 4w – 6x – 2y + 2z = 0
x – 4y + 5z = 0 – 6w + 12x + 3y – 4z = 0
7. 2x – 2y + 5z + 3w = 0 8. 4x + 2y + z + 34 = 0
4x – y +z+w = 0 6x + 3y + 4y + 74 = 0
3x – 2y + 3z + 4w = 0 2x + y + 4 = 0
x – 3y + 7z + 6w = 0
9. x – y – 2z – 4t = 0 10. x1 – 2x2 – 3x3 = 0
2x + 3x – z – t = 0 x1 – 4x2 – 13x3 = 0
3x + y + 3z – 2t = 0 – 3x1 + 5x2 – 4x3 = 0
6x + 3y – 7t = 0
where A = M
Ma a 22 L a 2n
PP , B = MM bM PP
PQ MMN xM
21 2 2
MN aM n1 an2 L a nn n
PQ MN b n
PQ
The matrix A = [aij] is known as the coefficient matrix. If A ≠ 0, then the system has only
one solution. If A ≠ 0, A–1 exists.
If AX = B is multiplied by A–1 on the left we obtain
A–1(AX) = A−1B
⇒ –1
(A A) X = A–1B
⇒ X = A –1B
X = MM x 2 PP =
1 12 A22 An 2 2
MN xM PQ
A
MN AM
1n
:
A2 n
M
Ann
PQ MN bM
n
PQ
n
LM x 1 OP b1 A11 + b2 A21 +
b1 A12 + b2 A22 +
... +bn An1
+bn An 2
MM x PP
...
2 1
or = :
MN xM PQ
A
M
n
b1 A1n + b2 A2 n + ... +bn Ann
1 A1
⇒ x1 = (b1A11 + b2A21 + ... + bnAn1) =
A A
1 A2
⇒ x2 = (b1A12 + b2A22 + ... + bnAn2) =
A A
®
1 An
xn = (b1A1n + b2A2n + ... + bnAnn) =
A A
where Aj is the matrix obtained from A on replacing jth column by constant column vector B.
Example 8.5.1. Solve the equation.
x +y +z = 6
x –y +z = 2
2x + y – z = 1
LINEAR EQUATIONS 231
6 1 1
2 −1 1
x =
1 1 −1
=
b g b g b g
6 1 − 1 − 2 −1 − 1 + 1 1 + 1
=
6
=1
A 6 6
1 6 1
1 2 1
y =
2 1 −1
=
b g b g b g
1 –2 – 1 − 1 −6 − 1 + 2 6 – 2
A 6
–3 + 7 + 8
= =2
6
1 1 6
1 −1 2
z =
2 1 1
=
b g b g b g
1 –1– 2 − 1 1 − 6 + 2 2 + 6
A 6
–3+ 5 + 16
= =3
6
232 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PROBLEM 8.3
1. Solve the equations 2. Solve the equations
x + 2y + z = 4 x + 2y + 3z = 14
x–y+ z = 5 3x + y + 2z = 11
2x + 3y – z = 1 2x + 3y + z = 11
3. Solve the equations 4. Solve the equations
x – y + 2z = 4 2x + 3y + z = 9
3x + y + 6z = 6 x – 2y + 3z = 6
x+ y+ z = 1 3x + y + 2z = 8
5. Solve the equations
2x – y + 3z – 9 = 0
x+ y+ z–6 = 0
x–y+ z–2 = 0
❑❑❑
' Characteristic Roots and
Vectors of a Matrix
Definition 9.1.3. The determinant of a characteristic matrix A − xI of a square matrix A is called the
characteristic polynomial of A.
Thus the characteristic polynomial of the matrix
LM1 2OP
A =
N2 1 Q
1− x 2
is |A – xI| = = x2 – 2x – 3.
2 1− x
233
234 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
where Aj is the jth column of A and Ej is the jth elementary column vector. Since in | A – xI| each
is consisted of the difference of two elements and it is of order 3, it can be written as the sum of
23 determinants.
Thus, |A – xI| = | –xE1, –xE2, –xE3| + |A1, –xE2, –xE3 |
+ | –xE1, A2, –xE3| + | –xE1, –xE2, A3|
+ | A1, A2, –xE3| + |A1, –xE2, A3|
+ | –xE1, A1, A2| + |A1, A2, A3|
−x 0 0 a11 0 0 −x a12 0
= 0 − x 0 + a 21 − x 0 + 0 a22 0
0 0 − x a31 0 − x 0 a32 −x
LM1 −1 1OP LM 1 −4 −1 −4 OP
(b) A = M PP
2 0 5 −4
(a) A = M0 PP
MN1
1 0
MM−1 1 −2 3
PQ
−1 1 Q N−1 4 −1 6
Solution. The characteristic polynomial of A is
1 − x −1 1
φ(x) = |A – xI| = 0 1− x 0 = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3,
1 −1 1 − x
1 −1 1
where a0 = 0 1 0 = 0
1 −1 1
a1 = (–1) [sum of the principal minors of order 2]
LM 1 −1 1 1 1 0
+ +
OP
= (–1)
N0 1 1 1 −1 1 Q
236 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
= – [1 + 0 + 1] = – 2
a2 = (–1)2 [sum of the principal minors of order 1]
= [1 + 1 + 1] = 3
a3 = (–1)3 = –1
Hence, φ(x) = 0 – 2x + 3x2 – x3.
(b) The characteristic polynomial of A is
φ(x) = |A – xI| = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + a4x4
1−4 −1 −4
2 0 5 −4
where a0 = | A| =
−1 1 −2 3
−1 4 −1 6
R3 + R1, R4 + R1
1 −4 −1 −4
2 0 5 −4
= =2
0 −3 −3 −1
0 0 −2 2
a1 = (–1) sum of the principal minors of order 3
R| 1 −4 −1 1
−4 −4 1 −1 −4 0 5 −4 U|
= –1 S 2 3 + 2
0 −4 + −1 −2 3 + 1 −2 3 V|
|T −1
0
1 −2 −1 4 6 −1 −1 6 4 −1 6 W
= – {–3 + 16 – 8 + 2} = – 7.
a2 = (–1)2
RS 1 −4
+
1 −1 1 −4 0 5
+ +
0 −4 −2 3
+
UV
T2 W
+
0 −1 −2 −1 6 1 −2 4 6 −1 6
= 8 –3 + 2 –5 + 16 –9 = 9
a3 = (–1)3 sum of the principal minors of order 1
= –1 {1 + 0 –2 + 6} = –5
a4 = (–1)4 = 1
Hence, φ(x) = 2 – 7x + 9x2 – 5x3 + x4
Example 9.2.2. Find the characteristic polynomial of the matrix
LM2 2 1 OP
A = MM13 1 PP
N12 2 Q
Solution. The characteristic polynomial of A is
LM 2 2 2 1 3 1
+ +
OP x
φ(x) = [A – xI] = (–1)3x3 + (–1)2[2 + 3 + 2]x2 + (–1)
N1 3 1 2 1 2 Q
2 2 1
+ 1 3 1
1 2 2
CHARACTERISTIC ROOTS AND VECTORS OF A MATRIX 237
LM1 + 2x x2 4 − 6x OP
A = MM1 + x 3
3 + 2x 2 1 − x3 PP
N2− x 5 6 + 7x Q
Whose elements are ordinary polynomials. The highest degree of the polynomials is three.
We write the matrix A as follows:
LM1 + 2 x x2 4 − 6x OP
A = MM1 + x 3
3 + 2x2 1− x3 PP
N2− x 5 6 + 7x Q
LM1 + 2 x + 0x + 0x
2 3
0 + 0x + x 2 + 0x 3 4 − 6x + 0x 2 + 0x 3 OP
= MM 1 + 0x + 0x + x
2 3
3 + 0 x + 2 x 2 + 0x 3 1 + 0 x + 0x 2 − x 3 PP
N 2 − x + 0x + 0 x
2 3
5 + 0x + 0x 2 + 0x 3 6 + 7 x + 0x 2 + 0x 3 Q
LM1 OP LM −6O
0 PP
0 4 2 0
MM1 3 1 + 0 0 PP MM
7 PQ
= x
N2 5 6 −1 0 Q N
LM0 0O LM0 OP
0P x
1 0 0
+ MM0 2
P 2
MM
+ 1 0 −1 x3
PP
N0 0 0PQ N0 0 0 Q
= A0 + A1x + A2x2 + A3x3.
Thus every matrix with ordinary polynomial as its elements is always written as matric polynomial.
THEOREM 9.2.2. (Cayley Hamilton Theorem) Every square matrix A satisfies its characteristic
equation
φ(x) = |A – xI| = O.
238 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Proof. The characteristic matrix of A is A – xI. Then Adj (A – xI) is a matrix whose elements
are ordinary polynomials. The cofactors of |A – xI| are of polynomials of degree at most n – 1. So
the highest power of x in polynomials of adj (A – xI) is n – 1. Therefore according to the lemma 9.2.1
Adj (A – xI) can be written in the form
B0 + B1 x + B2 x2 + ... + Bn – 1 x n – 1
matric polynomial of degree n – 1, where B0, B1, ... Bn – 1 are all square matrices of order n.
Now we have the relation
(A – xI) adj (A – xI) = |A – xI| I.
(A – xI)(B0 + B1x + B2x2 + .. + Bn – 1xn – 1) = (a0 + a1x + . + anxn)I
= a0I + a1Ix + .. + anIxn,
where φ(x) = |A – xI| = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + .. + anxn is a characteristic polynomial of A.
Comparing the coefficients of like powers of x, we get
AB0 = a0I
AB1 – B0 = a1I
AB2 – B1 = a2I
®
–Bn – 1 = anI.
Premultiplying these successively by
I, A, A2, .., An respectively, and adding altogether
We obtain
0 = a0I + a1A + a2A2 + .. + an – 1An – 1+anAn
or φ(A) = 0. Hence the theorem is proved.
Example 9.2.3. Show that the following matrices satisfy their characteristic equations.
LM1 2 0 OP LM 0 c −bOP
A= M
MN b −a 0 PPQ
−c 0
(a) A = MM2 −1 0 PP (b)
a
N0 0 −1 Q
LM2 2 1 OP LM1 0 2OP
(c) A = MM1 3 1 PP (d) A= M
0 2 1P
MN2 0 3PQ
N1 2 2 Q
Solution. (a) We have
LM1 2 0 OP
A = MM2 PP
−1 0 ,
N0 0 −1 Q
1− x 2 0
2 −1 − x 0
A – xI| =
0 0 −1 − x
= (1 – x)(1 + x)2 –2 (–2(1 + x))
= (1 – x2) (1 + x) + 4(1 + x)
CHARACTERISTIC ROOTS AND VECTORS OF A MATRIX 239
= –x3 + x + 1 –x2 + 4 + 4x
= –x3 –x2 + 5x + 5.
Then the characteristic equation of A is
φ(x) = – x3 – x2 + 5x + 5 = 0.
