AFM Lab. Manual

Lab Manual Book
ADVANCED FLUID MECHANICS
Name:
Registration No:
Section:
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPT

THE UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE
Advanced Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sr. No DESCRIPTION/ EXPERIMENTS Page No.

1. Preface 4
2. Important Note 5
3. Acknowledgement 6
4. List of Tables 7
5. List of Figures 8
6. List of Graphs 9
7. Advance Fluid Lab Layout 10
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENT #1
To measure the head loss (hL) in a pipe of uniform diameter (d) and to investigate 11
• Critical Reynolds Number

• Relationship between i and v
• Relationship between f and R N
EXPERIMENT #2
To observe laminar, transitional and turbulent pipe flow 25
EXPERIMENT #3
To make the study of the “Pelton Wheel” and “Turgo Impulse Turbine” 28
EXPERIMENT #4
To perform experiment on Pelton Wheel and hence to plot its Characteristics Curves. 37
EXPERIMENT #5
To make the study of Francis Reaction Turbine. 45
Civil Engineering Department (UOL) Page 2

EXPERIMENT #6
To make the study of Double Stage Centrifugal Pump. 53
EXPERIMENT #7
To perform experiment on “Double Stage Centrifugal Pump” and hence to plot its
characteristics Curve. 62
EXPERIMENT #8
To perform experiment on the “Double Acting Reciprocal pump” and to determine
co-efficient of discharge and Slip of the pump. 68
EXPERIMENT #9
To perform experiment on “Francis Reaction Turbine” and hence to plot its
Characteristics curve. 73
EXPERIMENT #10
To determine the loss factors for flow through a range of pipe fittings including bends, a
contraction, an enlargement and a gate-valve. 79
EXPERIMENT #11
To investigate the head loss due to friction in the flow of water through a pipe and to
determine the associated friction factor. Both variables are to be determined over a range of
flow rates and their characteristics identified for both laminar and turbulent flows. 84

Preface
This Laboratory Manual is intended to provide undergraduate engineering students an
understanding of the basic principles of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machinery covering all
experiments related to the third year level of the B.Sc. Civil Engineering.
In this text, related theory is discussed with help of the photographs of apparatuses and machines
to quickly grasp the basic concepts .To further elaborate the theory, blank spaces are provided to
draw some sketches and observations. It also contains brief procedure for the experiment,
precautions, self explanatory table of observations and calculations, blanks spaces for writing
results and finally comments on the results. As practiced university, SI units are also used in this
manual .However, wherever felt necessary, values in alternate units are also provided to facilitate
students.
In this Laboratory manual, experiments related to frictional head loss measurement, flow type
observation and measurement, turbines, pumps and loss factor measurement for a range of
pipe fittings and gate valve are covered.
Any comments/ suggestions by the teachers / students will be highly appreciated.

Important Note
All rights are reserved with Lab. Engineers civil engineering department, The university of
Lahore and no part of this manual should be reproduced and used by any person, without
exception, in any possible from without the written permission from the authors.

Acknowledgement
We would like to thank Professor Dr. M. Zulfquar, Head of Department of Civil Engineering,
The University of Lahore,for reviewing the manuscript and offering many helpful suggestions
for the manual in particular and many other colleagues and students in general.
.

List of Tables
Table 1.1: Table of Observations 18
Table 1.2: Table of Observations and Calculations 19
Table 3.1: Table of observations and Calculations 35
Table 4.1: Table for 100% Gate Opening 40
Table 4.2: Table of observation and calculation for 100% Gate Opening 40
Table 4.4: Table of observations and calculations for 50% Gate Opening 42
Table 4.5: Comparison of Result for two-gate opening 44
Table 6.1: table of observations and calculations 61
Table 7.2: Result of the Experiment 67
Table 9.2: observation and calculation for 100% Gate Opening 76
Table 10.2:Table of kinematic viscosity of water at atmospheric pressure 83
Table11.1: Table of kinematic viscosity of water at atmospheric pressure 87
Table11.2: Table of observations and calculations 88

List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Log-Log plot for flow in a uniform pipe. 13
Figure 1.2: Conceptual Diagram of the Fluid Friction Apparatus 15
Figure 1.3: photograph of the fluid friction apparatus 16
Figure 3.1: photograph showing Pelton Wheel 29
Figure 3.2: Line Diagram of Laboratory Layout of Impulse Turbine 30
Figure 3.3: component of Pelton Wheel 31
Figure 3.4: Photograph of the Runner of the Pelton Wheel 32
Figure 3.5: Runner of Pelton Wheel and its Sections 32
Figure 3.6: Braking Drum of the Pelton Wheel with Drum Cooling Pipes 34
Figure 3.7: Photograph of Runner of Turgo Turbine 34
Figure 5.1: Photograph of the Francis Reaction Turbine 46
Figure: 5.2: laboratory layout of Francis Reaction Turbines 47
Figure 5.3: Section showing Guide Vanes, Runner, and Draft Tube 47
Figure 5.4: Section of the scroll casing showing the Guide Mechanism and Runner 48
Figure 6.1: Double Stage Centrifugal Pump 58
Figure 6.2: Sectional Plan of the Double Stage Centrifugal Pump 59
Figure 6.3: Laboratory layout of the double stage centrifugal pump 59
Figure 7.1: Laboratory layout of the double stage centrifugal pump 64
Figure 8.1: Photograph of the Double Acting Reciprocating Pump 70
Figure 8.2: Schematic Diagram for Double Acting Reciprocating Pump 70

List of Graphs
Graphs 1.1: Graphical Representation between i and V 20
Graph 1.2: Graphical Representation between Log i and Log V 21
Graph1.3: Graphical Relationship between f and RN 22
Graph 1.4: Graphical Relationship between Log f and Log R N 23
Graph 4.1: Characteristics curve of Pelton Wheel for 100% Gate Opening Table 41
Graph 4.2: Characteristics curve of Pelton Wheel for 50% Gate Opening Table 43
Graph 7.1: Characteristics Curves for Double Stage Centrifugal Pump 66
Graph9.1: Characteristics curves of the of Francis turbine for 100% gate opening table 77

ADVANCED FLUID LAB LAYOUT

EXPERIMENT NO 1
To measure the head loss (hL) in a pipe of uniform diameter (d) and to
investigate
• Critical Reynolds Number
• Relationship between i and v
• Relationship between f and RN
APPARATUS:
• Hydraulic Bench
• Fluid Friction Apparatus
• Thermometer
• Stop Watch
RALATED THEORY:
Laminar Flow:
It is sometimes known as streamline flow. It occurs when fluid flows in parallel layer, with no
disruption between the layers. The fluid particles have only one component of velocity that is in
the direction of flow .in the flow, viscous forces are dominant and Reynolds number is less than
2000.

Turbulent Flow:
Fluid flow in which the fluid undergoes irregular fluctuations or mixing is called as turbulent
flow .The speed of the fluid at a point is continuously undergoing changes in magnitude and
direction, which results in swirling. Generally, in the case of turbulent flow, Reynolds number
exceeds 2000.
Critical Point:
It is the point on Log i verses Log V curve at which flow in the pipe changes from laminar to
turbulant or vice versa .
Critical velocity:
It is the velocity of the flow in the pipe at which flow in the pipe changes from laminar to
turbulant or vice versa or it is the velocity corresponding to the critical point.
Critical Reynolds Number:
It is the Reynolds Number at which flow changes from laminar to turbulent or vice versa or the
Reynolds Number corresponding to critical point. For normal cases of the flow in straight pipes
of uniform diameter usual roughness, the Critical Reynolds Number value may be taken as
2000(Daugherty,198).

Figure 1.1: Log-Log plot for flow in a uniform pipe.
(n=2.00, rough-wall pipe; n=1.75 smooth-wall pipe.)(Daugherty, 1989)
Higher Critical Point:
It is the point on Log (i) verses Log (v) curve at which flow changes from laminar to turbulent or
it is the critical point in the ascending order of flow.
Higher Critical Velocity:
It is the velocity of flow in the pipe at which flow changes from laminar to turbulent or the
critical velocity in the ascending order of flow or it is the velocity corresponding to higher
critical point.

