Lecture 8: Mechanical Vibration

Discrete systems

Energy method

Lumped-parameter analysis
» 1 d.o.f.
» Multi-d.o.f. (Eigenvalue analysis)

Continuous systems

Direct solving of partial differential equations

Rayleigh’s method (the energy approach)

Example: a laterally-driven folded-flexure comb-drive
resonator
Reference: Singiresu S. Rao, Mechanical Vibrations, 2nd Ed., Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, Inc., 1990
ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 1 ᐽӛԋǴ
ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬


Energy Method

Conservation of energy; the maximum kinetic energy is equal to
the maximum potential energy: Tmax = Vmax

Also known as Rayleigh’s energy method

Example: Effect of spring mass ms on the resonant frequency ωn

Kinetic energy of spring length dy:

dTs = y
l dy
Total kinetic energy: k
T= m
x(t)

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 2 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬


1
 Cont’d

The total potential energy:

1 2
U= kx
2

By assuming a harmonic motion x(t) = X⋅⋅ cosω
ωnt,
1 m
(m + s ) X 2ωn2
Tmax =
2 3
1
U max = kX 2
2

By equating Tmax = Vmax,

k
ωn =
m + ms / 3

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 3 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬


Lumped-Parameter Model

L-shape spring

=? k x k

k k

Simplified description of 3D physical model using minimum

required number of variables (coordinates)

Do we have “mass-less” spring? A valid assumption?

Can consist of a set of ordinary differential equations depending
on the number of variables

In “Linear Control Systems”, we call them the state-space
equations
ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 4 ᐽӛԋǴ
ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬


2
 Degree of Freedom

x1 x1 x2
k1 k2 k1 k2 k3
m1 m1 m2

1 degree of freedom system 2 degree of freedom system

The minimum number of independent coordinates required to

determine completely the positions of all parts of a system at
any instant of time defines the degree of freedom of the system

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 5  ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

Equations of Motion for a 2 D.O.F. System

F1(t) F2(t)
x1(t) x2(t)
k1 k2 k3
m1 m2

b1 b2 b3

m1&x&1 =
m2 &x&2 =

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 6  ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

3
 Equations of Motion for a 2 D.O.F. System

r r r r
[ m ]x&& + [ b ]x& + [ k ]x = F
m1 0  b1 + b2 − b2  k 1 + k 2 − k2 
[m ] =  , [ b ] =  , [ k ] = 
 0 m2   − b2 b2 + b3   − k2 k 2 + k 3 
 F1 
F= 
F2 

In addition to the free-body diagram, equation of motion can also be

derived through the Lagrange’s equation from the energy perspective

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 7 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

Solving of Dynamic Equation

Gives complete transient response under

Free vibration: without external applied force
» How can a structure move without a force?
» Natural frequency and damped natural frequency can be
obtained

Forced vibration: with external applied force

Motion Types:
» Underdamped
» Critical damped
» Overdamped

Remember how to solve a set of linear ordinary differential
equations for multiple d.o.f. systems?

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 8 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

4
 Determine Resonant Frequency

Design of micromechanical devices needs to know natural

frequency and damping

To many performance indexes of the transient response,
such as rise time, overshoot, and settling time

Resonant frequencies of a lumped-parameter mechanical
system can be obtained by

Solving the eigenvalue problem (exact solution)

Rayleigh’s Method (approximate solution)

etc

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 9  ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

Eigenvalue Problem

Under free vibration and no damping, natural frequencies of a
multi-d.o.f system are solutions of the eigenvalue problem
r
Let x = x sin(ωt ), then
r
[[ K ] − ω2 [ M ]] x = 0
x ≠ 0, ⇒ ∆ = [[ K ] − ω [ M ]] = 0
2

{
× [ K ] ⇒ [[ I ] − ω [ K ] [ M ]] = 0 , [[ I ] −
mω 2
−1 −1
2
[ D ]] = 0
k
α

The roots αi = mω
ωi2/k, so ωi can be solved

The eigenvector corresponding to the individual eigenvalue is the
mode shape of the system

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 10  ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

5
 Example
From the free-body diagram:

k1

m1
x1
k2

m2
x2
k3

m3
x3

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 11  ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

Cont’d

Let m1 = m2 = m3 = m, k1 = k2 = k3 = k, and ω = √(k/m):
m1 0 0   &x&1  k1 + k 2 − k2 0   x1 