Hence, φ(A) = –A3 –A2 + 5A + 5I
LM1 2 0 OP LM1 3
2 OP
0
2
MM
= – 2 −1 0 – 2
PP MM −1 0 P
N 0 0 −1 Q N0 0 −1PQ
LM1 2 0 OP LM1 0 0O
+ 5 M2 −1 0 P + 5 M0 1 0P
MN0 0 −1PQ MN0 P
0 1PQ
LM 5 5 0 OP LM5 0 0O LM1 OP LM OP
P
2 0 5 0 0
= – M10 −5 0 P − M0 5 0P + 5 M 2 PP
−1 0 + 0 5 0MM PP
NM 0 0 −1PQ MN0 0 1QP MN0 0 −1 Q
0 0 5 N Q
LM0 0 0OP
= M0 0 0P = O
MN0 0 0PQ
LM 0 c −bOP
(b) A = M−c 0 aP
NM b −a 0 QP
The characteristic polynomial of A is
LM− x c −b OP
|A – xI| = MM−c −x a
PP
Nb −a −x Q
= –x(x2 + a2) –c(cx –ab) – b(ac + bx)
= –x3 – a2x –c2x + abc – abc – b2x
= – x3 – x(a2 + b2 + c2).
So the characteristic equation of A is
φ(x) = – x3 – x(a2 + b2 + c2) = 0.
LM 0 c −b OP 3
LM 0 c −b OP
φ(A) = – M −c PP +c) M PP
0 a −c 0 a
MN b – (a2 + b2
MN b
Hence, 2
−a 0 Q −a 0 Q
240 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
LM 0 − c − b c − a c bc + b + a b O
P
3 2 2 2 3 2
= – M c +a c+b c3 2
0 2
− ab − c a − a P 2 2 3
MN−bc − b − a b +ac + ba + a
2 3 2
0 PQ 2 3
LM 0 −a c − b c − c a b+b +c b O
P
2 2 3 2 3 2
+ M a c+b c+c −a − b a − c a P
2 2 3 3 2 2
0
MN−a b − b − c b a + b a + c a
2
0 3PQ 2 3 2 2
LM0 0 0OP
= M0 0 0P = O.
MN0 0 0PQ
LM2 2 1OP
A = M
1 3 1P
(c) We have
MN1 2 2PQ
and the characteristic polynomial of A is
2−x 2 1
φ(x) = |A – xI| = 1 3− x 1
1 2 2− x
= (2 – x) [(3 – x) (2 – x) – 2] – 2(2 – x – 1) + 1(2 – 3 + x)
= (2 – x) [x2 – 5x + 6 – 2] – 2 + 2x – 1 + x
= [2x2 – 10x + 8 – x3 + 5x2 – 4x – 2 + 2x – 1 + x]
= – x3 + 7x2 – 11x + 5.
So the characteristic equation of A is
φ(x) = –x3 + 7x2 – 11x + 5 = 0.
We compute A , A3 as follows:
2
LM2 2 1 2 2 1OP LM
7 12 6 OP LM OP
A2 = MM1 PP MM
3 1 1 3 1 = 6 13 6 PP MM PP
N1 2 2 1 2 2 QN
6 12 7 Q N Q
LM7 6O L2 OP LM OP
6PP MM1
12 2 1 32 62 31
A3 = A2. A = MM6 13 PP
3 1 = 31 63 31 MM PP
N6 12 7PQ MN1 2 2 Q
31 62 32 N Q
Hence, φ(A) = – A3 + 7A2 – 11A + 5I
LM32 62 31 OP
7 12 6 LM
2 2 1 1 0 0 OP LM OP LM OP
φ(A) = – M PP MM PP MM PP MM PP
31 63 31 + 7 6 13 6 1 3 1 +5 0 1 0
MN31 62 32 6 12 7Q
– 11
N
1 2 2 0 0 1 Q N Q N Q
LM0 0 OP
0
= M PP
0 0 0
MN0 0 0
=O
Q
CHARACTERISTIC ROOTS AND VECTORS OF A MATRIX 241
LM1 0 2 OP
(d) We have A = MM0 2 1 ,
P
N2 0 3PQ
and the characteristic polynomial of A is
1− x 0 2
φ(x) = |A – xI| = 0 2−x 1
2 0 3− x
= (1 – x) (2 – x) (3 – x) + 2 (– 4 + 2x)
= (1 – x) (x2 – 5x + 6) – 8 + 4x
= x2 – 5x + 6 – x3 + 5x2 – 6x – 8 + 4x
= – x3 + 6x – 7x2 – 2.
The characteristic equation of A is
φ(x) = – x3 + 6x2 – 7x – 2 = 0.
We compute, A2, A3.
LM1 OP LM OP L OP
PP MM
0 2 1 0 2 5 0 8
A2 = MM0 2 1 0PP MM 2 1 = 2 4 5 ,
PP
N2 0 3 2 QN 0 3 Q MN
8 0 13 Q
LM5 8 O L1
P1P = LMM12
2O OP
5 P M0
0 0 21 0 34
A3 = A2. A = MM2 4
PM 2 8 23
P
N8 0 13PQ MN2 0 3PQ MN34 0 55PQ
LM1 0 OP LM
2 1 0 OP
1 1 LM 0 3 OP
B3 = B2.B = MM0 1 0 0
PM 1
PP
0= 0
MM 1 0
P
N0 0 1PQ MN0 0 Q
1 0 N 0 1PQ
Hence, φ(B) = I – 3B + 3B2 – B3
LM1 0 0 OP
1 0 1 LM
1 0 2 1 0 3 OP LM OP LM OP
= MM0 PP MM
1 0 − 3 0 1 0 +3 0 1 0 − 0 1 0 PP MM PP MM PP
N0 0 1 Q
0 0 1 0 0 1
N 0 0 1
Q N Q N Q
LM0 0O
0PP
0
= MM0 0 = 0.
N0 0 0PQ
From this we obtain
I = B3 – 3B2 + 3B. ... (1)
1 0 1
Since |B| = 0 1 0 = 1 ≠ 0, B–1 exists.
0 0 1
By multiplying (1) by B–1, we get
B–1 = B2 – 3B + 3I.
LM1 0 2OP LM1 0 1OP LM
1 0 0 OP
or B–1 = MM0 1 0PP − 3 MM0 1 PP MM
0 +3 0 1 0 PP
N 0 0 1Q N 0 0 1 Q N
0 0 1 Q
LM1 − 3 + 3 0 − 0 + 0 2 − 3+ 0 OP
= MM0 − 0 + 0 1 − 3 + 3 0−0+0 PP
N0 − 0 + 0 0 − 0 + 0 1− 3+ 3 Q
LM1 0 −1OP
= MM0 1 0 PP
N0 0 1 Q
LM1 0 2OP
(b) We have A = MM0 2 1PP ,
N2 0 3Q
and from the example 9.2.3 (d), the characteristic equation of A is
φ(x) = |A – xI| = –x3 + 6x2 – 7x – 2 = 0.
By Cayley-Hamilton Theorem we have
φ(A) = – A3 + 6A2 – 7A – 2I = 0.
LM1 0 2 OP
Since |A| = MM0 PP
2 1 = 1.6 – 4 = – 2 ≠ 0, A–1 exists.
N2 0 3 Q
244 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
1 2 6 7
Then A–1 = − A + A− I
2 2 2
LM5 0 8 OP LM1 0 OP
2 1 0 0 LM OP
= – M P MM PP MM PP
1 2 4 5 +3 0 2 7
1 − 0 1 0
2 M8 0 13P
N Q N2 0 3 Q2
0 0 1 N Q
LM− 5 + 3 − 7 0 + 0 + 0 OP
−4 + 6 + 0
MM 2 2 P
7 − 5 +3−0 P
MM
= −1 + 0 + 0 −2 + 6 −
2 2 PP
NM −4 + 6 + 0 0 + 0 − 0 − +9− P
2Q
13 7
2
LM − 3 0 2 OP
= MM −1 1 1
PP
.
MN 2 PQ
2 2
0 −1
LM 2 −1 1 OP
(c) We have A = MM−1 2 −1 , PP
N1 −1 2 Q
and the characteristic equation of A is
LM2 − x −1 1 OP
φ(x) = |A – xI| = MM 1 2 − x −1 = 0 PP
N1 −12 − x Q
= – x3 + 6x2 – 9x + 4 = 0
It can be easily verified that
φ(A) = – A3 + 6A2 – 9A + 4I = 0, where
LM 6 −5 5 OP
22 −21 21 LM OP
A2 = MM−5 PP
6 −5 , A = −21 22 −21
3
MM PP
N5 −5 6 Q
21 −21 22 N Q
1 2 3 9
Hence, A–1 = A − A+ I
4 2 4
LM
6 −5 5 2 −1 1 OP LM OP
MM PP MM PP
1 3
= −5 6 −5 − −1 2 −1
4
N
5 −5 6
2
1 −1 2 Q N Q
1 0 0LM 3 1 −1 OP LM OP
MM PP MM PP
9 1
+ 0 1 0 = 1 3 1 .
4
0 0 1 N4
−1 1 3 Q N Q
CHARACTERISTIC ROOTS AND VECTORS OF A MATRIX 245
(d) From example 9.2.3(a) we have the characteristic equation of the matrix
LM1 2 0 OP
A = MM2 −1 0 . PP
N0 0 −1 Q
φ(x) = |A – xI| = – x3 – x2 + 5x + 5 = 0
By Cayley-Hamilton Theorem we have
φ(A) = – A3 – A2 + 5A + 5I = 0.
From this we obtain
1 2 1
A–1 = A + A− I ...(1)
5 5
5 LM
0 0 1 OP LM 2 OP
0 1 LM 0 0 OP
MM PP MM PP MM P
1 1
0 5 0 + 2 −1 0 − 0 1 0
N 1PQ
= 5
0 0 N1
5
0 Q N 0 −1 Q 0 0
LM 1 2 0O
PP
MM 25 6
0P.
1
MM 5 −
PP
=
5
N0 0 −1Q
Multiplying (1) by A−1 again, we have
1 1
A–2 = A + I − A −1
5 5
LM 1 2 0OP LM 1 0 0OP LM 15 25 OP0
1M
M 2 −1
P 1M P M
0P + M0 1 0P − M 2 − 1 0P
P
PP MM 5 5 PP
=
5
MM PP 5 MM
N0 0 −1Q N0 0 1Q N 0 0 −1Q
LM 1 + 1 − 1 2 + 0 − 2 0 + 0 − 0OP
MM 25 5 25 15 1 51 P
0 + 0 − 0P
=
MM 5 5 5 5 5 + 0− − + +
PP
MN 0 + 0 − 0 0 + 0 − 0 − 5 + 5 + 5PQ
1 1 1
LM 1 0 0OP 1 0 0
MM 5 1 PP 1 LM0 1 0OP
=
MM 0 5 0PP = 5 MMN0 0 1PPQ
MN 0 0 15PQ
246 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PROBLEM 9.1
1. Show that the following matrices satisfy their characteristic equations.
LM 2 −1 1OP LM 8 −6 2OP
(a) A = M−1 2 −1P (b) A = M−6 7 −4P
MN 1 −1 2PQ MN 2 −4 3PQ
LM1 2 3OP LM 6 −2 2OP
(c) A = M0 2 3P (d) A = M−12 3 −1P
MN0 0 2PQ MN 2 −1 3PQ
LM 1 −6 2OP LMa h g OP
(e) A = M−6 7 −4P (f ) A = M 0 b 0 P
MN 2 −4 3PQ MN0 0 c PQ
LM 2 2 0OP
(g) A = M 2 1 1P .