Higher Critical Reynolds Number:
It is the Reynolds number at which flow changes from laminar to turbulent in the ascending
order of flow or the Reynolds number corresponding to higher critical point.
Lower Critical Point:
It is the point on Log (i) versus Log (v) curve when flow changes from turbulent to laminar.
Lower Critical Reynolds Number:
It is the Reynolds Number at which flow changes from turbulent to laminar or the Reynolds
Number corresponding to lower critical point. Its value is 2000.
True Critical Reynolds Number:
It is the Reynolds Number corresponding to lower critical point. It is true critical Reynolds
Number because no matter what is the order of the flow (changing from laminar to turbulent or
vice versa), flow is always laminar below this point. For all practical purposes, Critical Reynolds
Number is taken as 2000.
Pipe:
A pipe is a tubular section or hollow cylinder, usually but not necessarily of circular cross-
section, used mainly to convey substances which can flow either liquids or gases (fluids)
OR
It is a conduit (circular or non circular) in which a fluid flows under pressure by complete
wetting its internal perimeter.
Head:
Head is a concept that relates the energy in an incompressible fluid to the height of an
equivalent static column of that fluid.
It is the energy of water per unit weight .units of head is m of liquids.

Head Loss:
It is the loss of energy per unit weight with in a passage of the fluid. Total head loss is the sum
of major and minor head losses.
FLUID FRICTION APPARATUS:

This apparatus consist of along pipe of known diameter (d), one end of the pipe is connected to
a pump while the other end is free. A valve is connected to the free end to control the
discharge. A container is placed under the free end to collect the water for measuring the
discharge .The pipe is connected with a differential manometer at two points near both the
ends as shown in figure 1.3 to measure the difference of heads then head loss.
Figure 1.2: Conceptual Diagram of the Fluid Friction Apparatus

Differential Manometer:
It is a device to measure the difference of the pressure head between the two sections where it
is connected.
Setting of Differential Manometer:
The process of removal of air from the tubes of Differential Manometer before its use is called
Setting of Differential Manometer.
GOVERNERING EQUATIONS:
From the container placed under the free end of the pipe, discharge is measured as
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑄=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
So, the velocity of the fluid flowing in the pipe can be computed as
𝑄
𝑉=
𝐴
Hence putting the value of diameter of pipe, velocity and viscosity of the fluid we can find the
Reynolds Number
𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑁 =
𝑣
Where, the diameter of a pipe is already known.
Figure 1.3: photograph of the fluid friction apparatus

Applying energy equation between section 1 and 2 we have
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
𝑍1 + + = 𝑍2 + +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
But for horizontal pipe=Z1=Z2 and for constant diameter pipe V1 =V2
𝑃1 𝑃2
− = ℎ𝐿
𝛾 𝛾
Now putting values of pressure difference from the differential manometer, one can obtain head
loss from section 1 to 2.
We also know that head loss due to friction,
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝐿 =
2𝑔𝐷
Therefore, we can get value of f as
2𝑔𝐷ℎ𝐿
𝑓=
𝐿𝑉 2
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the length of the pipe between the two sections.
2. Measure room temperature.
3. Switch on the motor of the pump.
4. Perform setting of differential Manometer.
5. Close the valve.
6. Note the zero error reading.
7. Slightly open the valve and note down
➢ Time (t), to collect known volume of water, with the help of stopwatch.
➢ Differential Manometric reading (h1 and h2).
8. Repeat step 7 by opening the valve gradually till the full valve opening achieved.
9. Switch off the motor of the pump.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Setting of differential Manometer should be done before starting observations.
2. Zero error reading should be observed after setting of the differential Manometer.
GRAPHICAL REPERSENTATION OF VALUES AND EQUATION:

I V and f RN curves are non linear for turbulent flow, so Log i Log V and Log f Log R N curves are
plotted to have linear relationship between the variables.
From graph of Log I versus Log V, slope of the line is m2.the Y intercept is C, then from the
equation of straight lines.
Y=m2x+c
Log(i) = m2 Log(V) + C
Let C = Log(K)
Deriving the equations; the ultimate result is
i=KV m2
Similarly, for the graph of Log (RN) verses Log (f)
f=KR N m2
Table 1.1: Table of Observations

Sr.No Description values units
1 Temperature
2 Viscosity
3 Length of Pipe
4 Volume of Container
5 Diameter of Pipe
6 Cross sectional area of Pipe
7 Zero Correction

..<.
C""l >
-J..i..
. ..
trl
=
t")
('!)
-.=...
Q..
('!)
....
""!
Q..
Ji ::
0
('!)
"0
Table 1.2 :Table of Observations and [
...
e
('!)
Calculations t" )
VI
-.
=
,....
Manometric Readings Head Loss Hydraulic Time Flow V elocity
c::::
Sr gradient (t) Rate Log i Log v Log f logRN
0
t"" 𝛾𝑀
R N =VD/v f
-.....J # hL= 𝑌( 𝛾 − 1) i
hi h2 Y=h1-h2 𝐹 Q= Vol/t V=Q/A
m of H2O 3
mmHg mmHg mmHg mHg m/m s m/s m /s
1
2
3
4
5
6
t""
"t:: ::
crfflo
=
.......
\0
-
Graphs 1.1: Graphical Representation between i and V
Graph 1.2: Graphical Representation between Log i and Log V

Graph 1.3: Graphical Relationship between f and RN

Graph 1.4: Graphical Relationship between Log f and Log RN

RESULTS:
The results of the experiment are shown in figures 1.4 through 1.7 and also summarized below in the
tabular form:
COMMENTS:

EXPERIMENT NO 2
To observe laminar, transitional and turbulent pipe flow
METHODOLOGY:
Visualization of flow behavior by injection of a dye into a steady flow in a pipe. This is a classical
experiment and was first performed by Osborne Reynolds in the late nineteenth century.
APPARATUS:
• Hydraulic Bench
• Reynolds Apparatus
• Stopwatch
• Thermometer
THEORY:
A flow can behave in very different ways depending upon which forces predominate within it.
Slow flows are dominated by viscous forces, tend to be well ordered and predictable and are
described as laminar .In laminar pipe flow the fluid behaves as if concentric layers are sliding
over each other with a maximum velocity on the axis, zero velocity at the tube well and a
parabolic velocity distribution .Dye injected carefully at a point in a laminar pipe flow will be
stretched out by the flow to form a clear well defined line .the only mixing that can occur is by
molecular diffusion.
Increasing the flow rate substantially will alter the flow behavior dramatically, as the inertia of
the fluid (due to its density) becomes more significant than the viscous forces; this is then a
turbulent flow .in turbulent pipe, dye injected at a point is rapidly mixed due to the substantial
lateral motion in the flow and the dye behavior appears chaotic. These motion appears random
and arise from the growth of instabilities in the flow .Detailed behavior is impossible to predict
except in statistical terms.
There is an in between stage, transitional flow, in which a dye stream will appear to wander
about and will show intermittent bursts of mixing, followed by a more laminar behavior.

The Reynolds number, Re, provides a useful way of characteristic the flow, it is defined as:
𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑁 =
𝑣
Where 𝑣 is the kinematic velocity, V is the mean velocity(𝑉 = 𝑄 ) given in the terms of the
𝐴
volume flow rate(𝑄 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒) and d is the diameter of the pipe.
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
It is common practice to take a Reynolds number of 2,000 as the value which divides laminar
from turbulent flow. However ,this does not take account of the transition region and it may
also be possible (with great care) to keep a flow laminar for Reynolds number up to 10,000 or
more .Also, pipe flows with Reynolds number less than 1,800 are inherently laminar.
PROCEDURE:
With the apparatus flow control valve open slightly, and the bench valve adjust to procedure a
slow trickle through the over flow pipe, adjust the dye control valve until a slow flow with clear
dye indication is achieved .in order to observe the velocity profile in laminar flow ,close the
bench valve and open the dye control valve to deposit a drop of dye at the bell mouth entry.
when the outlet control valve is opened observed the dye as it deforms to take up a three
dimensional parabolic profile.
Measure the volume flow rate by timed collection, and measure the out flow temperature (the
temperature of the water gathered in the measuring cylinder).Determine the kinematic
viscosity from the data provided in kinematic viscosity of the water at atmospheric pressure
and check the Reynolds number corresponding to this flow type.
Increase the flow rate by opening the apparatus flow control valve and repeat the dye injection
to visualize transitional flow and then ,at the height flow rates ,turbulent flow ,as
characterized by continuous and very rapid mixing of the dye .as the test section flow rate is
reduced ,adjust the bench valve to keep the overflow rate at a low level. Note that at
intermediate flows it is possible to have laminar characteristics in the upper part of the test –
section, which develops into transitional flow lower down .This upper section behavior is
described as an “inlet length flow”, which means that the boundary layer has not yet extended
across the pipe radius.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:
Table 2.1
Data and calculated results should be presented and under the following heading s;
Volume Time to Temperature Pipe area Volume flow Kinematic Reynolds

collected collect (0C) (m2) rate Viscosity Number
(m3) (s) (m3/s) (106 x m2/s)
COMMENTS:

