United States Office of Emergency EPA 540-K-99-007

Environmental Protection And Remedial OSWER 9200.5-104A

Agency Response PB2000-963401
December 1999

Oil Program Center

Understanding Oil Spills

And Oil Spill Response

Understanding Oil Spills

In Freshwater Environments
 Introduction

OIL SPILLS en danger public health, im peril drinking water, devastate natural resources, and
disrupt the economy. In an increasingly technological era, the United States has become more
depen dent u pon oil-based prod ucts to help us maintain our high stan dard of living. Prod ucts
derived from petroleu m, such as heating oil an d gasoline, provide fuel for our automobiles, heat
for our homes, an d energy for the machinery used in our in d ustries. Other prod ucts derived
from petroleu m, inclu ding plastics an d pharmaceuticals, provide us with convenience and help
to make our lives more comfortable.
Ad ditionally, non-petroleu m oils, such as vegetable oils an d animal fats, are increasingly being
consu med in the United States. These oils can contain toxic com ponents and can prod uce
p hysical effects that are similar to petroleu m oils. Because they have toxic properties an d
prod uce harmful p hysical effects, spills of non-petroleu m oils also pose threats to p ublic health
and the environment.
Because we use vast quantities of oils, they are usually stored an d transported in large volumes.
During storage or transport, an d occasionally as the result of exploration activities, oils and other
oil-based prod ucts are sometimes spilled onto lan d or into waterways. When this occurs, hu man
health an d environ mental quality are p ut at risk. Every effort m ust be made to prevent oil spills
an d to clean them u p prom ptly once they occur.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Oil Spill Program plays an im portant role in
protecting the environ ment through prevention of, preparation for, and response to oil spills.
Several U.S. EPA offices an d other organizations deserve special recognition for their
contributions to the revision of this booklet. They are EPA Regions III an d V, the EPA
Environmental Response Team, the EPA Office of Research an d Develop ment, the U.S. Fish an d
Wildlife Service, the State of Alaska Department of Environ mental Conservation, the State of
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, the University of California Wildlife Health Center,
an d BP Amoco Corporation.
The p u rpose of this booklet is to provide information about oil spills. It contains chapters that
outline an d explain oil spills, their potential effects on the environment, how they are cleaned
u p, an d how various agencies prepare for spills before they hap pen. Details about five oil spills
are provided to show different types of spills an d the com plexities an d issues involved in
respon ding to them. This oil spill discussion inclu des the Exxon Valdez spill of March 1989; the
Ashland oil spill of Jan uary 1988; the Wisconsin fire an d butter spill in May 1991; the Colonial
Pipeline spill of March 1993; and the Lake Lanier soybean oil spill in Atlanta in 1994.

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 1

2 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response
 Table Of Contents

Title Page
1. The Behavior and Effects of Oil Spills in Aquatic Environments .................................................... 5
2. Mechanical Contain ment an d Recovery of Oil Following a Spill ................................................... 9
3. Alternative Cou ntermeasures for Oil Spills ...................................................................................... 13
4. Shoreline Cleanu p of Oil Spills ........................................................................................................... 17
5. Wildlife and Oil Spills ........................................................................................................................... 21
6. Preparing for Oil Spills: Contingency Planning ............................................................................... 27
7. Responding to Oil Spills: The National Response System .............................................................. 31
8. Response to Oil Spills ........................................................................................................................... 37
Glossary ......................................................................................................................................................... 45
For Further Information ............................................................................................................................... 47