NM−7 2 −3PQ
2. Using the characteristic equation show that inverses of the matrix
LM 0 c −b OP 0 LM c −bOP
(a) A = M−c 0 PP
a is A = −c
–1
MM 0 PP
a (a2 + b2 + c2)
NM b −a 0 Q b N a 0 Q
LM 5 − 1 − 1 OP
LM 2 2 0OP MM 121 21 16 PP
(b) A = M 2 1
MN−7 2 −3PPQ MM 12 2 6 PP
1 is A = − –1
MN− 1211 23 16 PQ
LM0 1 2OP LM 1 − 1 1 OP
(c) A = M1 2 3P is A = M −4
M 2 23 −21PP
–1
MN3 1 1PQ MM 5 − 3 1 PP
N 2 2 2Q
LM1 −1 0 2OP LM 2 −1 1 −1OP
(d) A = M
1 1 −1P
is A = M PP
0 −5 −3 1 1
MM2 1 2 1PP –1
MM 2 3 −1 0
PQ
N3 −2 1 6Q N−3 −1 0 1
LM 3 − 1 2 OP
LM 1 −2 −2OP MM 355 35 35
PP
(f ) A = M−3 PP −3 − 1
NM13
−1
2
1 is A–1
4 Q
= −
MM 14 7 14 PP
MN− 101 2
5
1
10
PQ
3. Prove that a square matrix A has non-zero determinant (i.e. non-singular) if, and only if, the characteristic
equation of A has all non-zero roots.
4. Show that if a 4 × 4 matrix has determinant zero, then one of the root of characteristic equation is
zero.
LM1 2 3OP LM 6 −2 OP
2 LM2 1 −1OP
MM
(a) 0 2 3 ,
PP (b) MM−2 3 −1P (c)
MM0 PP
3 −2 ,
N 0 0 3 Q N2 −1 3PQ N2 4 −3 Q
LM 8 −6 2OP LM 2 2 0O
(d) M−6 1 1 PP
MN 2 −4 3PPQ MM 2
7 −4 (e)
N−7 2 −3QP
250 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
(A – λI)X = 0, λ = 1, 2, 3.
When λ = 1, the matrix equation, equation of homogenes linear equation is
LM0 2 3 OP LM x OP
1 LM0OP
MM0 1 3 PP MMx PP
2 = MM0PP
N0 0 1 Q Nx Q
3 N 0Q
⇒ 2x2 + 3x3 = 0, x2 + 3x3 = 0, x3 = 0
⇒ x2 = 0, x3 = 0, x = k, k, is any real number
LM x OP1 LMk OP
Hence the vector, X = M P = M P , k is any real number.
x 0
MN x PQ MN0PQ
2
Nx Q N Q N Q
3
LM2 1 −1 OP LM x OP
1 LM0OP
MM0 3 −2 PP MMx PP
2 = MM0PP
N2 4 −3 Q Nx Q
3 N 0Q
By elementary row transformation this can be reduced to the form
LM2 1 −1 OP LM x OP
1 LM0OP
MM0 3 −2 PP MM x PP = MM0PP ⇒ 2x1 + x2 – x3 = 0, 3x2 – 2x3 = 0.
N 0Q
2
N0 0 0 Q Nx Q3
2 1
By choosing x3 = t, x2 = t, x1 = t.
3 6
LM 1 t OP
Hence the characteristic vector X = MM 26 t PP .
MM 3t PP
N Q
Now the homogeneous system corresponding to the characteristic root 1 is
LM1 1 −1 OP LM x OP
1 LM0OP
MM0 2 −2 PP MMx PP
2 = MM0PP
N2 4 −4 Q Nx Q
3 N 0Q
which can be reduced by elementary row operations to the form.
LM1 1 −1 OP LM x OP
1 LM0OP
MM0 1 −1 PP MMx PP
2 = MM0PP
N0 0 0 Q Nx Q3 N 0Q
CHARACTERISTIC ROOTS AND VECTORS OF A MATRIX 253
⇒ x1 + x2 – x3 = 0
x2 – x3 = 0.
By choosing x3 = t, x2 = t, x1 = 0.
Thus the characteristic vector
LM0OP LM0OP
X = MM t PP = t M 1P .
MN1PQ
Nt Q
(d) The characteristic equation of the matrix
LM 8 −6 2 OP
A = MM−6 7 −4PP is
N 2 −4 3 Q
LM8 − x −6 2 OP
0 = |A – xI| = MM −6 7 − x −4 PP
N 2 −4 3 − xQ
= (8 – x) [(7 – x)(3 – x) – 16] + 6(–6(3 – x) + 8) + 2(24 – 2)(7 – x)
= – x3 + 18x2 – 45x.
Therefore 0, 3, 15 are the characteristic roots of A.
LM x OP
1
Let X = MM x PP
2 be the characteristic vector corresponding to the root 0, then corresponding
Nx Q
3
MM 2t PP = t M 1 P , for t = 1, X = M 1 P = MM PP
1
2 2 2
X =
MM 1 PP MM 1 PP 2
NQ
NM t QP NQ NQ
2
or MM−6 4 = MM0PP
0 PQ MN x PQ
2
N2 −3 3 N 0Q
We reduce the coefficient matrix by elementary row operations as follows:
LM 5 OP
−6 2 ← −− → 1 2 2 LM OP ← −− →
LM1 2 2
← −− →
OP
1 2 2 LM OP
MM−6 PP
4 −4 R1 − 2 R3 0 −8 −4 MM PP R3 − 2 R1MM
0 −8 −4
R3 − R2 PP
0 −8 −4 MM PP
N2 Q
−4 0 R2 + 3R3 2 −4 0 N Q N
0 −8 −4 Q
0 0 0 N Q
← −− → L1 OP
M0
2 2
− R M PP
1 2 1
4 MN0
2
0 0 Q
The equivalent system is
LM1 2 2 x1 OPLM OP LM0OP
MM0 2 1 x2 PPMM PP = MM0PP
N0 0 0 x3 QN Q N 0Q
⇒ x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 = 0
2x2 + x3 = 0
1
⇒ x1 = –x3, x2 = – x3
2
1
By choosing x3 = t, we have x1 = – t, x2 = – t ,
2
LM −t OP
MM− 1 t PP 2 LM OP
MM PP
1
Hence X = = − t 1
MM 2 PP 2
−2 N Q
Nt Q
CHARACTERISTIC ROOTS AND VECTORS OF A MATRIX 255
MM−6 −8 −4 = M 0P PP MM x PP
MN0PQ
2
N2 −4 −12 Q Nx Q3
LM2OP
we can obtain the characteristic vector X = M2P
MN1PQ
corresponding to the characterustuc root 15.
(e) The characteristic equation of the matrix
LM 2 2 0 OP
A = MM 2 1 1 PP is
N−7 2 −3Q
LM2 − x 2 0 OP
0 = |A – xI| = MM 2 1 − x 1 PP = – x3 + 13x –12
N −7 2 −3 − xQ
So the characteristic roots of A are 1, 3, – 4.
Now the system of homogeneous equations corresponding to the root – 4 is
LM 6 2 0 OP LM x OP
1 LM0OP
MM 2 5 1 PP MM x PP
2 = MM0PP
N−7 2 1 Q Nx Q3 N 0Q
To solve this we reduce the coefficient matrix to the canonical form as follows:
LM 6 2 0OP ← −− → LM 1 1 OP
0 ← −− → 1 LM 1
0OP LM1 1
0 OP
MM 2 P MM 3
P MM 3
PP ← −− → MM 3
3 PP
1P 1P R 13
PP 16 R MM PP MM0 PP 133 R MM0 13 P
5 2 5 − 2 R1 1 1
MM
2
3
N−7 1Q N−7
1
1Q R MN0 1P
2
MN0 1P
P
Q Q
2 2 + 7 R1 13 13
3
3 3
← −− → 1LM 0 −
1 OP
M
R − 1 R M0
13
3
PP
1
3 2
M 1
13 PP
13 M0
R − R N
3 2 0 0 Q
3
The equivalent homogeneous system is
LM1 1 OP L x O
MM
0 −
13
PP MM PP
1
LM0OP
MM0 1 3
PP MM x PP
= MM0PP
N 0Q
2
13
N0 0 0 Q MN x PQ
3
256 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
1 3
⇒ x1 –
x3 = 0, x2 + x3 = 0
13 13
By choosing x3 = t, we have
LM OP
LM OP
1t
13 1
MM PP
MM PP
1
X = − 3t = t −3
13 13
13 MM PP N Q
When λ = 3, we have
t N Q
LM −1 2 0 OP LM x OP 1 LM0OP
MM 2 −2 1 PP MM x PP 2 = MM0PP .
N−7 2 −6 Q Nx Q 3 N 0Q
We reduce the coefficient matrix as follows:
LM−1 2 0 OP
←−− →
1 LM −2 0 OP LM
← −− → 1 −2 0 ← −− → 1 0 1 OP LM OP
MM 2 −2 1 PP
−1R1
2 MM −2 1 PP R2 − 2 R1 0 2 MM 1 R1 + R2 0 2 1PP . MM PP
N−7 2 −6 Q −7 N 2 −6 Q N Q
R3 + 7 R1 0 −12 −6 R3 + 6 R2 0 0 0 N Q
The equivalent homogeneous system is
1 0 1 x1LM OP LM OP LM OP
0
MM
0 2 1 x2 = PP MM PP MM PP
0
0 0 0 x3 N QN Q NQ
0
2x2 + x3 = 0
x1 + x3 = 0
1
⇒ x 1 = –x3, x2 = – x3 .
2
By choosing x3 = t, we have
LM t OP LM 2 OP
X = MM − 1 t PP = − 1 t MM 1 PP
MM 2 PP 2 MM PP
Nt Q N−2Q
Corresponding to the root 1, we have
LM 1 2 0 OP LM x OP L0O
MM 2 0 1 PP MM x PP = MM0PP .
1
By elementary row transformation the homogeneous system can be reduced to the form
LM 1 OP L OP
1 0
MM 2
x1
PP MM LM OP
PP
0
MM
0 1 − 1
x2 = 0
PP MM MM PP
4
PP NQ
Q MN
0
0 0 N 0 x3 Q
CHARACTERISTIC ROOTS AND VECTORS OF A MATRIX 257
1
⇒ x1 + x = 0,
2 3
1
x2 – x3 = 0.
4
By choosing x3 = t,
LM− 1 t OP
MM 12t PP = LM−2OP
MM 1 PP
1
t
MM 4 PP
X =
N4Q
4
Nt Q
Example 9.4.2. Show that the characteristic roots of a diagonal matrix D are the same as its
diagonal elements.
LM
d11 0 0 ...0 OP
Solution. Let D be the diagonal matrix M PP
0 d 22 0 ...0
MM M PQ
N0 0 0 ... d nn
Then the characteristic equation of D is
LMd 11 −x 0 0 M 0 OP
0 = |D – xI| = MM 0 d 22 − x 0 M 0P
PP = (d – x) (d22 – x)..(dnn– x).