EXPERIMRNT NO 3
To make the study of the ‘Pelton Wheel’ and ‘Turgo Impulse
Turbine’.
INTRODUCTION
Power house
Power generation means production of electrical energy ,which is the most useful form of
energy and can easily be transmitted from one place to another just by using cables .the
component of the hydropower plant where turbine and generators are installed is called the
power house .
Turbine
A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful
work or we can say a machine which converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
Moreover hydraulic energy is available in the river in the form of head usually raised and
discharge.
Types of turbines
• Impulse turbine/velocity turbine

• Reaction turbine/pressure turbine
Impulse turbine

Types of Impulse Turbine
➢ Pelton wheel
➢ Turgo Turbine
Pelton wheel:
Pelton wheel was first introduced by the Lester A.Pelton (1829-1908)in California
(Massey,1990).In Pelton wheel the total available energy of the fluid is converted into kinetic
energy in the form of the jet of water by providing a nozzle(s).The jet of water strikes on the
splitter of the buckets, which are mounted on the periphery of the wheel
(Douglas,1989).Splitter of a bucket divides the jet of water into parts, half jet of water glides on
one side and the other half on other side of the bucket, exerting an impulse force on the bucket
and torque on the runner, which will produce the rotation of the wheel. In this way hydraulic
energy is converted into mechanical energy. The photograph of the Pelton Wheel is shown in
figure 3.1.As jet of water is divided into two equal parts so shaft of the turbine is free of any
axial thrust.
Figure 3.1: photograph showing Pelton Wheel

As jet strikes tangentially to the wheel so Pelton wheel is known as “Tangential Flow Turbine”.
Figure 3.2: Line Diagram of Laboratory Layout of Impulse Turbine
a) Main components of Pelton Wheel

The Pelton Wheel consists of the following components:
i. Nozzle
ii. Spear Headed Needle
iii. Runner
iv. Shaft
v. Casing
vi. Braking Drum
vii. Tachometer
viii. Drum Cooling Pipes
ix. Bourdon Gauge

i. Nozzle:
It is the short converging tube flitted at the end of the penstock. The nozzle is so
designed that contraction ratio is optimum for least losses, hence maximum
efficiency.
Function:
It converts the total energy of the water into kinetic energy in the form of the jet
of water.
ii. Spear Headed Needle:

It is the conical needle kept inside the nozzle and can axially move in the forward
and backward direction by turning the handle according (in the field by
governor).It acts as a valve for the nozzle. The backward and forward movement
of the needle increases and decreases the area of the flow, respectively, which in
turn changes the flow rate through the nozzle.
Figure 3.3: component of Pelton Wheel
iii. Runner:
The runner of the Pelton Wheel Turbine consist of a number of double cupped
buckets, hemispherical or ellipsoidal in shape, fixed to the periphery of the
wheel at equal spacing. The buckets may be bolted to the wheel if the diameter
is too large or cast monolithically for small sizes. Each bucket has a sharp edge at
the mid in radial direction called the splitter. The jet strikes each bucket at this
splitter and is divided into two parts, thus avoiding any unbalanced thrust on the
shaft. The runner and its sections are shown in figure 3.5.The splitter of the
bucket is to bear full impact of jet hence it is made very strong. Therefore, it is
not practical to provide a sharp edge and zero angles at the center of the bucket.
Usually this angle is kept 3-6 degrees. The photograph of the runner of the
Pelton Wheel Turbine is shown on figure 3.4.

The runner is made of brass .Its internal surface is made smooth to minimize the
functional losses.
Figure 3.4: Photograph of the Runner of the Pelton Wheel
Figure 3.5: Runner of Pelton Wheel and its Sections
iv. Shaft:
It is a rotating rod of the turbine supported by the bearings. The runner is keyed
to the shaft which is made of mild steel.
Function:
It transmits mechanical energy from runner to the Breaking Drum (Generator in
the field).

v. Casing:
The cover provided around the Runner is known as casing .it is made of cast iron;
its upper part can be easily removed as it is bolted with the lower part. The
pressure of water inside the casing is atmospheric (Douglas, 1989).
Functions:
Casing does not maintain any hydraulic pressure. Following are its main
functions:
➢ To provide safety around Runner or to avoid accidents
➢ To limit the splashing of the water and to guide that water to the tailrace
channel
vi. Braking Drum:

A rotating drum used to measure the brake power of the turbine is called as
Braking Drum. One side of the drum has a clamp for the application of braking
torque and on the other side. There is a lever system arrangement for measuring
this torque by applying known weights. Sketch a diagram for the Braking Drum
showing the Drum cooling pipes in the space given for figure 3.6.
Function:
It is used to measure the brake power or output power of the turbine.
vii. Drum Cooling Pipes:

When brakes are applied to the rotating braking drum, lot heat energy is
generated which may burn the leather brake shoes. In order to keep the Braking
Drum in cool state, fresh water is circulated through the chamber in the Braking
Drum. The cooling pipe system consists of the two ½” diameter pipes, i.e.
➢ Inflow or supply pipes having a valve.
➢ Outflow pipe or discharge pipes.
The cooling pipes are shown in Figure 3.6.
Function:
To avoid burning of the leather Brake Shoes during the experiment, when brakes
are being applied for a long duration.
viii. Tachometer:
A gauge used to measure the revolution per minute (rpm) of the runner is
termed as tachometer .it is attached on the far end of the safety by a belt and
gives a direct reading.
Function:
It gives the rpm of the shaft at un braked and various braked positions.

Figure 3.6: Braking Drum of the Pelton Wheel with Drum Cooling Pipes
Turgo Turbine:
The Turgo Turbine is a types of Impulse Turbine in which the jet enters the runner from one
side and is discharge over the internal curved surface of the bucket as there is no splitter in the
mid. So there may be an axial thrust on the turbine shaft. The runner is formed from a single
casting with integral buckets or blades; it is usually of bronze and of cast steel for high heads.
The photograph of the Runner if the Turgo Turbine is shown in figure 3.7. The construction of
Turgo Turbine is similar to Pelton Wheel, except the shape of the runner and jet that does not
strikes normal to the shaft. Shape of bucket is hemi spherical or spoon shape without splitter so
jet of water enters from one side and leaves from the other side.
Figure 3.7: Photograph of Runner of Turgo Turbine

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:
Sr# Description Pelton Wheel Turgo Turbine

1 Number of bucket of the Runner
2 Least Count of the Bourdon Gauge
3 Elevation correction for the Bourdon
gauge
4 Least count of the Tachometer
5 Minimum reading of the Tachometer
6 Maximum reading of the Tachometer

QUESTION #1
Differentiate between Pelton Wheel and Turgo Turbine?