0 m2 0   &x&2  +  − k 2 k2 + k3 − k 3   x2  = [ 0 ]
 0 0 m3   &x&3   0 − k3 k3   x3 
1 0 0  &x&1  2 − 1 0   x1 

⇒m 0

1 0  x2  + k − 1 2 − 1  x2  = [ 0 ]
 
& &


0 0 1  &x&3   0 − 1 1   x3 

  2 −1 0   1 0 0 
  
⇒ k −1
 
2 − 1 − ω m 0 1 0  = 0
 2 

 0
  −1 1   0 0 1 
 
−1

{14444244443
  2 −1 0  1 0 0 
 mω 2
 
⇒ I − 
−1 2 − 1 

0 1 0  = 0
k

α

 0 −1 1  0 0 1  
 
 
༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 ᐽӛԋǴ
ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬
D
ENE 5400 12 

6
 Cont’d

αι = mωωi2/k, solve:
mω12 k
α1 = = 0.19806, ω1 = 0.44504
k m
mω 22 k
α2 = = 1.55530, ω 2 = 1.2471
k m
mω 32 k
α3 = = 3.24900, ω 3 = 1.8025
k m

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 13  ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

Cont’d: Mode Shapes

For each solved ωi, recall

r r
that:
[[ K ] − ωi2 [ M ]] x = 0
 2 −1 0 1 0 0   x1i 
  αi k  
k −1
 
2 − 1 − ( ) ⋅ m 0 1 0   x2i 
m
 0
  −1 1  0 0 1    x3i 
 2 −1 0 1 0 0   x1i 
  
= k  − 1 2 − 1 − α i 0 1 0   x2i  = 0
 0
 −1 1  0 0 1    x3i 

We can solve the eigenvector xji with respect to
each αi

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 14  ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

7
 Cont’d: Mode Shapes

1st mode, α1 = 0.19806
 1. 0 
r1 r 1 
x = x 1 1.8019 
2.2470
 

2nd mode, α2 = 1.5553
 1 .0 
r2 r2 
x = x 1  0.4450 
− 0.8020 
 

3rd mode, α3 = 3.2490
 1.0 
r3 r3 
x = x 1 − 1.2468
 0.5544 
 
ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 15 ᐽӛԋǴ
ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

Vibration of Continuous Systems

A system of infinite degrees of freedom

The equation of motion may be described by a partial differential
equation which can be solved by the method of separation of
variables

Many methods can be used to find approximate resonant
frequencies and mode shapes (e.g. the Rayleigh’s method)

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 16 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

8
 Example: Lateral Vibration of Beams
y f(x,t): force per unit length f(x,t)

M(x,t) M(x,t) + dM(x,t)

y(x,t) Free-body
x diagram
x O O’
L y(x,t) V(x,t) V(x,t) + dV(x,t)
dx

What is the dynamic equation?

The inertia force (i.e. f = ma):

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 17 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

Example: the Lateral Vibration of Beams

The sum of moments around the
point O is ZERO

M(x,t) M(x,t) + dM(x,t)

O O’

Substitute V = ∂M/∂
∂x into the last y(x,t) V(x,t)
dx
V(x,t) + dV(x,t)
equation:

∂ 2 M ( x ,t ) ∂ 2 y( x , t )
− + f ( x , t ) = ρA( x )
∂x 2
∂t 2
∂2 ∂ 2 y( x , t )
− 2[ ] + f ( x ,t ) = ρA( x )
∂x ∂t 2
∂ y( x , t )
4
∂ y( x , t )
2
For a uniform beam: EI + ρA = f ( x ,t )
∂x 4
∂t 2
ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 18 ᐽӛԋǴ
ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

9
 Example: Lateral Vibration of Beams

For free vibration, f(x,t) = 0, we require

Two initial conditions, for example: EI ∂ y ( x4 , t ) + ρA ∂ y ( x2 , t ) = 0
4 2

» y(x, t = 0) = yo(x) = 0 ∂x ∂t
» ∂y/∂
∂t|(x, t = 0) = 0

Four boundary conditions, for example:
» Free end
– Bending moment = EI(∂ ∂x2) = 0
∂2y/∂
– Shear force = EI∂ 3 ∂x = 0
∂ y/∂ 3

» Simply supported (pinned) end We will use these two

b.c.’s to solve for the
– Deflection y = 0 Fixed-pinned beam
– Bending moment = EI(∂ ∂x2) = 0
∂2y/∂
» Clamped end
– Deflection y = 0
– Slope ∂y/∂ ∂x = 0
ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 19 ᐽӛԋǴ
ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬


Solve Lateral Vibration of Beams

Use the method of separation of variables y(x,t) = Y(x)⋅⋅ T(t)

d 4Y ( x ) d 2T (t )
EIT (t ) + ρAY ( x ) =0
dx 4 dt 2
EI / ρA ∂ 4Y ( x ) 1 d 2T (t )
= − = a = ω2
Y ( x ) ∂x 4 T (t ) dt 2
(3)
(2)

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 20 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬


10
 Solve the Lateral Vibration of Beams

Y(x) can be solved as:

Y ( x ) = C1e βx + C2e − βx + C3e iβx + C4e − iβx

Or,

Y ( x ) = C1 cos β x + C2 sin β x + C3 cosh β x + C4 sinh β x

The natural frequencies of the beam are (from (1)):

EI EI
ω = β2 = ( β l )2
ρA ρAl 4

The βl product depends on the boundary conditions

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 21 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

Solve Lateral Vibration of a Fixed-Pinned

Beam

Four B.C.’s for a fixed-pinned beam are substituted into Y(x):

Y (0) = 0 ⇒ C = −C
C1 + C3 = 0
β( C + C ) = 0 ⇒ C = −C
3 1
dY
(0) = 0 2 4 4 2

∴Y ( x ) = C1 (cos βx − cosh βx ) + C2 (sin β x − sinh β x ) (4 )

dx
Y (l ) = 0
d 2Y
(l ) = 0 C1(cos β l − cosh βl ) + C2 (sin β l − sinh βl ) = 0 (5)
14243
EI
dx 2
0
− C1(cos βl + cosh β l ) − C2 (sin βl + sinh β l ) = 0 (6 )
 cos βl − cosh β l sin βl − sinh β l 
So,  = 0 (7 )
− (cos βl + cosh βl ) − (sin β l + sinh βl )

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 22 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

11
 Cont’d

From the last matrix, we get the determinant:
tan βl = tanh β l

The many roots of this equation, β nl, will define the natural frequencies:

EI
ωn = ( β n l )2
ρAl 4

Mode shape: Yn(x), Y(x), yn(x,y), and y(x,t):

cos β n l − cosh β n l
C2 n = −C1n ( ), from (5)
sin β nl − sinh β nl
cos β n l − cosh β n l
Yn ( x ) = C1n [(cos β n x − cosh β n x ) − ( )(sin β n x − sinh β n x )], from (4 )
sin β n l − sinh β n l
yn ( x , t ) = Yn ( x )( An cos ωn t + Bn sin ωn t )

∑ y ( x ,t ),
∞
y( x ,t ) = n The final mod e shape
ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004
n =1
23  ᐽӛԋǴ
ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

Results of β nl for Various Beam Constraints

β1l = 1.875104
β2l = 4.694091
β3l = 7.854757
β4l = 10.99541
(1) Cantilever beam

β1l = 4.730041
β2l = 7.853205
β3l = 10.995608
(2) Doubly-clamped beam β4l = 14.137165

β1l = 3.926602
β2l = 7.068583
β3l = 10.210176
β4l = 13.351768
(3) fixed-pinned beam

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 24  ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

12
 Rayleigh’s Method

An approximate analysis using the energy perspective to find the

fundamental natural frequency of continuous systems

The kinetic energy of a beam:

T=

Assume a harmonic variation y(x,t) = Y(x)⋅⋅ cos(ω

ωt), the maximum
kinetic energy:
ω2 l
Tmax = ∫0 Y
2
( x )ρA( x )dx
2

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 25 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬


Cont’d

The potential energy V of a beam: (neglecting the work done by

the shear forces)

The maximum value of y(x,t) is Y(x), so the maximum potential

energy:
1 l d 2Y ( x ) 2
Vmax = ∫ EI ( ) dx
2 0 dx 2

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 26 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬


13
 Rayleigh’s Method

By equating Tmax to Vmax, we obtain:
l d 2Y ( x ) 2
∫0 EI ( ) dx
ω2 = dx 2
l
∫ ρAY ( x )dx
2
0

For example, a stepped beam with various cross sections:

E
l1
I (
d 2Y ( x ) 2
∫0 1 1 dx 2 ) dx +
l2
E
∫l1 2 2I (
d 2Y ( x ) 2
dx 2
) dx + L
ω2 = l1