MM
11
:
N 0 ..0, 0 .. d nn − x PQ
So the characteristic roots of D are d11, d22, .., dnn.
Example 9.4.3. Show that the characteristic roots of a square matrix A and A′ are identical.
Proof. We have
(A – xI)′ = A′ – (xI)′
= A′ – xI′
= A′ – xI
and |A – xI| = |(A – xI)′|
= | A′ – xI|
This mean that the characteristic polynomials of A and A′ are identical and then A and A′ have
the some characteristic roots.
Example 9.4.4. Show that if λ1, λ2, ..., λn are given eigen values of matrix A, then
(1) The inverse of A (if it exists), i.e., A–1 has the eigen values λ1–1, λ2–1, ..., λn–1.
(2) The matrix A + kI has eigen values k + λ1, k + λ2, ..., k + λn, where k is any scalar
(3) The matrix kA has eigen values kλ1 kλ2, ..., kλn where k2 is any Scalar.
(4) The matrix A2 has eigen values λ12, λ22, ..., λn2.
Proof. (1) Let λ be an eigen value of a matrix A and let X be a corresponding eigen vector.
Then
AX = λX ...(1)
258 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
=
F I adjA I
λA GH λ − | A| JK
λA F | A| I
=
| A| λH I − adjA
K
CHARACTERISTIC ROOTS AND VECTORS OF A MATRIX 259
Since |A – λI| = 0.
| λA| | A|
then I − adjA = 0
| A| λ
| A|
or I − adjA = 0
λ
| A|
or is an eigen value of adj A.
λ
PROBLEM 9.2
1. Find the characteristic roots and associated characteristic vectors of the following matrices:
LM2 0 −1 OP LM 1 −1 0 OP
(g) MM0 2 −2 PP (h) MM 1 2 1 PP
N1 −1 2 Q N−2 1 −1 Q
2. Show that at least one root of a singular matrix is zero.
3. Show that, if X is a unit vector such that AX = λX, then X* = AX = λ.
4. Show that, if the characteristic roots of A are distinct and those of B are distinct, then AB = BA if and
only if A and B have the same characteristic vectors.
5. Prove that the characteristic roots of A*. A are all non-negative.
PROBLEM 9.3
Objective Type Questions:
1. Mark each of the following: (True or False)
(a) If λ is an eigen value of A, then λ is an eigen value of A'.
–
(b) If λ is an eigen value of A, λ is an eigen value of A*.
(c) If 0 is an eigen value of A, then A is singular.
(d) If λ is an eigen value of A–1B iff λ is an eigen value of BA–1.
(e) A and P–1 AP may or may not have the same characteristic roots.
2. Fill in the blanks:
(a) If A is a square matrix, then A – xI is called .............. matrix.
(b) If A is a square matrix, then, |A – xI| is called .............. polynomial.
(c) If A is a square matrix, then |A – xI| = 0 is the .............. equation’ of the matrix A.
(d) The roots of |A – xI| = 0 are known as .............. roots of a square matrix A.
(e) Characteristic roots of a Hermition’ matrix are all ..............
(f ) Characteristic roots of a skew-symmetric matrix are ..............
(g) The characteristic roots of a .............. matrix are either zero or purely imaginary.
3. Mark each of the following: (True or False)
(a) A characteristic root of a real skew-symmetric matrix is either zero or real.
(b) A vector X is called normal if the length of X is 1.
(c) If A is orthogonal matrix, then | A | = ±1.
(d) The unitary matrix is of modulus unity.
(e) The modulus of each characteristic root of a unitary matrix is not unity.
(f ) A and A' have the same characteristic roots.
(g) If λ is the characteristic root of non-singular matrix A, |A| / λ is characteristic root of adj A.
(h) If λ1, λ2, λ3 are eigen values of a matrix A, then
(i) λ1–1, λ2–1, λ3–1 are not eigen value of A–1.
(ii) λ21, λ22, λ32 are not eigen value of A2.
(i) The characteristic roots of a diagonal matrix are diagonal elements.
(j) Every square matrix A satisfies its own characteristic equation.
(k) The product of all eigen values of a square matrix A is equal to the value of |A|.
(l) At least one characteristic root of non-singular matrix is zero.
(m) The characteristic roots of a singular matrix are all non-zero.
❑❑❑
Combinatorics
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Combinatorial analysis, which includes the study of permutations, combinations, and partitions, is
concerned with determining the number of logical possibilities of some event without necessarily
identifying every case. There are two basic counting principles used.
261
262 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
9! 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6!
(i) = = 9 · 8 · 7 = 504
6! 6!
15! 15 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11! 15 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12
(ii) = =
4 !11! 4 !11! 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1
= 15 · 7 · 13
= 1365.
Example 10.4.1. Prove that
n!
(i) n(n – 1) (n – 2) ... (n – r + 1) =
b g
n–r !
(Here the total number of factors is r)
2n!
(ii) 1 · 3 · 5..............(2n – 1). 2n =
n!
Solution. (i) We have
b gb g b g
n n − 1 n − 2 L( n − r + 1) n − r !
n(n – 1) (n – 2) ... (n – r + 1) =
b g
n−r !
n!
=
b n − r g!
(ii) R.H.S. =
b2ng! = 2nb2n − 1gb2n − 2gb2n − 3gb2n − 4g....4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
n! n!
=
b2n − 1gb2n − 3gb2n − 5g...3 ⋅ 1 2nb2n − 2g...4 ⋅ 2
n!
=
b2n − 1gb2n − 3g...3 ⋅ 1 2 nbn − 1gbn − 2g...2 ⋅ 1
n
n!
=
b2n − 1gb2n − 3g...3 ⋅1 2 n!
n
n!
= 1 · 3 · 5 ... (2n – 3) (2n – 1) · 2n
= L.H.S.
10.5 PERMUTATIONS
Definition 10.5.1 Let A be a finite set of n elements a1, a2, a3, ..., an i.e., A = {a1, a2, ..., an}. Every
ordered subset of r element of A is called the permutation of r elements taken out from n elements.
The number of permutation of r elements taken out from n elements is denoted by nPr.
THEOREM 10.5.1. To find the number of permutations of r elements taken out from n elements
n!
.
b g
nP and nP =
r r n−r !
Proof. To prove this formula, we have to make use of counting principle. To find the number
of permutations of r elements taken from n element {a1, a2, a3, ..., an} we have to find out the number
of ways of filling up r places in a line with different elements.
264 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
There are n elements, so first place can be filled up in n different ways, second can be filled
up in (n – 1) different ways, third can be filled up in (n – 2) different ways and so on and rth place
can be filled up in [n – (r – 1)] in different ways. So by product rule principle of counting r places
can be filled up in
n(n – 1) (n –2) ... [n – (r – 1)] ways
or nP = n (n – 1).... (n – r + 1) ...(1)
b gb g b gb g
r
n n − 1 n − 2 ... n − r + 1 n − r !
or nP
r =
bn – r g!
by multiplying Nr and Dr by (n – r)!
n!
b g
or nP = ...(2)
r n−r !
COR. If r = n, number of all permutation of n objects taken out from n different objects is nPn
n! n! n!
b g
or nP
n = = = = n!
n−n ! 0! 1
Hence nPn = n! since 0! = 1
REMARKS. If we put r = n in (i) we get
nP
n = n(n – 1) ... (n – n + 1)
= n(n – 1) ... 1 = n!
Example 10.5.1. How many words (permutations) can be made from the letters of word
MONDAY if.
(a) Four letters are used together
(b) All letters are used together
(c) All letters are used but first letter should be vowel ?
Solution. (a) There are six letters in word MONDAY. So the set of letters of MONDAY is
A = {M, O, N, D, A, Y}. We have to find out all permutation of 4 letters taken out from 6 letters,
that is, we have to find 6P4
or 6P
4 = 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 = 360 words.
(b) Here we have to find out all permutation of 6 letters taken out from 6 letters. So
6P
6 = 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 720 words.
(c) Here in each permutation first letter is vowel, that is, it is A or O. So first place can be filled
up in two ways and remaining 5 places are to be filled by 5 letters. These place can be filled in 5P5
= 5! ways.
So, the number of required permutation is
= 2 · 5P5 = 2 · 5! = 2 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1
= 240 words.
Example 10.5.2. In how many ways can the letters of the word MODESTY be arranged so that
(i) D and E are always together
(ii) D and E are never together
Solution. DE can be treated as one letter. So there are six letters and the number of ways
= 6P6 = 6!
= 720
COMBINATORICS 265
20! 20!
Solution. 20Pr = 13 × 20Pr – 1 ⇒
b
20 − r !
= 13 ·
g m b gr
20 − r − 1 !
1 1
⇒
b
20 – r ! g = 13 ×
b gb
20 − r + 1 20 − r
!
g
13
⇒ 1 =
20 − r + 1
⇒ 20 – r + 1 = 13
⇒ r = 8
Example 10.5.4. If 2n + 1 Pn – 1: 2n – 1Pn = 3: 5, find the value of n.
b2n + 1g!
2 n +1
Pn −1 3 b2n + 1g − bn − 1g! 3
Solution. Here 2 n −1
Pn
=
5
⇒
b2n − 1g! =
5
b2n − 1 − ng!
b2n + 1g!
bn + 2g! = 3
=
b2n − 1g! 5
bn − 1g!
b2n + 1g!bn − 1g! = 3
=
bn + 2g!b2n − 1g! 5
b2n + 1g.2nb2n − 1g!bn − 1g! 3
=
bn + 2gbn + 1gnbn − 1g!b2n − 1g! =
5
2b2n + 1g 3
=
bn + 2gbn + 1g 5=
⇒ 3n2 – 11 n – 4 = 0
⇒ (n – 4) (3n + 1) = 0
⇒ n = 4
1
or n = –
3
1
Here n = 4 and n = – cannot be accepted.
3
266 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
bn − 1g! + r. bn − 1g!
=
bn − r − 1g! bn − rg!
bn − 1g! + r. bn − 1g!
=
bn − r − 1g! bn − r gbn − r − 1g!
bn − 1g! L1 + r O
=
bn − r − 1g! MN n − r PQ
bn − 1g!bng = bng! = P
=
bn − r gbn − r − 1g! bn − r g! n
r
Example 10.5.6. How many words can be made from the letters of word ARTICLE, when
letters A, I, E are kept together ?
Solution. Here the set of letters of word ARTICLE is A = {A, R, T, I, C, L, E} which has 7
elements. If A, I, E are kept together, then {A, I, E} is supposed one letter. Thus we have R, T, C,
L and {A, I, E} five different letters.
So the number of all permutation of 5 letters is
5P
5 = 5! = 5·4·3·2·1 = 120.
And {A,I,E} can be put together in 3P3 ways, that is,
3P
3 = 3! = 3·2·1 = 6 ways.
Therefore, the number of total words according to the condition
= 5P5 . 3P3 = 120·6 = 720.
Example 10.5.7. How many numbers between 99 and 1000 can be made from digits 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6 ?