ANSWER:
QUESTION #2
Write down main components of Turgo Turbine?
ANSWER:

EXPERIMENT NO 4
To perform experiment on Pelton Wheel and hence to
plot its characteristic curves.
APPARATUS
➢ Pelton Wheel
➢ Discharge Measuring Tank
➢ Weights
➢ Tachometer
➢ Stop Watch
RELATED THEORY
In this type of turbine total energy of the fluid is converted into the kinetic energy in the form
of the jet of the water through nozzle and then the jet of the water impinges on the series of
buckets, which are mounted on the wheel. A torque will be produced equal to the product of
force and radius, which rotates the runner .As the runner is keyed with the shaft. So mechanical
energy is transmitted to the shaft and from there to the Braking Drum. Impulse Turbine is a
tangential flow turbine.
Braking Torque
Product of lever arm length and weight or load is called Braking Torque. It is applied to the
rotating drum to apply brake o it.
T=W x L (4.1)
Where, T is the braking torque, W is the weight in the pan and L is the lever arm.
Braking Horse Power (B.H.P)
It is the output power available at the shaft of the Pelton Wheel and is measured by applying
brakes to the rotating braking drum.
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
P0=P.H.P= (4.2)
60
Where, P0 is the output power or brake power, N is the r.p.m of the shaft at braked position
and T is the braking torque.
1 H.P. is the rate of performing 550 ft-Ibs of work per second. (1 H.P. =746 watts)

Indicated Horse Power (I.M.P)
It is the input power supplied to the Pelton Wheel in hydraulic form.

Pin=I.H.P=ƳQH (4.3)
Where, Ƴ is the specific weight of water, Q is the discharge through the nozzle and H is the head
available at the base of the nozzle (Hg+Z) is the pressure head given by the bourdon Gauge and
Z is the elevation correction.
Efficiency
It is the %age ratio between the output power available at the shaft of Pelton Wheel (B.H.P)
and input power supplied to it (I.H.P).
𝐵.𝐻.𝑃
Ƞ= 𝑋 100 (4.4)
𝐼.𝐻.𝑃
Gate Opening
It is the opening of the nozzle in %age. Suppose if 6 turns are required in anticlockwise direction
for 100% gate opening then 3 turns in clockwise direction are required for 50% gate opening.
This experiment is being performed on two gate openings i.e. 100% of 50%.
Characteristic curves
It is the graphical representation of the response of Pelton Wheel at varying speed (0-Nmax) for
efficiency, output power and braking torque.
Characteristics curve are required to study the behavior of the machine under varying speed
and to determine the important parameters of the machine, normal speed, maximum braking
torque, maximum power and maximum speed of the turbine etc.
A turbine is always designed and manufactured to work under a given set of conditions such as
discharge, head of water ,speed ,power generated ,efficiency etc .but a turbine may have to be
used under condition different than those for which it has been designed .It is essential that
exact behavior of turbine under varied conditions should be predetermined. This can be
predicted graphically by means of the characteristics curves.
These curves are drawn for constant head and discharge or constant input power.
The characteristics curves are provided by the Manufacturer of the turbine and are essentially
required at the time of its purchase.

Normal Speed
It is the speed of the shaft of the turbine (r.p.m) corresponding to its maximum efficiency.
PROCEDURE

2. Adjust the spear headed needle to have the 100% gate opening .This can be achieved
by completely closing the valve and then opening it.
3. Note down the head available at the bourdon gauge.
4. Note down the atmospheric temperature and determine the specific weight of water
corresponding to that temperature.
5. Note down the r.p.m of the revolving shaft with the help of Tachometer.
6. Observe time required to fill the tank of known volume.
7. Put some load on the pan and apply brakes to the drum by tightening the clamp, which
will reduce the r.p.m of the shaft. Note down the weight applied and the corresponding
speed into table.
8. Repeat step no. 7 by taking load increments of 5 or 10 N till the r.p.m are reduced.
9. Repeat steps 2 to 8 for 50% gate opening, which can be achieved by turning the handle
of spear headed needle in the forward direction.
PRECAUTIONS
While applying brakes on the braking drum, donot forget to open the valve of the drum cooling
pipe to avoid burning of the leather brake shoes.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
Table 4.1 for 100% Gate Opening
Parameter value unit

Hg ft of water
Z inches
H=Hg+Z m of water
L inches
Temperature 0C
Ƴ N/m3
Tank Dimension inches
Tank Volume m3
Time to fill the tank, t sec
Q=Vol./t m3/sec
Pm=ƳQH watts
Table 4.2 observation and calculation for 100% Gate Opening
S.No. Weight(w) T=W x L N Ƞ (%)

lbs N (N-m) (r.p.m) Po (Watts)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Graph 4.1: Characteristics curve of Pelton Wheel for 100% Gate Opening Table


Hg ft of water
Z inches
H=Hg+Z m of water
L inches
Temperature 0C
Ƴ N/m3
Tank Dimension inches
Tank Volume m3
Q=Vol./t m3/sec
Pm=ƳQH watts
S.No. Weight(w) T=W x L N Po (Watts) Ƞ (%)

lbs N (N-m) (r.p.m)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Graph 4.2: Characteristics curve of Pelton Wheel for 50% Gate Opening Table

Table 4.5: Comparison of Result for two-gate opening:
Description For 100% Gate Opening For 50% Gate Opening

Head(m of water)
Maximum Power(watts)
Maximum Efficiency (%)
Maximum Speed (R.P.M)
Normal Speed(No)(R.P.M)
Normal Torque (To)(N-m)
COMMENTS:

EXPERIMENT NO 5
To make the study of Francis Reaction Turbine
REACTION TURBINE
Reaction turbine are acted on by water ,which changes pressure as it moves through the
turbine and gives up its energy. They must be encased to contain pressure (or suction), or they
must be fully submerged in the water flow .In this turbine water is supplied to the runner with
pressure energy as well as kinetic energy. It works due to the drop of pressure energy between
the inlet and out let of the casing .water glides over the vanes and applies a torque on the
runner, which produces the rotation of the shaft.
TYPES OF REACTION TURBINES
There are two types of reaction turbines
➢ Francis reaction turbines

➢ Kaplan turbine
TYPES OF REACTION TURBINE ACCORDING TO THE DIRECTION OF FLOW
1. Axial flow reaction turbine (Kaplan Turbine)

2. Radial Flow Reaction Turbine
i. Inward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine (Francis turbine)
ii. Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine.
3. Mixed Flow Reaction Turbine (all modern types of turbine are mixed flow)
Note: In radial flow reaction turbine, the fluid flows mainly in a direction perpendicular to the
axis of the rotation (James, 2003).

FRANCIS REACTION TURBINE
The Francis turbine is a type of water turbine that was developed by James B.Francis in Lowell,
Massachusetts. It is an inward-flow reaction turbine that combines radial and axial flow
concepts. Or we can say that it is an inward radial flow reaction turbine in which vanes are
radial at inlet and discharge is radial at inlet and discharge is radial at outlet.
Figure 5.1: Photograph of the Francis Reaction Turbine
Main Components /Parts of the Francis Reaction Turbine
1. Spiral Casing
2. Guide Mechanism
i. Fixed Guide Blades
ii. Moveable Guide Blades
3. Runner
4. Shaft
5. Draft Tube
6. Braking Drum
7. Flywheel
8. Tachometer
9. Governor

Figure: 5.2: laboratory layout of Francis Reaction Turbines
Figure 5.3: Section showing Guide Vanes, Runner, and Draft Tube

Figure 5.4: Section of the scroll casing showing the Guide Mechanism and Runner
1. Spiral Casing
It is a closed (air tight) chamber, which accommodates the guide mechanism and
runner. Cross-sectional area of the casing reduces in the direction of flow, which
converts pressure energy of water into kinetic energy. Pressure energy at the inlet of
the casing is above atmospheric and at the outlet of the casing it is below atmospheric (-
ive).
2. Guide Mechanism
These are the guide blades, which guide the water to flow towards the runner with least
losses of energy . Guide mechanism consists of the following:
a) Fixed Guide Blades

b) Moveable Guide Blades
A) Fixed Guide Blades
There are the blades, which are fixed in position, and they guide the flow of water
towards movable guide blades in the proper direction with the minimum loss of
energy.