0
2
l2
∫ ρA1Y ( x )dx + ∫ ρA2Y ( x )dx +
l1
2
L

Where is Y(x) from? You have to choose Y(x), and make sure: (1)
it is a reasonable beam deflection curve; (2) Y(x) must satisfy the
beam boundary conditions

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 27 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬


Example: Find the Resonant Frequency

Use the deflection curve Y(x) = (1 – x/l)2

The cross section A(x) = hx/l

The moment of inertia I(x) = 1⋅⋅(hx/l)3/12

By equating Tmax to Vmax
y anchored
ω = 2
1

h x

The exact frequency is (for comparison):

Eh 2 1 / 2
ω = 1.5343( )
ρl 4

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 28 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬


14
Lateral Folded-flexure Comb-Drive
Resonator

What is the resonant frequency of the resonator?

A lumped-parameter model would be used for analysis

Source: William Tang, Ph.D. Dissertation, UC Berkeley, 1990

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 29 ᐽӛԋǴ
ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

Spring Constant kx

When the resonant plate moves

Xo under a given force Fo, the truss
point B and D moves Xo/2,
respectively

The force acting on each beam
beam is Fo/4

The slope at both ends of the
beams are identically zero

anchor

plate

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 30 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

15
 Cont’d

The deflection curve of beam

AB is:

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 31 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬


Lateral Resonant Frequency

By Rayleigh’s energy method:

K .E .max = P.E .max
K .E .max = K .E .plate + K .E .truss + K .E .beam
1 1 1
= M p v 2p + M t vt2 + ∫ vb2 dM b
2 2 2
=

For the beam segment AB, remember that:
(Fx / 4 ) ( 2
x AB (y ) = 3Ly − 2y 3 )
− for 0 ≤ y ≤ L
12EI z
Fx L3
x AB (L ) = X o / 2 =
48EI z
2 3
Xo   y  y  
⇒ x AB (y ) = 3  − 2  
2   L   L  
ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 32 ᐽӛԋǴ
ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬


16
 Cont’d

So the velocity profile for segment AB (multiply ω) is:
X oω   y 
2 3

v AB ( y ) =
 y
3  − 2  
2   L  L 


The K.E. for beam AB is:

1 L ( X o ω)   y 
2 3 2
2
 y 
K .E . AB = 3  − 2   dM AB
2 ∫0
14444244443
4   L  L
v 2AB



3 2
X o2 ω2 M AB
2
  y
L y   M AB 
= ∫0 3  − 2   dy  dM AB = ⋅ dy 
8L  L
 L 
  L 

13 2 2
= X o ω M AB
280

ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 33 ᐽӛԋǴ

ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

Cont’d

Similarly for beam CD, the

truss
deflection curve is:

2 3
 
xCD ( y ) = X o + (− x AB ( y )) = X o 1 −
3 y   y 
  +  
2L L beam
 


y

The velocity profile and K.E. for
segment CD are:
2 3
  anchor
vCD ( y ) = X o ⋅ ω1 −
3 y  y
  +  

 2 L  L 

2
X o2 ω2 M CD
2 3
L 3 y  y  
K .E . CD = ∫0 1 −   +   dy
2L 

2 L  L 
plate
83 2 2
= X o ω M CD
280
ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 34 ᐽӛԋǴ
ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

17
 Cont’d: Total Beam Potential Energy

Since,
1
M AB = MCD = Mb
8
⇒ K .E .b = 4 ⋅ K .E .AB + 4 ⋅ K .E .CD
13 2 2 83 2 2
= X oω Mb + X oω Mb
560 560
6 2 2
= X o ω Mb
35
ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 35 ᐽӛԋǴ
ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

Cont’d

The total maximum K.E. is

K .E .max = K .E .plate + K .E .truss + K .E .beam
1 1 6 
= X o2ω 2  M p + Mt + Mb 
 2 8 35 

The total maximum P.E. is:

Xo Xo 1
P .E .max = ∫ Fx ⋅ dx = ∫ k x x ⋅ dx = k x X o2
0 0 2

Equating both equations, we obtain the resonant frequency:

kx
ω=
1 12
Mp + Mt + M
4 35 b
ENE 5400 ༾ᐒႝ‫س‬಍೛ी, Spring 2004 36 ᐽӛԋǴ
ᐽӛԋǴమ๮εᏢႝᐒ‫س‬

18