Solution. Between 99 and 1000 there will be three digit numbers. That is, three places unit,
tens, and hundred are to be filled from digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
First place can be filled in 6 ways, after filling up first place, second can be filled in 5 ways,
and after filling second, third place can be filled in 4 ways. So by product rule principle of counting
the number of required numbers
= 6·5·4 = 120
or 6 P3 = 6·5·4 = 120.
PROBLEM 10.1
1. Find the values of
(a) 7P1 (b) 7P3
(c) 7P4 (d) 7P7
2. Show that
(a) 5P4 = 5P5 (b) 6P5 = 6P6
(c) nPn−1 = nPn.
COMBINATORICS 267
Example 10.6.3. How many different words can be formed with letters of the word
ALLAHABAD ? In how many do the consonant appear on even places ?
Solution. Here the set of letters of the given word is A = {A, L, L, A, H, A, B, A, D} which
has 9 letters in which there are 4 A’s and 2L’s.
9!
Hence, the numbers of permutations =
4! 2!
9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1
= = 9 · 8 · 7 · 3 · 5 = 7560
4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1⋅ 2 ⋅1
In ALLAHABAD, there are 4 vowels A’s and 5 consonants L, L, H, B, D in which there are
2L’s. So the number of permutations
4 ! 5! 5!
P1 = × =1× = 60
4 ! 2! 2!
Example 10.6.4. How many words can be formed of the letter of the word MALENKOV so
that
(i) No two vowels are together
(ii) The relative position of the vowels and consonants remains unaltered.
Solution. There are five consonants and three vowels in the word MALENKOV. We can first
arrange 5 consonants. This can be done in 5! ways let one arrangement be
×M×L×N×K×V×
Let us suppose that the vowels are placed at the marks (X). Thus no two vowels would be
together. Since there are six places, so three vowels can be arranged in 6P3 ways,
i.e., 6P
3 = 6 · 5 · 4 = 120 ways.
Hence, the total number of arrangements
= 120 × 120
= 14400
(ii) The vowels have to occupy second, fourth and seventh places. These can be arranged in
3! = 6 ways and the consonants have to occupy remaining position in 5! = 120 ways.
Hence, the required number of ways are
6 × 120 = 720
Example 10.6.5. Seven candidates are to take examination; 2 in mathematics and remaining in
different subjects. In how many ways can they be seated in a row so that two examinees in mathematics
may sit together.
Solution. There are 7! ways in which 7 candidates can sit on 7 seats. We first find the number
of permutation in which the two mathematics candidates are seated together. Regard them as one so
that the number of candidates is 6.
They can be seated in 6! ways and two mathematics candidates can be arranged in 2! ways. So
the number of arrangement when they are together is 6! × 2! = 1440. Hence, the number of arrangement
when they are not together is
= 7! – 1440
= 5040 – 1440 = 3600
270 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Example 10.6.6. How many numbers greater than a million be formed with the digits 2, 3, 0,
3, 4, 2, 3 ?
Solution. 1 million = 10 lacs = 10,00,000
Number greater than million contains 7 digits
We are to take all the 7 digits out of which 2 is repeated
2 times and 3 is repeated 3 times
7!
∴ Number of permutation = = 420.
2 ! 3!
These arrangements also include numbers which have zero in the extreme left position. Since
zero on extreme left has no significance, therefore such numbers are excluded from total numbers.
When zero occupies extreme left position, remaining six places are to be filled by 6 digits in
which there are two 2’s and three 3’s so.
6!
Numbers of permutation = = 60
2 ! 3!
Therefore the required number = 420 – 60 = 360.
Example 10.6.7. Prove that the number of ways in which n books can be arranged on a shelf
so that two particular books shall not be together is (n – 2) (n – 1)!
Proof. Suppose that two books A and B are together then there are (n – 1) books which can
be arranged in (n – 1) ! × 2! ways.
If the books A and B are not together, the n the book can be arranged in n! ways.
So the number of arrangements in which two particular books are not together = Total
arrangements of n books—arrangement of (n – 1) books
= n! – (n – 1)! · 2!
= n(n – 1)! –2(n – 1)!
= (n – 1)! (n – 2).
PROBLEM 10.2
1. How many different words can be formed with the letter of the word “ø◊∑§ Œ◊∑§” ?
2. In how many different ways can the letters of the word COMMITTEE be arranged ?
3. In how many different orders can the letters of the word INTERFERE be written, if any two consonants
may not be together ?
4. How many words can be made with the letter of the word CONSTANTINOPLE ?
5. In how many arrangements can the letters of the word PLANTAIN be written so that A’s may not
occur together ?
6. How many words can be formed with letters of the word ASSASSINATION ?
7. Find the number of permutations of the word ACCOUNTANT ?
8. How many permutation are made with letters of the word ENGINEERING ?
9. How many words can be formed with the letters of the word FATHER ? How many words can be
formed which begins with A and ends with R ?
10. How many permutation are formed from the letters of the word INDIA ?
11. How many numbers having 5 digits each can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 0, 3, 5, 6, 8, (no digit
being repeated).
COMBINATORICS 271
12. In how many ways can 10 examination papers be arranged so that the best and worst papers never
come together ?
13. In how many ways can 20 books be arranged on shelf so that particular pair of books shall not come
together ?
14. How many different signals can be made with 5 different coloured flags, one above the other when
any number of them may be hoisted at once ?
D B B D
C D A B
C A A C
B D
The various arrangements of the letters are obviously abcd, dabc, cdab and bcda.
From each circular permutation of 4 letters, we would get 4 linear permutations. Therefore, the
total number of linear arrangements of 4 different things is 4!
So 4x = 4!
4! 4 ⋅ 3!
x = = = 3!
4 4
Thus, the number of permutations of 4 different things taken all at a time is (4 –1)! = 3! when
this case is extended to the case of circular permutations of n different things taken all at a time, the
number of circular permutations is (n – 1)!
272 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PROBLEM 10.3
1. 7 persons make a circle by holding hands with each other. In how many ways do they form circle ?
2. In how many ways can five boys and five girls make circle so that no two girls may be together ?
3. In how many ways can eight persons sit at a round table if two particular persons (a) always sit
together (b) Never sit together.
4. In how many ways 10 persons be seated at a round table so that host and hostess sit apposite to each
other.
5. A man invities 12 friends for a dinner and he gets 7 persons seated on one round table and 5 persons
on other round table. In how many way can be get them seated on both round tables ?
10.9 COMBINATIONS
Definition 10.9.1. Let A = {a1, a2,......, an} be a set of n elements let B = {a1, a2,....., ar} be a subset
of A with r elements where r < n. Then the subset B is called combination of r elements taken out
n FG IJ
from n elements. The total number of all subsets having r elements is denoted by nCr or r . Here
HK
we have to find out the number of all collections having r elements taken from given n elements.
COMBINATORICS 273
=
b gb
n n – 1 ... n − r + 1 g
r!
b g b gb gb g
n n − 1 +... n − r + 1 n − r n − r − 1 ...3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
=
b gb g
r ! n − r n − r − 1 ...3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
n!
=
b g
r! n − r !
n!
∴ nC
r =
b g
r! n − r !
since x = nCr
n! n!
CORROLLARY 1. Put r = n, we see that nCn =
b
r! n − n !
=
g
n! 0!
= 1.
18 C
18 ⋅17 ⋅16
Hence = = 816
3 3⋅ 2 ⋅1
274 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
(b) Here we have to find out the number of combinations of 18 persons taken 14 at a time
18 C 18C 14C
18 ⋅ 17 ⋅ 16 ⋅ 15
Hence = = = = 3060.
14 18–14 4 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1
CORROLLARY. nC + nCr−− 1 = n +1C
r r-1
n! n!
b g b gb +
g
Proof. nC + nCr−1 =
r r! n − r ! r −1 ! n − r +1 !
n! n!
=
b gb
r r −1 ! n − r !
+
g b gb
r −1 ! n − r +1 n − r ! gb g
n! LM 1 + 1 OP
=
b g b g N r n − r + 1Q
r − 1 ! n − r !
n! LM n + 1 OP
=
br − 1g!bn − r g! MN rbn − r + 1g PQ
n! LM n + 1 OP
=
br − 1g!bn − r g! MN rbn − r + 1g PQ
bn + 1g! = C
r!b n + 1 − rg !
= n+1
r
Example 10.10.2. In how many ways can 7 teachers of mathematics be chosen out of 10 men
and 7 women when (a) 3 men are included (b) 3 or 4 men are included ?
Solution. (a) 3 men can be chosen out of 10 men in 10C3 ways, and remain 4 mathemtic
teachers can be chosen out of 7 women in 7C4 ways.
Therefore by fundamental principle of counting 7 maths teacher can be chosen in
10 C 7C
10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4
= = 4200 ways.
3 4 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4
(b) If there are 3 men, then 4 women will be chosen. Thus 7 maths teachers can be chosen in
10C × 7C4 ways, or if there are 4 men, then 3 women will be chosen. Thus 7 maths teachers can
3
be chosen in 10C4 × 7C3 ways.
10C 7C
10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4
= = 7350.
4 3 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4
Hence if 3 or 4 men are chosen, there will be 4 or 3 women.
Thus 7 maths teachers can be chosen
10C 7C + 10C 7C = 4200 + 7350 = 11,550 ways.
3 4 4 3
Example 10.10.3. There are one president, 2 secretaries and 12 members in a council. How
many different committees of 5 persons can be formed if president and at least one secretary are
included in each committee.
Solution. If in each committee there are one president, 1 secretary and 3 members, then the
committee of 5 members can be formed in 1C1 · 2C1 · 12C3 ways.
COMBINATORICS 275
And if in each committee there are 1 president, 2 secretaries and 2 members, then the committee
of 5 persons can be formed in 1C1.2C2.12C2 ways.
Thus the committee of 5 persons in which 1 president, at least 1 secretary are included can be
formed in
1C · 2C · 12C + 1C · 2C · 12C ways = 1.2
12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 12 ⋅ 11
+ 1·1 ways
1 1 3 1 2 2 3⋅ 2 ⋅1 2 ⋅1
= 440 + 66 = 506 ways.
Example 10.10.4. If nCr: nCr+1: nCr+2 = 24 : 9 : 2 Find n and r.
n! n!
Solution. nC =
r r! n − r 1
, nC
b g
r+1 = r +1 ! n − r −1 !
,
b gb g
n!
br + 2g!bn − r − 2g!
nC =
r+2
n n! br + 1g!bn − r − 1g ! = br + 1g 24
r !bn − r g!
Cr ×
Now = =
n
Cr +1 n! n−r 9
r +1 8
⇒ =
n−r 3
⇒ 8n – 11r – 3 = 0 ...(1)
n
C r +1 n! b gb
n+2 !n−r−2 ! r+2 g 9 b g
and n
Cr + 2
=
b gb
r +1 ! n − r −1 !
×
g n!
=
n − r −1
=
2
⇒ 9n – 11r – 13 = 0 ...(2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get n = 10, r = 7.
Example 10.10.5. Prove that nCr = n – 1C
r + n – 1C
r–1
bn – 1g! bn − 1g!
r !bn − 1 − r g! br − 1g!b n − 1 − r + 1g!
Solution. Here,n – 1Cr + n – 1C
r–1 = +
bn – 1g! + bn − 1g!