B) Moveable Guide Blades
Moveable guide blades consist of number of blades, which can rotates about their
frictionless pivots.
Functions
➢ To guide the water coming from the fixed guide blades to the runner in proper
direction for shock less entry to the runner.
➢ To regulate the flow of water to the runner and to maintain the constant speed
of the turbine.
3. Runner
It is rotating wheel of the Francis Reaction Turbine, which is keyed to the shaft of the
turbine .it consists of series of curved vanes connected with circular discs on both sides.
The surface of the runner is made smooth to minimize the losses due to friction. For low
heads, the runner may be made of cast iron, for higher heads it is made of steel or alloy.
Function
It converts the hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
4. Shaft
It is a rotating rod supported by the bearings. It transmits mechanical energy from

runner to the braking drum.
5. Draft Tube
It is a diverging pipe which connects the outlet of the casing and the trail race level
(T.R.L).Lower end of the Draft Tube is kept submerged .Pressure at the inlet of the Draft
Tube is negative and at outlet it is atmospheric.
Functions
➢ It enables the turbine to be installed above the tailrace level without losing any
appreciable loss of energy (head) to facilitate the easy inspection and maintenance
and to prevent from rusting.
➢ As the area of the flow of the draft tube gradually increase so it increases the
pressure energy from -ive at inlet to atmospheric at out let of the draft tube.
➢ To decrease velocity of flow gradually from inlet to out let of draft tube.

6. Braking Drum
A rotating drum used to measure the brake power of the turbine is called as Braking
Drum. One side of the drum has a clamp for the application of braking torque and on
the other side; there is a layer system arrangement for measuring this torque by
applying known weights.
7. Drum Cooling Pipes
When brakes are applied to the rotating braking drum, a lot of heat energy is generated
which may burn the leather brake shoes. In order to keep the braking drum in cool
state, fresh water is circulated through the chamber in the braking drum. The cooling
pipe system consists of the two ½” diameter pipes, i.e.
➢ Inflow or supply pipe having a valve

➢ Outflow pipe or discharge pipe.
8. Flywheel
It is a wheel of large diameter in which heavy mass is kept away from the center and is
keyed to the same shaft. It keeps the shaft rotating for certain time due to inertial effect
even water supply is stopped. It also damps the small discontinuities in the rotation of
the shaft and maintains smooth rotation of the shaft.
9. Tachometer
A gauge used to measure the speed of rotation of the runner in terms of revolutions per
minute (r.p.m). It is attached to the shaft through a belt and gives a direct reading.
10. Governor
Load on the turbine never remains constant, which will affect the efficiency of the
machine .Governor is a machine, which is attached to the turbine, to keep the r.p.m. of
the shaft constant, i.e. equal to normal speed , to maintain its maximum efficiency .

Water Circulation in Francis Turbine
Underground Reservoir
Pump
Pen Stock
Scroll Casing
Fixed Guide Blades
Moveable Guide Blades
Runner
Draft Tube
Tail Race

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Table 5.1: Observation for Francis Reaction Turbine
Sr.No Questions Answers

1 Units of Bourdon gauge fitted on Casing
2 Range of Bourdon gauge fitted on casing
3 Units of bourdon gauge on inlet of draft Tube
4 Range of bourdon gauge on inlet of draft Tube
5 Elevation correction for bourdon gauges on inlet
of draft tube
6 Number of moveable guide blades
7 Minimum scale of Tachometer
8 Maximum range of Tachometer
COMMENTS:

EXPERIMENT NO 6
To make the study of Double Stage Centrifugal Pump
PUMP
A machine which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy(Irving ,1981). It is used to
move liquid s from one to another point. It produces head (H) and flow (Q) in the
liquids(increase energy or head of liquids)
TYPES OF PUMPS
There are many types of pumps which are available in market, following are the common types:
➢ Centrifugal pump
➢ Reciprocating pump
➢ Turbine Pump
➢ Submersible Pump
➢ Pneumatic Pump/ Air Ejector Pump
➢ Rotary Pump
➢ Screw Pump
➢ Chain Pump
➢ Pump Turbine
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
A centrifugal pump is one of the simplest pieces of equipment. Its purpose is to convert energy
of an electric motor or engine into velocity or kinetic energy and then into pressure of a fluid
that is being pumped. The energy changes occur into two main parts of the pump, the impeller
and the volute. The impeller is the rotating part that converts driver energy into the kinetic
energy.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
RADIAL FLOW MIXED FLOW AXIAL FLOW

It is a pump, which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by the action of
centrifugal force, which is produced by rotating the impeller .It is believed that the idea of
lifting water by centrifugal force was first given by an Italian scientist and engineer L.D. Vinci in
the end of the sixteenth century (Khumi, 1988). A Centrifugal pump consists of an impeller,
which carries a number of backward curve vanes and rotates in the casing. Liquid enters the
impeller through the center, and work is done as it passes centrifugally outwards. So that it
leaves the impeller at high velocity, and in the casing part of the kinetic energy of
the fluid is converted into pressure energy.
Classification of the Centrifugal Pumps Based on Stage / No. of Impellers

• Single stage centrifugal pump
• Multi-stage centrifugal pump
➢ Single stage centrifugal pump
If the pump has one impeller on the shaft then the pump is called as single stage
centrifugal pump.
➢ Multi-stage Centrifugal Pump
If the centrifugal pump has more than one impellers keyed to the same shaft then it is
called a Multi – stage centrifugal Pump.
Functions
A multistage centrifugal pump can be used:
• To increase head /energy of water

• To supply water to high-rise building or high levels
• To lift water from very deep aquifers.
Double Stage Centrifugal Pump

It is a centrifugal pump having with two impellers keyed to the same shaft. The photograph of
the centrifugal pump is shown in figure 6.1

Component of Double Stage Centrifugal Pump
There are three main component of Double Stage Centrifugal Pump.
1) Suction Pipe
2) Main Centrifugal Pump
3) Delivery Pipe
1) Suction pipe
It is a pipeline connected with the pump on upstream side. Pressure in this pipe is below
atmospheric and a small opening in this pipe may stop working of the pump. The
diameter of suction pipe is always kept greater than the delivery pipes.
Such pipe consists of:
a) Strainer
b) Suction Flange
c) Foot valve
d) Priming
e) Suction Gauge
a) Strainer
It is a grating or screen provided at the foot of the suction pipe, it would not allow
entrance so the solid matters e.g. wooden pieces, fishes and light stone etc. Into the
suction pipe which otherwise may damage the pump.
b) Suction Flange
It is the flange to connect suction pipe with pump.
c) Foot Valve
It is a one directional valve provided at the foot of the suction pipe. It permits flow only
in one direction i.e. towards the pump.
Functions
1. Before starting the pump it facilities to hold the primed water in the suction pipe
and casing.
2. After switching off the pump, it keeps water in the suction pipe and does not allow
draining (if 100% water tight).

d) Priming
It is the process of filling of water in centrifugal pump from foot valve to delivery valve
including casing before starting the pump.
e) Suction Gauge
It is a Bourdon Gauge provided on the suction side of the pump to measure the
Manometric suction Head (Hms).
2) Main Centrifugal Pump
It consists of the following components:

a. Spiral casing
b. Impellers
c. Diffuser Duct
d. Shaft
e. Priming Funnel
f. Air Relief Valves
g. Stuffing Boxes
a. Spiral Casing
It is an air tight chamber, which accommodates the rotating impeller. The area of
the flow of the casing gradually increases in the direction of flow of water to convert
kinetic energy into pressure energy. Pressure at the inlet of the casing is below
atmospheric and at the outlet above atmospheric i.e. opposite to the Francis
Reaction Turbine.
b. Impellers
These are rotating wheels in the double stage centrifugal pump and consist of series
of radial backward curved blades or vanes in between two circular discs. Due to
rotation of the liquid. Water enters at the center of the impeller and moves more or
less radially outward and then leaves from outer periphery of the impeller with a
very high kinetic energy.
Material
Bronze, Brass, Cast Iron

c. Diffuser Duct
It is a conduit or passage for the flow of water from outlet of the first impeller,
casing to the inlet or center of next / second impeller. Its area of flow gradually
increases in the direction of flow to convert some kinetic energy into pressure
energy.
d. Shaft
It is a rotating rod supported by the bearings. It transmits mechanical energy from

the motor to the pump (impellers).
e. priming Funnel
It is the funnel to prime the pump.
f. Air Relief Valves
These are the valves used to remove air from casing while priming.
g. stuffing Boxes
At the contact points between the rotating shaft and the stationary casing, there are
chances of leakage of water due to which casing cannot maintain pressure inside.
The contact points should be filled with the selling material to make it air tight. The
boxes in which sealing material is filled are called stuffing boxes. Usually, Jute strings
along with grease are used as sealing material. This material allows the rotation of
the shaft without any leakage at the contact points.
3) Delivery Pipe
A pipeline provided on the downstream or delivery side of the pump is known as