=
r !bn − r − 1g! br − 1g!bn − r g!
bn – 1g! + bn − 1g! . 1
=
rbr − 1g!bn − r − 1g! br − 1g!bn − r g bn − r − 1g!
bn – 1g! L 1 + 1 O
=
br − 1g!bn − r − 1g MN r n − r PQ
bn – 1g!n
=
br − 1g!rbn − rgbn − r − 1g!
n!
=
b g
r! n − r !
= nCr
276 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
=
b gb g b g
1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3..... n n + 1 n + 2 ..... n + r
1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3........ n.
=
b n + r g! = b n + r g! × r ! = n + rC × r!
n! n! r! r
or n + rC =
bn + 1gbn + 2g....bn + r g
r r!
= Product of r consecutive integers is divisible by r!
Example 10.10.7. How many diagonals can be formed by joining the angular points of (i) an
octagon (ii) a polygon of side n ?
Solution. When two vertices are joined in an octagon, there are only two possibilities. Either
will be diagonal or a side of octagon. Moreover, it has 8 vertices and 8 sides.
So the total number of combination of 8 points taken 2 at a time
= 8C 2
8× 7
= = 28
12
.
Hence the total diagonal = 28 – 8 = 20
(ii) Similarly, the number of diagonals in a polygon of side n
= nC2 – n
=
b g
n n −1
–n
12
.
=
n 2 − n − 2n
=
n n–3 b g
2 2
Example 10.10.8. There are 16 points in a plane. Find the numbers of straight lines formed by
joining them when (i) no three of the points are in a straight line (ii) when 4 of the points are
collinear. How many triangles can be formed in this case?
Solution. Any two points joined together gives a straight line. The required number of straight
lines
16C
16 ⋅15
= = = 120.
2 1⋅ 2
4⋅3
Further 4 points give 4C2 = = 6 straight lines but when there four points are collinear. They
1⋅ 2
form a single straight line.
So the required number of straight lines
= 120 – 6 + 1 = 115
The combination of 16 points taken 3 at a time give the number of triangles i.e., 16C =
3
16 ⋅ 15 ⋅ 14
= 560.
1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3
COMBINATORICS 277
Example 10.10.9. From 3 capitals, 5 consonants and 5 vowels, how many words can be formed,
each containing 3 consonants and 2 vowels and beginning with a capital?
Solution. One capital can be chosen out of 3 capitals in 3C1 ways, 3 consonants can be chosen
out of 5 consonants in 5C3 ways and 2 vowels can be chosen in 5C2 ways. Hence a word beginning
with capital and containing 3 consonants and 2 vowels can be chosen in
3C × 5C × 5C
1 3 2 = 300 ways.
Further each combination of 5 letters as formed above can be arranged in 5! = 120 ways.
Hence the total number of words formed above are
= 120 × 300 = 36000 ways.
Example 10.10.10. If 10C = 10C find the value of 5Cr
r r+4
Solution. r and r + 4 can be equal to each other.
Hence, 10 C = 10C 10C
r 10−r = r+4
(10 – r) = r + 4 ⇒ 2r = 10 – 4
⇒ 2r = 6
⇒ r=3
5C = 5C =
5⋅ 4 ⋅ 3
Hence = 10
r 3 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3
PROBLEM 10.4
1. (a) If nC10 = nC15, find the value of n,
(b) If 18Cr = 18Cr+2 find the value of rC5
(c) If 15Cx = 15Cy and x ≠ y, find the value of x + y
2. Prove that
n − r +1
(a) nCr = nCn−r (b) nC = . nCr-1
r
4n
Cr − 2 a f
1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5..... 4 n − 1
{1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5....... a 2n − 1f}
(c) nC + 2.nCr-1 + nCr-2 = n+2C (d) =
r r 2n 2
Cn
5⋅ 4 5⋅ 4 ⋅ 3
=5+ +
1⋅ 2 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3
= 5 + 10 + 10 = 25
b2ng!
Cor. If m = n, the above result becomes
bn!g 2
which means the number of ways in which (2n) things can be divided into two distinct groups. It,
however, no distinction is made between the two groups of n things each, then the number of
different divisions are
b 2n g !
2!bn!g
= 2
To illustrate this point we consider 4 things say A, B, C and D which are to be divided into
two groups each containing 2 things. One way of division is AB, CD. Another is CD, AB which is
the same as first one. Similarly groups AB, BD, AD, BC are identical with BD, AB, BC, AD respectively.
4!
b g
Hence the numbers of ways = 2
=3
2 2!
If we keep the distinction between the two groups, the required number of ways would be
4!
b2!g 2 = 6.
Now each of the above ways of division which consists of (m + n) things can further be divided
into groups of m and n things respectively in
m + nC =
bm + ng!
ways.
n
m! n !
Associating these two events, the total number of ways in which (m + n + p) things can be
divided into three groups containing m, n and p things respectively.
bm + n + pg!bm + ng!
=
bm + ng!m!n! p!
=
bm + n + pg!
m! n! p!
CORROLLARY. If m = n = p, when all groups contain equal number of things, then the number
of ways in which 3m things can be divided into three equal but distinct groups of m things each.
b3mg!
=
bm!g 3
If, however, no distinction is made between the three groups of things, then the required number
of ways
b3mg!
3!bm!g
= 3
Example 10.12.1. In how many ways can 18 different books be divided equally among three
students ?
Solution. Since the books are to be distributed among three students, the groups will be distinct
of 6 different books.
18!
∴
b g
The required number of ways = 3
6!
Solution. The man can invite 1, or 2, or 3 or, ... out of his 7 friends in 7C1, 7C2, 7C3, ..., 7C7
ways respectively.
Hence, total numbers of ways = 7C1 + 7C2 + 7C3 + 7C4 + 7C5 + 7C6 + 7C7
= 27 – 1 = 127
Example 10.13.2. A candidate for pre-university examination has to pass in each of the four
subjects. In how many ways can he fail ?
Solution. The candidate can fail in 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 subjects hence the number of ways in which
he can fail.
= 4C1 + 4C2 + 4C3 + 4C4
= 4+6+4+1
= 15 or 24 – 1 = 15.
n − r +1
⇒ > 1
r
⇒ n + 1 > 2r
n+1
⇒ r <
2
Now there are two cases
(i) when n is even say n = 2m
n +1 2m + 1 1
then = =m +
2 2 2
nC
1
Here r is greatest if r = m +
2
n
∴ nC
r is greatest if r = m =
2
(ii) When n is odd say n = 2m + 1
n +1 2m + 1 + 1
∴ = = m + 1 (m is integer)
2 2
n+1 n–1 n +1
Integral part of = m+1= +1=
2 2 2
n +1
∴ nC
r is greatest when r =
2
Example 10.15.1. Find the value of r for which
(i) 16 Cr (ii) 19Cr are the greatest
Solution. Here n = 16 an even number
16
∴ nC
r is greatest when r = =8
2
Here n = 19, an odd number
n +1 19 + 1
∴ nC
r is greatest when r = = = 10
2 2
Example 10.15.2. A basket of fruits contains 7 mangoes, 6 apples and 4 oranges. Find the
number of selections which can be made if
(i) One fruit of each type is to be taken.
(ii) At least one fruit of each type is to be taken.
(iii) At least one fruit is to be taken.
Solution. (i) One mango out of 7 can be taken in 7C1 ways
One apple out of 6 can be taken in 7C1 ways
One orange out of 4 can be taken in 4C1 ways
Hence the number of ways in which one fruit of each type is taken
= 7C1 × 6C1 × 4C1 = 7 × 6 × 4 = 168.
(ii) He can choose 1 or 2 or 3,.... or 7 mangoes out of 7 in
7C + 7C + 7C + .... + 7C = 27 – 1 ways
1 2 3 1
282 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Similarly, he can take 1 or 2 or 3 .... 6 apples out of 6 in 26 – 1 ways and he can take 1 or
2 or 3 ... or all organes in 24 – 1 ways.
Hence the required number of ways in which at least one fruit of each type is to be taken is
(27 –1) (26 –1) (24 – 1) = 120015.
(iii) He may select 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 mangoes or reject all the mangoes. So he can select
mangoes in 8 ways. Similarly, he can select 6 apples and 4 oranges in 7 and 5 ways respectively.
Hence, the total number of selecting fruit
= 8 × 7 × 5 = 280
But this includes the case in which none of these has been taken. Hence the number of ways
in which one fruit is to be taken
= 280 – 1 = 279
Example 10.15.3. In how many ways can 15 persons be divided into 3 groups ?
Solution. Each group will contain 5 persons. Hence required number
15!
b5!g 3!
3
Example 10.15.4. In how many ways can a pack of 52 cards be distributed in 4 bundles in
which each contain 13 cards ? In how many ways can these cards be distributed among 4 players
when each player gets 13 cards ?
52!
Solution. Required number of bundles =
b g
4
13! ⋅ 4!
52! 52!
Now these bundles can be distributed among 4 players in 4!
b13!g 4
⋅ 4!
=
b13!g 4 ways.
Example 10.16.4. Suppose a laundry bag contains many red, white and blue socks. Find the
minimum number of socks that one needs to choose in order to get two pairs (four socks) of the same
colour.
Solution. Here there are n = 3 colours (pigeonholes) and k + 1 = 4 or k = 3. Thus among any
kn + 1 = 3.3 + 1 = 10 socks (pigeons) four of them have the same colour.
Solution. Here we have to find out n(H ∪ E ∪ U), where H, E and ∪ denote the set of students
studying Hindi, English and Urdu. By inclusion and exclusion principle
n(H ∪ E ∪ U) = n(H) + n(E) + n(U) – n(H ∩ E) – n(H ∩ U) – n(E ∩ U) + n(H ∩ E ∩ U)
= 65 + 45 + 42 – 20 – 25 – 15 + 8 = 100
Thus, 100 students study at least one of the languages.
REMARK.The students study only Hindi = n(H) – n(H ∩ E) – n(H ∩ U) + n(H ∩ E ∩ U)
The students study only English = n(E) – n(E ∩ H) – n(E ∩ U) + n(E ∩ H ∩ U)
The students study only Urdu = n(U) – n(U ∩ H) – n(U ∩ E) + n(U ∩ E ∩ H).
In above example the students study only Hindi
= n(H) – n(H ∩ E) – n(H ∩ U) +n(H ∩ E ∩ U)
= 65 – 20 – 25 + 8
= 28.
PROBLEM 10.5
1. Assume there are n distinct pairs of shoes in a closet. Show that if you choose n + 1 single shoes
at random from the closet, you are certain to have a pair.
2. Find the minimum number of students needed to guarantee that fine of them belong to the same class
(Freshman, Sophomone, Junior, Senior).
3. A student must take five classes from three areas of study. Numerous classes are offered in each
discipline, but the student cannot take more than two classes is any given area.
(a) Using the pigeonhole principle, show that the student will take at least two classes in one area.
(b) Using inclusion-exclusion principle, show that the student will have to take at least one class in
each area.
4. Let L be a list of the 26 letters in the English alphabet (which consists of five vowels a, e, i, o, u
and 21 consonants).
(a) Show that L has a sublist consisting of four or more consecutive consonants.
(b) Assuming L begins with a vowel, say, A, show that L has a sublist consisting of five or more
consecutive consonants.
5. Find the minimum number n of integers to be selected from
S = {1, 2, ..., 9} so that
(a) The sum of two of the n integers is even.
(b) The difference of two of the n integers is 5.
6. There are 22 female students and 18 male students in a classroom. How many students are there in
total ?
7. Of 32 people who save paper or bottles (or both) for recycling. 30 save paper and 14 save bottles.
Find the number m of people who (a) save only paper (b) only save bottles (c) save both.
8. Suppose 12 people read Hindustan Times or Business Times or both. Given three people read only
Hindustan Times and six read both, find the number k of people who read only Business Times.
9. Consider a tournament in which of n players against every other players and each player wins at least
once. Show that there are at least two players having the same number of wins.
Hint. The number of wins for a player is at least 1 and at must n –1. These n –1 numbers correspond
to n –1 pigeonholes which cannot accommodate n players (pigeons) thus at least two players will
have the same number of wins.
❑❑❑
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
PROBLEM 1.1
1. (a), (c) (d), (f) and (h) are prepositions.
2. (a) Some students are not industrious.
(b) One side of mercury always does not face the sun.
(c) Either I do not like plums or I do not like drinking lemonade.
(d) A power of 2 some times ends in a 7.
(e) The sun will not be shinning and I shall not carry an umbrella.
PROBLEM 1.2
1. The true statements are p - q, p - r, p - s, q - r, q - s and r - s, is false.
2. The true statements are p . q, p . s, and q . s, the rest are false.
PROBLEM 1.3
1. (a) High speed driving is dangerous and Ram was a wise man.
(b) High speed driving is not dangerous or Ram was a wise man.
(c) High speed driving is dangerous and Ram was not a wise man.
(d) Hig speed driving is dangerous and Ram was a wise man or High speed driving is not
dangerous and Ram was not a wise man.
(e) Either high speed driving is dangerous or Ram was a wise man but not both.
PROBLEM 1.4
1. (a) ~p ∧ ~q, (b) F (c) T, (d) ~p.
PROBLEM 2.1
1. (a) {3, 13, 23, 33, 43}
(b) {7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42}
(c) {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29}
(d) {5 , – 5} are not even, φ
(e) {1, 3, 5, 15}
(f) {3, – 3}
(g) {–4, –2, 0, 2, 4, 6}.
2. (a), (b), (c), (d).
3. (a) {x | x is foreigner who visited India in 2007}
(b) {x | x is a point in a plane}
285
286 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PROBLEM 2.2
1. B ⊂ A, C ⊂ A, D ⊂ A, E ⊂ A, B ⊂ D.
2. (a) A ⊆ D, (b) A ⊂ B, (c) B ⊂ C.
3. N ⊂ W, N ⊂ Z, N ⊂ Q, N ⊂ R, P ⊂ N, D ⊂ N, E ⊂ N, N ⊂ R,
W ⊂ Z, W ⊂ Q, W ⊂ R, P ⊂ W, Q ⊂ W, E ⊂ W, Z ⊂ Q,
Z ⊂ R, P ⊂ Z, O ⊂ Z, Z– ⊂ Z, Q ⊂ Z, P ⊂ Q, O ⊂ Q, E ⊂ Q,
Z– ⊂ Q, P ⊂ R, O ⊂ R, E ⊂ R, Z– ⊂ R, R ⊂ R.
5. (1) True, (2) False, (3) False, (4) True, (5) False.
6. {1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1} = {x | x3 – 6x3 + 11x – 6 = 0}.
PROBLEM 2.3
1. (a) A, (b) B, (c) C, (d) A, (e) φ, (f) A, (g) C, (h) B.
2. (i) (a) φ, (b) A, (c) U, (d) U, (e) φ, (f) A, (g) φ, (h) U.
(ii) (a) A, (b) A, (c) φ, (d) U.
3. (a) A ∩ B = set of all integral multiple of 6.
(b) A ∪ B = set of all integers divisible by 2 or by 3.
(c) B ∩ C = set of all integral multiples of 12.
(d) Z, (e) A, (f) A – ⊂ = {4n + 2 | n ∈ Z}.
(g) Z – C = {x | x is of the form 4n + 1 or 4n + 2 or 4n + 3, n ∈ Z}.
4. (a) A′, (b) φ, (c) A, (d) φ, (e) φ .
8. A, B, φ, (B – A)c.
10. (a) φ, (b) φ, (c) B.
(d) The set of integers between 1 and 50 exclusive, which are not multiple of 3, that is, D′
= {x | x = 3n + 1 or 3n + 2, n ∈ Z, 1 x 50}.
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 287
PROBLEM 2.4
1. P(A) = {φ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {d}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c}, {b, d}, {c, d}, {b, c, d},
{a, c, d}, {a, b, d}, {a, b, c}, A}.
2. (a) 29, (b) 21, (c) 22, (d) 23,
(e) 24, (f) 25, (g) 20, = 1, when n = 0, 2n, n ≠ 0.
3. A (P) = {φ, {(a, b)}, {e}, {(a, b), c}}.
PROBLEM 2.5
1. A × B = {(–1, 0), (0, 0), (1, 0), (–1, 2), (0, 2), (1, 2)}
B × A = {(0, –1), (0, 0), (0, 1), (2, –1), (2, 0), (2, 1)}
2. S × T = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}
T × S = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (a, 2), (b, 2)}
3. A × B = {(1, x), (1, y), (1, z), (2, x), (2, y), (2, z), (3, x), (3, y), (3, z)}
B × A = {(x, 1), (y, 1), (z, 1), (x, 2), (y, 2), (z, 2), (x, 3), (y, 3), (z, 3)}
PROBLEM 2.6
1. (i) A15 (ii) {2, 3, 4, ....} = N – {1}
(iii) {4} (iv) R, the set of real numbers.
2. (i) D3 (ii) D30
(iii) DS ∪ Dt = Dm, m = min (S, t) (iv) DS ∩ Dt = DM, M = max (S, t).
PROBLEM 3.1
1. S × T = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, x), (2, y), (3, x), (3, y)}
Same S × T has 6 elements, there will be 26 subsets of S × T.
Write any ten subsets.
2. (a) {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2), (3, 3), (4, 3), (4, 4)}
(b) {(2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (3, 2), (4, 2), (4, 3)}
(c) {(1, 4), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)}
(d) {(1, 1), (2, 4)}
3. mm elements 2mn.
PROBLEM 3.2
1. (a), (b), (c) are equivalence relation.
(a) {[0], [1]}, (b) {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4]}.
288 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PROBLEM 3.3
1. 2. S × T = {(1, a), (2, a), (1, b), (2, b) (2, b)}
(i) {(1, a), (2, a)}, (iii) {(1, a), (2, b)}
(ii) {(1, b), (2, b)}, (iv) {(1, b), (2, a)}
2. S × T = {(1, x), (2, x), (3, x), (1, y), (2, y), (3, y)}.
(i) {(1, x) (2, x), (3, x)} (v) {(1, y), (2, y), (3, x)}
(ii) {(1, y), (2, y), (3, x)} (vi) {(1, y), (2, x), (3, y)}
(iii) {(1, x), (2, x), (3, y)} (vii) {(1, x), (2, x)}
(iv) {(1, x), (2, y), (3, x)} (viii) {(1, x), (2, y)}
(ix) {(1, y), (2, y)}
(x) {(1, y), (2, x)}
3. (a) and (b) are functions. (c) is not function because in (2, 1), (2, 3) first component 2 is
repeated.
4. (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f) and (h) are functions. And (g) and (i) one not functions.
5. (a) one (b) one (c) Sex (d) Two.
6. (i) {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3)} (ii) {(a, 1), (b, 3), (c, 2)}
(iii) {(b, 1), (a, 2), (c, 3)} (iv) {(b, 1), (a, 3), (c, 2)}
(v) {(c, 1), (a, 2), (b, 3)} (vi) {(c, 1), (a, 3), (b, 2)}
7. (a), (b), (d) are one to one.
8. (a) RF = R, (b) RF = R, (d) RF = R.
9. f (A) = {0, – 2, 18, 108}
10. Bijective function.
11. Many to one out into mapping.
PROBLEM 3.4
1. f o g = {(2, 5), (5, 2), (6, 5)}
g o f = {(1, 3), (3, 1)}
8. (a) True (b) False (c) True (d) True (e) True (f) false.
9. (a) No (b) No (c) Yes (d) Injective (e) Yes (f) Yes (g) Yes (h) Yes (i) Yes (j) Yes
(k) Yes (l) Yes.
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 289
PROBLEM 3.5
1. all satisfy conditions (1) and (2).
3. (a) is not commutative all associative.
(b) commutative all associative.
(c) commutative all associative.
(d) commutative all associative.
(e) not commutative all not associative.
(f) commutative all associative.
(g) commutative all associative.
(h) commutative all associative.
(i) commutative all associative.
4. (a) b * d = e, c * c = b (a * c) * e * a = a
(b) (a * b) * c = a = a * (b * c)
(c) (b * d) * c = a ≠ b * (d * c) = c
(d) No.
5. (a) False (b) True (c) False (d) False (e) True (f) True (g) True.
PROBLEM 4.1
1. (a) 1 > 5 (b) 2 y 3 (c) 4 < 1 (d) 3 y 4
2. (a) Minimal points = {4, 5}, maximal point = {1}. 4 5 are lower bound and 1 is upper bound.
24
6
3. (a) A = {2, 6, 24). 2/6, 6/24
2
15
12
6
2
(c) A = {1, 2, 3, 6, 12} 1/2, 1/3, 2/3, 3/6, 6/12. 3
16
2
290 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
54
27
3
{a}
PROBLEM 4.4
1. The elements 1 and 75 are complements of each other. The elements 3 and 25 are complements
of each other. The elements 5 and 15 have no complements.
4. S30 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30} is complemented
and S45 = {1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 45} is not complemented.
PROBLEM 5.1
7. (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) (a · b) + c
(d) b (e) x′ · y .
PROBLEM 5.2
1. (a) 1 (b) x′ (c) x
3. (i) xz + x′y′z′ = xyz + xy′z + x′y′z′
(ii) xz′ + y′z = xyz′ + xy′z′ + xy′z′ + x′y′z
4. g (x, y, z) = xz′ + y′z, h (x, y, z) = xyz′ + xy′z + x′yz.
PROBLEM 5.3
1. (a) f (x, y, z) = (x, y, z′).
(b) f (x, y, z,) = (x · y · z′) + (x · y′· z) + (x · y′· z′) + (x′ · y · z′) + x′ · y′ · z + x′ · y′ · z′.
2. (a) (x · y′ · z) + (yx′ · z′) + (x′ · y · z) + (x′ · y′ · z) + (x′ · y · z′) + (x′ · y′ · z′); and
(x + y′ + z) – (x + y′ + z′) – (x′ + y + z) – (x′ + y′ + z) · (x′ + y + z′)
– (x′ + y′ + z′).
(b) (x · y · z) + (x · y · z′) + (x′ · y′ · z) + (x′ · y′ · z′); and
(x + y + z) · (x + y + z′) · (x′ + y′ + z) · (x′ + y′ + z′).