Delivery pipe. The pressure in this pipe is above atmospheric .it consist of the following
component.
a. Delivery Gauge
b. Delivery Flange
c. Delivery Valve
a. Delivery Gauge
It is a Bourdon Gauge connected on the delivery side of the pump to measure

the pressure on delivery side.

b. Delivery Flange
These are the flanges to connect the delivery pipe with the centrifugal Pump.
c. Delivery Valve
It is a gate valve on the delivery side of the pump to control or regulate the
discharge.
Functions
➢ To control the flow rate through the pump.
➢ It also facilitates to hold the primes water on delivery side.
Figure 6.1: Double Stage Centrifugal Pump

Figure 6.2: Sectional Plan of the Double Stage Centrifugal Pump
Figure 6.3: Laboratory layout of the double stage centrifugal pump

Chart of water circulation through Double Stage Centrifugal Pump
Eyes for IST I mpeller
Center of lst lmpellerer
Casing of 1ST Impeller
Eyes for 2nd Impeller
Center of 2nd lmoeller
Casing of 2nd I mpeUer
Delivery Pipe

Table 6.1: Observation for double stage Centrifugal Pump
Sr.No Question Answers

1 Unit of Burdon gauge on suction side
2 Range of Burdon gauge on suction side
3 Elevation correction for Bourdon gauge side(Zs)
4 unit of Bourdon gauge on delivery side
5 Range of Bourdon gauge on delivery side
6 Elevation correction for Bourdon gauge side(Zd)
7 Diameter of suction pipe is greater than delivery
pipe(true/False)
COMMENTS:

Experiment No 7
To perform experiment on “Double Stage Centrifugal Pump” and hence

to plot its characteristics curves.
APPARATUS
➢ Double stage centrifugal pump with gauges at delivery and suction side
➢ Discharge measuring tank
➢ Stop watches (2 No,)
➢ Energy Meter /Watt meter
RELATED THEORY
➢ Indicated horse power (I.H.P) for pumps
It is the power supplied at the shaft of the pump or input power for the pump.
0.85 𝑋 3.6 𝑋 106 102000

I.H.P = (Pin)p=(Po)motor=ƞmotor x (Pin)motor= = (7.1)
𝑛 𝑡1 𝑡1
Where, n is the number of the revolutions of the disc of energy meter for 1K.W.H.
energy and t is the average time required for one revolution of the disc of energy meter
(30 rev/KWH for the laboratory energy meter).
1 unit power = 1K.W.H=36 x 10 6 watt-sec (7.2)
➢ Water horse power (W.H.P)
It is the power of the centrifugal pump or power produced by the pump.

(W.H.P) = (Po) p = γQHm (7.3)
𝑄 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (7.4)
Where, γ is the specific weight of the water at room temperature, Q is the flow rate
though the pump and Hm is the total manometeric head developed by the pump.
Hm =Hms +Hmd (7.5)

Where
o Hms is the manometric suction head
o Hmd is the manometric delivery head
It can be obtained by applying elevation corrections,
Hms =(Hms)obs +Zs (7.6)
Hmd =(Hmd)obs +Zd (7.7)
Where, Z and Zd are the elevation correction on suction and delivery side of the
pump, respectively.
➢ Overall Efficiency
It is the ratio between water horse power (W.H.P) and Indicated Horse Power (I.H.P)
and is expressed in percentage.
𝐵.𝐻.𝑃
Ƞ= 𝑋 100 (7.8)
𝐼.𝐻.𝑃
➢ Characteristics Curves:
These are the curves, which give complete response of the centrifugal pump for
efficiency, output power and manometric head against varying discharge from minimum
(0) to maximum. These curves are provided by the manufacture and are required at the
time of purchase of the pump.
➢ Shut –off Head:
It is the head developed by the centrifugal pump when delivery valve is completely
closed (Q=0) and pump is in operation. It is the maximum head produced by a pump.
PROCEDURE:
1. Prime the pump to remove all the air from the suction as well as delivery pipes by
opening the air relief valves of the casing and allowing the water to flow from the
priming funnel.

3. Open the delivery valve fully to have maximum discharge and note down the followings
i. Reading of the suction gauge = (Hms)obs

ii. Reading of the delivery gauges= (Hmd)obs
iii. Average time required for one revolution = t1 = (time for 10 revolutions)/10
4. Repeat the step number (3) for different valve opening till complete closure.
6. Determine the elevation correction of both the gauges.
7. Note down the temperature to have the specific weight of water.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Priming should be done before starting the pump.

2. Delivery valve should be closer before priming.
3. Funnel valve should be closed before switching on the motor of the pump to avoid the
splashing of water from funnel.
Figure 7.1: Laboratory layout of the double stage centrifugal pump

..
- Observations and Calculations

=....
....
""! Table 7.1: Table of Observations and Calculations ::
Zs= ........................................... inches
.J
Zd= .......................................... ..inches
Temp =.....................................oC
. /m 3
Y = ..........................................N
Tank dimensions =................inches
Ta nk Volu me =...................... m3
Sr
Hms Hmd P Ƞ=
# Hm = H...-- + H..,- ; t Q=Vol./t P=YQHm t1 ( P i n) P 𝐵.𝐻.𝑃
𝑋 100
𝐼.𝐻.𝑃
Observed corrected Observed corrected
in of Hg m Of water m Of water psi m Of water m Of water m Of water sec m3 /s Watt sec watt %
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 t""
8
9 ::
10
=
-
Graph 7.1: Characteristics Curves for Double Stage Centrifugal Pump

RESULT:
The results of the experiment are presented in the graphical form in figure 7.1 and in tabular
form in table 7.2.
Table 7.2: Result of the Experiment

Item values units
Qo
Ho
Po
ƞmax
(P0)max
Qmax
Hsh
COMMENTS:

EXPERIMENT NO 8
To perform experiment on the “Double Acting Reciprocal Pump” and to
determine co-efficient of discharge and Slip of the pump
APPARATUS:
➢ Double Acting Reciprocating Pump
➢ Discharge Measuring Container
➢ Tachometer
➢ Stop Watch
RELATED THEORY:
Reciprocating Pump
A reciprocating pump is a positive plunger pump. It is often used where relatively small quantity
of liquid is to be handled and where delivery pressure is quite large.
Reciprocating Pump is a machine, which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by
the reciprocating action of the plunger or piston in a cylinder. It is also called a positive
displacement action pump as it discharges a definite quantity of liquid during the displacement
of its piston plunger in the cylinder. The reciprocating pump is always used for providing very
high pressures (Lewitt, 1993).
Theoretical Discharge
It is the discharge of the Reciprocating Pump, which computed on the basis of some theoretical
equation.
For Double Acting Reciprocal Pump.

N
Qth = A  L  (8.1)
60
Where, L is the stroke length = twice of radius crankshaft, A is the cross-sectional area of Piston
=π D2/4, D is the diameter of the cylinder, N is the number of revolutions of the Crankshaft per
minute and Q is the discharge of pump.

Actual Discharge
It is the discharge which is actually produced by the pump.
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = (8.2)
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Slip
The difference between the theoretical discharge and actual discharge is known as Slip of the
Pump, it is often expressed in percentage.
Slip = Qth – Qact (8.3)

Qth − Qact
% slip = 100
Qth
 Q 
= 1 − act 100 = (1 − Cd )100 (8.4)
 Qth 
Sometimes actual discharge may be more than the theoretical discharge and this is known as
negative slip. It happens when length of delivery pipe is very small as compared to the suction
pipe and pump is running at high speed. Delivery valve opens before the completion of suction
stroke and some water is pushed in delivery pipe piston commences its delivery stroke.
Coefficient of Discharge
It may be define as the ratio of actual discharge to theoretical discharge. It is denoted by C d.
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = (8.5)
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Volumetric Efficiency
It is the coefficient of discharge expressed in percentage. For zero slip, the volumetric efficiency
is 100 %.
Qact
Ƞvol= x 100 (8.6)
Qth

Figure 8.1: Photograph of the Double Acting Reciprocating Pump
Figure 8.2: Schematic Diagram for Double Acting Reciprocating Pump

PROCEDURE:
2. Measure the discharge by noting the time required to fill the 5-litre container.
3. Measure the r.p.m of the crankshaft.
4. Repeat steps 2&3 three to have mean reading.

Volume of container Liters

Stroke Length=L m
Diameter of Plunger=D m
Area of Plunger=A m2
Table 8.2: Table of Observation and Calculations
Sr # N Qth t Qact Vol.Efficiency

Cd=Qact/Qth Slip=Qth-Qact
=Cd x 100
r.p.m m3/s sec m3/s m3/s %
1
2
3
Average
RESULTS:
The result of the experiment are presented in tabular form
Sr.# Descriptions Values units

1 The slip of the pump Liters/sec
2 The coefficient of discharge for the pump ---
3 The volumetric efficiency %

COMMENTS:

EXPERIMENT NO 9
To perform experiment on Francis Reaction turbine and to plot its
characteristics curves
APPARATUS:
➢ Francis Reaction turbine
➢ Discharge Measuring Tank
➢ Weights
➢ Tachometer
➢ Stop Watch
RELATED THEORY
In this turbine water is supplied to the runner with pressure energy as well as kinetic energy. It
works due to the drop of pressure energy between the inlet and outlet of the casing. Water
glides on the vanes and applies to torque on the runner, with produces the rotation of the
shaft.
Braking Torque
Product of lever arm length and weight or load is called Braking Torque. It is applied to the
rotating drum to apply brake on it.
T=WXL (9.1)
Where, T is the braking torque, W is the weight in the pan and L is the arm length.
Braking Horse Power (B.H.P)
It is the output power available at the shaft of Francis Reaction turbine and is measured by
applying brakes to the rotating braking drum.
Po = B.H.P (9.2)
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
or Po=
60
Where, Po is the output power or brake power, N is the r.p.m of the shaft at braked position
and T is the braking torque.
1H.P is the rate of performing 550 ft-lbs of work per second.(1 H.P. =746 watts)

Indicated horse power (I.H.P)
It is the input power supplied to the Francis reaction turbine in hydraulic form.
Pin =I.H.P = γQH (9.3)
Where, γ Is the specific weight of water, Q is the discharge through the draft tube and H is the
head available at the base of the inlet
P1 V12
H= + (9.4)
γ 2g
Efficiency
it is the %age ratio between the output power available at the shaft of Francis reaction turbine
(B.H.P) and input supplied to it (I.H.P).
Ƞ= (B.H.P/I.H.P) X 100 (9.5)
Gate Opening
It is the opening of the nozzle mouth in %age .suppose if 6 turns are required in anticlockwise
direction for 100% gate opening then 3 turns in clockwise direction are required for 50 % gate
opening.
This experiment is being performed on one gauge on one gate opening i.e. 100%
Characteristics curves
It is the graphical representation of the Francis reaction turbine at varying speed (0-Nmax) for
efficiency, output power and braking torque.
Characteristics curves are required to study the behavior of the machine under varying Speed
and to determine the important parameters of the machine, like maximum efficiency of the
machine, normal speed, maximum braking torque, maximum power and maximum speed of
the turbine etc.

A turbine is always designed and manufactured to work under a given set of conditions such as
discharge, head of water, speed, power generated, efficiency etc, But a turbine may have to be
used under conditions different than those for which it has been designed. It is essential that
exact behavior of turbine under varied conditions should be predetermined. This can be
predicted graphically by means of the characteristics curves.
These curves are drawn for constant head and discharge or constant input power.
The characteristics curves are provided by the Manufacturer of the turbine and are essentially
required at the time of its purchase.
Normal Speed
It is the speed of the shaft of the turbine (r.p.m) corresponding to its maximum efficiency .
PROCEDURE:
2. Adjust the valve to have the 100% gate opening. This can be achieved by completely
closing the valve and then opening it completely.
3. Note down the head available at the bourdon gauge.
4. Note down the atmosphere temperature and determine the specific weight of water
corresponding to that temperature.
5. Note down the r.m.p of the revolving shaft with the help of Tachometer.
6. Observe time required to fill the tank of known volume.
7. Put some load on the pan and apply brakes to the drum by tightening the clamp, which
will reduce the r.m.p of the shaft. Note down the weight applied and the corresponding
speed into the table.

PRECAUTIONS:
While applying brakes on the braking drum, don’t forget to open the valve of the drum cooling
pipe to avoid burning of the leather brake shoes.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS


P1 (at inlet of casing) Psi
d1 mm
L mm
Temperature 0C
Ƴ N/m3
Tank Volume m3
Q=Vol./t m3/sec
V1 = Q/ A1 m/sec
H=( P1/ γ) + (V12/2g) m of water
Pin=ƳQH watts
S.No. Weight(w) T=W x L N Ƞ (%)

lbs N (N-m) (r.p.m) Po (Watts)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Graph9.1: Characteristics curves of the of Francis turbine for 100% gate opening table

COMMENTS:

EXPERIMENT NO 10
To determine the loss factors for flow through a range of pipe fittings
including bends, a contraction, an enlargement and a gate-valve.
METHODOLOGY:
By measurement of head differences across each of a number of fitting connected in series,
over a range of steady flow.
APPARATUS:
• Hydraulics bench
• Energy losses in bends and fitting apparatus.
• Stopwatch
• Thermometer
THEORY:
The energy loss which occurs in a pipe fitting (so-called secondary loss) is commonly expressed in terms of a head loss
(h, metres) in the form:
where K = the loss coefficient and v = mean velocity of flow into the fitting.
Because of the complexity of flow in many fittings, K is usually determined by experiment. For the pipe fitting
experiment, the head loss is calculated from two manometer readings, taken before and after each fitting, and K is
then determined as
Due to the change in pipe cross-sectional area through the enlargement and contraction, the system experiences an
additional change in static pressure. This change can be calculated as
To eliminate the effects of this area change on the measured head losses, this value should be added to the head loss
readings for the enlargement and the contraction.
Note that (h1 – h2) will be negative for the enlargement and will be negative for the contraction.
For the gate valve experiment, pressure difference before and after the gate is measured directly using a pressure
gauge. This can then be converted to an equivalent head loss using the equation
1 bar = 10.2m water
The loss coefficient may then be calculated as above for the gate valve.
Reynolds number is a dimensionless number used to compare flow characteristics. A full investigation of Reynolds
number, and typical flow variation as it changes, can be found in experiment F1-20 (Reynolds’ Apparatus) or in a
suitable fluids text book.
Equipment Set Up
Set up the losses apparatus on the hydraulic bench so that its base is horizontal (this is necessary for accurate height
measurements from the manometers). Connect the test rig inlet to the bench flow supply and run the outlet extension
tube to the volumetric tank and secure it in place.
Open the bench valve, the gate valve and the flow control valve and start the pump to fill the test rig with water. In
order to bleed air from pressure tapping points and the manometers close both the bench valve and the test rig flow
control valve and open the air bleed screw and remove the cap from the adjacent air valve. Connect a length of small
bore tubing from the air valve to the volumetric tank. Now, open the bench valve and allow flow through the
manometers to purge all air from them; then, tighten the air bleed screw and partly open both the bench valve and the
test rig flow control valve. Next, open the air bleed screw slightly to allow air to enter the top of the manometers, re-
tighten the screw when the manometer levels reach a convenient height.
Check that all manometer levels are on scale at the maximum volume flow rate required (approximately 17
litres/minute). These levels can be adjusted further by using the air bleed screw and the hand pump supplied. The air
bleed screw controls the air flow through the air valve, so when using the hand pump, the bleed screw must be open.
To retain the hand pump pressure in the system, the screw must be closed after pumping.
Procedure
It is not possible to make measurements on all fittings simultaneously and, therefore, it is necessary to run two
separate tests.
Test 1 measures losses across all pipe fittings except the gate valve, which should be kept fully open. Adjust the flow
from the bench control valve and, at a given flow rate, take height readings from all of the manometers after the levels
have steadied. In order to determine the volume flow rate, you should carry out a timed volume collection using the
volumetric tank. This is achieved by closing the ball valve and measuring (with a stopwatch) time taken to accumulate a
known volume of fluid in the tank, which is read from the sight glass. You should collect fluid for at least one minute to
minimise timing errors.
Repeat this procedure to give a total of at least five sets of measurements over a flow range from approximately 8 - 17
litres per minute. Measure the outflow water temperature at the lowest flow rate; this together with the table
detailing the Kinematic Viscosity of Water at Atmospheric Pressure is used to determine the Reynolds number.
Test 2 measures losses across the gate valve only. Clamp off the connecting tubes to the mitre bend pressure tappings
(to prevent air being drawn into the system).
Start with the gate valve closed and open fully both the bench valve and the test rig flow control valve. Now open the
gate valve by approximately 50% of one turn (after taking up any backlash). For each of at least 5 flow rates, measure
pressure drop across the valve from the pressure gauge; adjust the flow rate by use of the test rig flow control valve.
Once measurements have started, do not adjust the gate valve. Determine the volume flow rate by timed collection.
Repeat this procedure for the gate valve opened by approximately 70% of one turn and then approximately 80% of one
turn.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:
Table 10.1
Fitting Manometer Manometer Head Vol. Time Flow Velocity