(c) (x · y · z′) + (x · y′ · z′) + (x′ · y · z) + (x′ · y · z′); and
(x + y + z′) · (x + y′ + z′) · (x′ + y + z) . (x′ + y + z′).
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 291
PROBLEM 6.1
1. (a) True and rest are false.
2. (a) 3. (a) F (b) F (c) F (d) T (e) F
4. (b) 4 × 2 (e) 5 × 5 (f) 5 × 2
6. (a) [67 41 41] (b) [64 28 59]
LM 6 OP
(c) [63 67 57] (d) MM 6 PP
N63Q
LM76OP
(e) [24 56 97] (f) MM98PP
N97Q
7. [182]
L3 7 −3 OP LM 3 0 OP
(a) M MM10 PP
9.
MN4 8 −1PQ
(b)
N11
0
4 Q
PROBLEM 6.2
LM 2 −1OP , B LM
1 4 3 OP 1 3 0 LM OP
1. A–1 =
N−5 3 Q N Q N Q
–1 = , C–1 =
20 −4 2 6 0 2
1 L 6 −4O
A= − M
2 N −5 3 PQ
3.
LM 7 2 OP
A = M4 1P
7 7
MN 7 7 PQ
4.
A = M
L 1 0 OP , A LM
1 27 0 OP 0 0 LM OP
N26 27Q N Q N Q
5. 3 –3 = , A2 –2A + I = .
27 −26 1 4 4
292 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PROBLEM 6.3
LM 1 − 1 OP L0 −1 OP LM−1 OP LM 0 +1 OP LM 23 1 OP
MM 12 1 2 PP, MM
0
, M P
P M P M P
2
0 PQ M− 1 3P
4. , ,
MN 2 2 PQ MN1 0 PQ MN 0 −1PQ MN−1
MN 2 2 PQ
L1 0O
(a) M4 1P
LM1 −2OP
7.
N Q (b)
N0 1 Q
LM1 0 OP LM+6 0OP
(a) M 1P
8.
MN 3 PQ
0
(b)
N 0 1Q
9. (a) Expands in x-direction by factor 3.
(b) Expands in the negative of x-direction by factor –5.
(c) Sheor in the x-direction by factor 4.
L1 OP LM1 OP LM 23 −1
OP LM 3 −1
OP
(b) M
0 0
MM0 PM P1P MM 1 P = MM PP
2 2 2
3PQ MN2 3P
N Q MN 2 2 PQ MN3 3+3
2
−3 +
3
2 PQ
3
11 3
14. y′ = x′ +
16 16
2
15. (a) y′ = x′ (b) y′ = x′ (c) y′ = 2x′
7
F 2+ 3 I
(d) y′ = –2x′ (e) y′ = GH 1 − 2 3 JK x′
LM1 −2 OP
16.
MN0 1 PQ
PROBLEM 7.1
1. (i) ρ (A) = 3, (ii) ρ (A) = 2, (iii) ρ (A) = 2, (iv) ρ (A) = 2,
(v) ρ (A) = 2, (vi) ρ (A) = 3, (vii) ρ (A) = 1, (viii) ρ (A) = 2.
PROBLEM 7.2
1. (a) ρ (A) = 1, (b) ρ (A) = 3, (c) ρ (A) = 2, (d) ρ (A) = 3,
(e) ρ (A) = 4, (f) ρ (A) = 2, (g) ρ (A) = 2.
PROBLEM 7.3
1. (i) ρ (A) = 3, (ii) ρ (A) = 4, (iii) ρ (A) = 3, (iv) ρ (A) = 2,
(v) ρ (A) = 2, (vi) ρ (A) = 4, (vii) ρ (A) = 3, (viii) ρ (A) = 4,
(ix) ρ (A) = 2, (x) ρ (A) = 2, (xi) ρ (A) = 3, (xii) ρ (A) = 3.
PROBLEM 7.4
1 0 0 1 −1 −1
1 −1 0 ,Q= 0 1 0
1. (a) P =
2 2
0 0 1
−2 −1 1
1 −2 −1 −4
1 0 0 3
3 1 0 1 0 −1
(b) P = 0 ,Q=
2 2 3
1 1 0 0 1
1 2
8 2
0 0 0 1
294 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
1 −6 10 −2 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
(c) P = ,Q= 0 0 1 −1 0
2
−1 9 0 0
8 8
0 0 1 1 0
− 1 1 1 1
4 4 4 8
0 0 −3 −1 0
2
1 0 0 0 1 −2 −3 2
−2 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
(d) P = ,Q=
−1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
2 1
− 0 0 0 0 1 0
9 3
1 3 −1 1 3
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
(e) P = 1 −2 0 ,Q= 0 0 1 −2 5
−4 5 1 0 −1 0 0 3
0 0 0 0 1
2. ρ (A) = 3, ρ (B) = 1, ρ (A + B) = 3.
PROBLEM 7.6
1
0
2
0 −3 2 −6 −2
1 1 2 −7 5 −13 −4
1. A–1 = − − , 2. A–1 =
11 22 11 2 −1 4 1
4 7 3 1 0 1 0
−
11 22 11
0 2 1 3
6 3 −3
1 1 −1 −2
3. A–1 = , 4. A–1 = 2 −2 1
1 2 0 1
−1 1 5
−1 1 2 6
PROBLEM 7.7
1. (3), 2. (b), 3. (a), 4. (a),
5. (c), 6. T T T T T T F, 7. (a) 3, (b) 2, (c) 1, (d) 2, (e) 1.
8. F T T T F T T T T F T.
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 295
PROBLEM 8.1
6 −2 1
1. , , . 2. 2, –1, –2, 3.
5 25 25
3. 1 + λ , –1, λ, 4. –10, –6, 0.
λ is any real number.
5. –10, –6, 0 6. 9, –38, –6
7. –1 + 11λ, – 2 + 14λ, λ, λ is any real number.
8. 1, 2, 3 9. 2 – 7k , 1 + 2k , k , k is any real number
10. –1, 4, 4 11. 2, 2, 2.
12. 1, –1, 1 13. 1, 2, 3
2
14. 1, 2, 3 15. 0, , −1
3
PROBLEM 8.2
−10 8
1. k, k , k , k is any real number.
7 7
1 3
2. – k, k, – λ, k, t = λ , k, λ are real numbers.
2 2
3. –2k, – k , k , k is any real number.
−16 7 1 3
4. k+ , k+ , k , k is any real number.
11 11 11 11
5. k ,– k , – k , k is any real number.
5k 7k
6. , 4k , , w = k , k is any real number.
9 9
7. – 7k ,–5k, k, k is any real number.
1
8. – k , k, o, k is any real number.
2
5 2
9. k, –k, − k, k is any real number
3 3
10. x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.
PROBLEM 8.3
20 1 22
1. , , ; 2. 1, 2, 3;
9 3 9
5 3 35 29 5
3. , , 0; 4. , , ;
2 2 18 18 18
5. 1, 2, 3
296 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PROBLEM 9.2
1 2 1
1. (a) λ1 = 1, x1 = − 1 , λ2 = 2, x2 = −
− 1 , λ3 = 31 x3 = 1
0 0 2
1 1
(b) λ1 = 5, x1 = 2 , λ2 = 1, λ3 = 1, x2 = 0
1 −1
2 1 0
−
(c) λ1 = 9, x1 = 1 , λ2 = 3, x2 = 1 , λ = –3, x = 1
3 3
−1 1 −1
1 1 1
(d) λ1 = –1, x1 = 1 , λ2 = 2, x2 = 1 , λ3 = 2, x3 = 1
0 −3 −3
LM k OP LM5 k OP
N Q
(e) λ1 = 6, x1 = − k , λ2 = 1, x2 = 2 k
N Q
LM4OP , λ LM2 k OP .
(f) λ1 = 6, x1 =
Nk Q 2 = 6, x2 =
N −k Q
PROBLEM 9.3
1. (a) T, (b) T, (c) T, (d) T, (e) F.
2. (i) Characteristic, (ii) Characteristic, (iii) Characteristic,
(iv) Characteristic, (v) Real, (vi) Zero or purely imaginary,
(vii) Skew Hermitian.
3. (a) F, (b) T, (c) T, (d) T, (e) F, (f) T, (g) T, (h) F, (i) T, (j) T, (k) T, (l) F, (m) F.
PROBLEM 10.1
1. 7, 210, 840, 5040 3. 10 4. 10
5. 7, 3 8. 95040 9. 7!
10. 120 11. 9!–1 12. 120, 1440
13. 120, 600, 243 14. 600, 5! 15. 210
16. 120.
PROBLEM 10.2
1. 180 2. 45360 3. 2880
14 ! 13 !
4. 5. 7560 6. 3 ! 4 ! 2 ! 2 !
2 ! 3! 2 !
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 297
10 ! 11 !
7. 2 ! 2 ! 2 ! 2 ! 8. 3 ! 3 ! 2 ! 2 ! 9. 720, 24
PROBLEM 10.3
1. 6 ! 2. 2880 3. 1440, 3600
4. 8 !, 2 ! 5. 6 ! 4 ! 12C7
PROBLEM 10.4
1. 25, 56, 15 2. 1440, 3600 3. 20
4. 364 5. 286, 78 6. 120, 186, 186
7. 25200 8. 344 9. 25
PROBLEM 10.5
2. 17 5. (a) 3 (b) 6 6. 40
7. (a) 18 (b) 2 (c) 12 8. 3
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Index
A A chain, 77 Complete, 101
Anti-chain, 77 Complete disjunctive normal form, 124
A cover, 78 Complex number, 179
Argument, 14 Compound proposition, 2
Associative, 69 Compression, 156, 159
Augmented matrix, 214 Conclusion, 14
Automorphism, 98 Conditional proposition, 10
B Binary, 43 Conformable, 148
Binary relation, 44 Congruence modulo, 48, 49
Binary operation, 68 Conjunction, 4, 14
Boolean algebra, 106, 112, 113 Conjunctive normal forms, 126
Boolean function, 122 Conjunctive normal, 125
Boolean polynominal, 122 Connected in series, 133
Bounded lattice, 102 Connective, 3
C Canonical form, 124, 192 Consistent, 214
Cartesian product, 36 Constant, 56
Cayley Hamilton theorem, 237 Contradiction, 7
Characteristic equation, 237 Contrapositive, 11
Characteristic matrix, 233 Converse, 11
Characteristic polynomial, 233 Copula, 2
Characteristic root, 247 Countable, 72
Characteristic value problem, 247 Counting principle, 261
Characteristic vector, 247
D De Moivre’s Theorem, 182
Circular, 48
Circular permutations, 271 Declarative sentence, 1
Class of sets, 38 Denumerable, 72
Coefficient matrix, 214 Diagonal elements, 44
Collinear, 186 Diagonal matrix, 141
Column matrix, 141, 214 Disjoint, 26
Column vector, 141 Disjunction, 3
Combination, 272, 261 Disjunctive normal form, 124
Commutative, 69 Distributive, 69
Comparable, 52, 77 Distributive lattice, 104
Complement F′, 125 Domain, 44, 56
Complement, 102 Dual canonical form, 126
Complemented lattice, 102 Dual canonical, 125
Compete canonical form, 124 Dual order, 77
299
300 INDEX