h1 H2 loss V s rate V V2/2g k
m m h1-h2 m3/s Qt m/s
m m3/s
MITRE
ELBOW
SHORT BEND
ENLARGEMENT
CONTRACTION
GATE VALVE Gauge Reading =
COMMENTS:

Table 10.2
Kinematic Viscosity of Water at Atmospheric Pressure
E.g. At 20°C the kinematic viscosity of water is 1.002 x 10-6m2/s.

EXPERIMENT NO 11
To investigate the head loss due to friction in the flow of water through a
pipe and to determine the associated friction factor. Both variables are
to determined over a range of flow rates and their characteristics
identified for both laminar and turbulent flows.
METHODOLOGY:
By measurement of the pressure difference between two fixed points in a long ( length =many
diameter)Straight tube of circular crossection for steady flows . The range of flow rates will
cover both laminar and tubulent flow regimes.
APPARATUS:
In order to complete the demostration we need a number of pieces of equipement
• Hydraulics bench
• Pipe friction
• Stop watch
• Thermometer
• Sprit level
• Measuring cylinder
NOTE:
where the use of mercury is not allowed the pipe friction appratus may be used over a limited
rate of reynolds number using the water mano-meter only .
THEORY:
A basic mommentum analysis of fully developed flow in a straight tube of uniform crossection
shows that the pressure difference ( P1-P2) between two points in the tube is due to the fact of
viscocity(fluid friction) . The head loss Δh is directly proportional to the pressure difference
(loss) and is given by

And the friction factor, f, is related to the head loss by the equation.
Where d is the pipe diameter and, in this experiment, Δh is measured directly by a manometer
which connects to two pressure tapping a distance L apart; v is the mean velocity given in term
of the volume flow rate Q1 by
The theoretical result for laminar flow is
Where Re = Reynolds number and is given by
And v is the kinematic viscosity.
For turbulent flow in a smooth pipe, a well known curve fit to experiment data is data is given
by
f =0.316 Re -0.25
PROCEDURE:
• Running high flow rate tests
Apply a Hoffman clamp to each of the water manometer connection tubes (essential to
prevent a flow path parallel to the test section).
Close the test rig flow control valve and take a zero flow reading from the hg
manometer (may not be zero because off the contamination of Hg and/or tube wall).

With the flow control valve fully open, measure the head loss hHg shown by the
manometer.
Determine the flow rate by timed collection and measure the temperature of the
collected fluid. The kinetic viscosity of water at atmospheric pressure can then be
determined from the table provided in this manual.
Repeat this procedure to give at least nine flow rates to the lowest give hHg=30mm Hg,
approximately.
• Running low flow rate tests
Repeat procedure given above but using water manometer throughout.
With the flow control valve fully open, measure the head loss h shown by the
manometer.
Determine the flow rate by timed collection and measure the temperature of the
collected fluid. The kinetic viscosity of water at atmospheric pressure can then be
determined from the table provided in this manual.
Obtain data for at least eight flow rates, the lowest give h=30mm, approximately.
Plot graphs of:
In (friction factor) vs. in (Reynolds’s)
And
In (head loss) vs. in (viscosity)

Table11.1
Kinematic Viscosity of Water at Atmospheric Pressure
E.g. At 20°C the kinematic viscosity of water is 1.002 x 10-6m2/s.

n
- =
t
Observation and Calculations

-=
Test Test Volume Time Temp Kin. Man. Man. Head Flow Vel. Friction Reynolds
Pipe Pipe To of Visc. Loss Rate Factor Number
Length Diam. Collect Water In In In In
L d V t  h1 h2 h Qt v f Re h V
(m) (m) (m³) (sec) (°C) (m²/s) (m) (m) (m) (m³/s) (m/s) f Re
:
=
COMMENTS:

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Lab Manual Book

ADVANCED FLUID MECHANICS

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPT

Sr. No DESCRIPTION/ EXPERIMENTS Page No.

• Critical Reynolds Number

To observe laminar, transitional and turbulent pipe flow 25

To make the study of Francis Reaction Turbine. 45

Civil Engineering Department (UOL) Page 2

To make the study of Double Stage Centrifugal Pump. 53

To perform experiment on the “Double Acting Reciprocal pump” and to determine

co-efficient of discharge and Slip of the pump. 68

To perform experiment on “Francis Reaction Turbine” and hence to plot its

Civil Engineering Department (UOL) Page 3

Any comments/ suggestions by the teachers / students will be highly appreciated.

Civil Engineering Department (UOL) Page 4

Civil Engineering Department (UOL) Page 5

Civil Engineering Department (UOL) Page 6

Table 1.2: Table of Observations and Calculations 19

Table 2.1: Table of Observations 27

Table 3.1: Table of observations and Calculations 35

Table 4.1: Table for 100% Gate Opening 40

Table 4.3: Table for 50% Gate Opening 42

Table 4.5: Comparison of Result for two-gate opening 44

Table 5.1: Table of observations and Calculations 52

Table 6.1: table of observations and calculations 61

Table 7.1: Table of observations and Calculations 65

Table 7.2: Result of the Experiment 67

Table 8.1: Table of Observations 71

Table 8.2: Table of Observations and Calculations 71

Table 9.1: Table for 100% Gate Opening 76

Table 9.2: observation and calculation for 100% Gate Opening 76

Table 10.1: Table of Observations and Calculations 82

Table 10.2:Table of kinematic viscosity of water at atmospheric pressure 83

Table11.1: Table of kinematic viscosity of water at atmospheric pressure 87

Table11.2: Table of observations and calculations 88

Civil Engineering Department (UOL) Page 7

Figure 1.2: Conceptual Diagram of the Fluid Friction Apparatus 15

Figure 1.3: photograph of the fluid friction apparatus 16

Figure 3.1: photograph showing Pelton Wheel 29

Figure 3.2: Line Diagram of Laboratory Layout of Impulse Turbine 30

Figure 3.3: component of Pelton Wheel 31

Figure 3.4: Photograph of the Runner of the Pelton Wheel 32

Figure 3.5: Runner of Pelton Wheel and its Sections 32

Figure 3.7: Photograph of Runner of Turgo Turbine 34

Figure 5.1: Photograph of the Francis Reaction Turbine 46

Figure: 5.2: laboratory layout of Francis Reaction Turbines 47

Figure 6.1: Double Stage Centrifugal Pump 58

Figure 6.2: Sectional Plan of the Double Stage Centrifugal Pump 59

Figure 6.3: Laboratory layout of the double stage centrifugal pump 59

Figure 7.1: Laboratory layout of the double stage centrifugal pump 64

Figure 8.1: Photograph of the Double Acting Reciprocating Pump 70

Figure 8.2: Schematic Diagram for Double Acting Reciprocating Pump 70

Civil Engineering Department (UOL) Page 8

Graph 1.2: Graphical Representation between Log i and Log V 21

Graph1.3: Graphical Relationship between f and RN 22

Graph 1.4: Graphical Relationship between Log f and Log R N 23

Graph 7.1: Characteristics Curves for Double Stage Centrifugal Pump 66

Civil Engineering Department (UOL) Page 9