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 3

4 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response
 The Behavior and Effects
Of Oil Spills In
Aquatic Environments
INTRODUCTION
WHEN WE THINK of oil spills, we usually think of oil
tankers spilling their cargo in oceans or seas. However, oil
spilled on land often reaches lakes, rivers, an d wetlands,
where it can also cause damage. Oceans an d other
saltwater bodies are referred to as marine environments.
Lakes, rivers, an d other inlan d bodies of water are called
fresh water environ ments. The term aquatic refers to both
marine an d freshwater environ ments.
When oil is spilled into an aquatic environ ment, it can
harm organisms that live on or aroun d the water surface
and those that live u n der water. Spilled oil can also
damage parts of the food chain, inclu ding h u man food
resources.
The severity of the im pact of an oil spill depen ds on a
variety of factors, inclu ding characteristics of the oil itself.
Natural con ditions, such as water tem perature and
weather, also influence the behavior of oil in aquatic
environ ments. Various types of habitats have differing
sensitivities to oil spills as well.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OIL
THE TERM OIL describes a broad range of hydrocarbon-
based substances. Hydrocarbons are chemical com pou n ds
com posed of the elements hyd rogen an d carbon. This
inclu des substances that are com monly thought of as oils,
such as cru de oil an d refined petroleum prod ucts, but it
also inclu des animal fats, vegetable oils, an d other non-
petroleu m oils. Each type of oil has distinct p hysical an d
chemical properties. These properties affect the way oil
will sp read and break down, the hazard it may pose to
aquatic an d hu man life, and the likelihood that it will pose
a threat to natu ral an d man-made resources.
The rate at which an oil spill spreads will determine its
effect on the environment. Most oils ten d to spread
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response •
horizontally into a smooth an d slip pery surface, called a
slick, on top of the water. Factors w hich affect the ability of
an oil spill to spread inclu de surface tension, specific gravity,
an d viscosity.
• Surface tension is the measure of attraction between the
surface molecules of a liquid. The higher the oil’s
surface tension, the more likely a spill will remain in
place. If the surface tension of the oil is low, the oil will
spread even without help from wind and water
currents. Because increased tem peratures can red uce a
liquid’s su rface tension, oil is more likely to spread in
warmer waters than in very cold waters.
• Specific gravity is the density of a substance com pared to
the density of water. Since most oils are lighter than
water, they float on top of it. However, the specific
gravity of an oil spill can increase if the lighter
substances within the oil evaporate. Heavier oils,
vegetable oils, an d animal fats may sink and form tar
balls or may interact with rocks or sediments on the
bottom of the water body.
• Viscosity is the measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow.
The higher the viscosity of the oil, the greater the
ten dency for it to stay in one place. (Honey is an
exam ple of a highly viscous liquid.)
THE FATE OF SPILLED OIL
NATURAL ACTIONS are always at work in aquatic
environments. These can red uce the severity of an oil spill
an d accelerate the recovery of an affected area. Some
natural actions inclu de weathering, evaporation, oxidation,
biodegradation, an d emulsification.
• Weathering is a series of chemical and physical changes
that cause spilled oil to break down and become heavier
than water. Wave action may result in natural dispersion,
5
 breaking a slick into droplets which are then distributed
vertically throughout the water colu mn. These d roplets
can also form a secon dary slick or thin film on the
surface of the water.
• Evaporation occurs w hen the lighter or more volatile
substances within the oil mixture become vapors an d
leave the surface of the water. This process leaves
behind the heavier com ponents of the oil, w hich may
undergo further weathering or may sink to the bottom
of the ocean floor. Spills of lighter refined prod ucts, such
as kerosene an d gasoline, contain a high proportion of
flam mable com ponents known as light ends. These may
evaporate within a few hours, causing minimal harm to
the aquatic environ ment. Heavier oils, vegetable oils,
an d animal fats leave a thicker, more viscous resid ue.
These types of oils are less likely to evaporate.
• Oxidation occurs when oil contacts the water an d
oxygen combines with the oil hydrocarbons to prod uce
water-soluble com pou nds. This process affects oil slicks
mostly arou nd their ed ges. Thick slicks may only
partially oxidize, forming tar balls. These dense, sticky
black sp heres may linger in the environment, washing
u p on shorelines long after a spill.
• Biodegradation occurs w hen microorganisms, such as
bacteria, feed on oil hydrocarbons. A wide range of
microorganisms is req uired for a significant red uction of
the oil. To sustain biodegrad ation, n utrients such as
Fate of
spilled
oil.
6 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response
nitrogen an d p hosp horus are sometimes ad ded to the
water to encourage the microorganisms to grow and
reprod uce. Biodegradation tends to work best in warm-
water environ ments.
• Emulsification is the process that forms emulsions, w hich
are mixtures of small d roplets of oil and water.
Em ulsions are formed by wave action, and they greatly
ham per weathering an d clean u p processes. Two types of
em ulsions exist: water-in-oil an d oil-in-water. Water-in-
oil em ulsions are frequently called “chocolate mousse,”
an d they are formed w hen strong wave action causes
water to become trap ped inside viscous oil. Chocolate
mousse em ulsions may linger in the environment for
months or even years. Oil and water em ulsions cause oil
to sink and disap pear from the surface, giving the visual
illusion that it is gone and the threat to the environment
has ended.
These natural actions occur differently in fresh water
versus marine environments. Fresh water environmental
im pacts can be more severe because water movement is
minimized in these habitats. In stan ding water bodies, oil
ten ds to pool an d can remain in the environment for long
periods of time. In flowing streams and rivers, oil tends to
collect on plants an d grasses growing on the banks. Oil can
also interact with the sediment at the bottom of the
freshwater bodies, affecting organisms that live in or feed
off of sediments.
EFFECTS OF OIL ON PLANTS
AND ANIMALS
SOME TOXIC SUBSTANCES in an oil spill may
evaporate quickly. Therefore, plant, animal, an d hu man
exposure to the most toxic substances are red uced with
time, and are usually limited to the initial spill area.
Although some organisms may be seriously injured or
killed very soon after contact with the oil in a spill, non-
lethal toxic effects can be more subtle an d often longer
lasting. For exam ple, aq uatic life on reefs an d shorelines is
at risk of being smothered by oil that washes ashore. It can
also be poisoned slowly by long-term exposure to oil
trapped in shallow water or on beaches.
Crews work to keep oil from entering a marsh.
Both petroleu m an d non-petroleu m oil can affect the
environ ment surrou nding an oil spill. All types of oil share
chemical an d p hysical properties that prod uce similar
effects on the environ ment. In some cases, non-petroleu m • Sheltered beaches have very little wave action to
oil spills can prod uce more harmful effects than petroleu m encourage natural dispersion. If timely cleanup efforts
oil spills. are not begu n, oil may remain stranded on these
beaches for years.
Chapter five discusses in greater detail how oil spills
im pact wildlife . • Tidal flats are broad, low-tide zones, usually containing
rich plant, animal, an d bird com m unities. Deposited oil
may seep into the m u d dy bottoms of these flats, creating
Sensitivity of Aquatic Habitats
potentially harmful effects on the ecology of the area.
Aquatic environments are made u p of com plex • Salt marshes are foun d in sheltered waters in cold and
i n t e r r ela t io n s b et w ee n p l a n t a n d a n i m al s p ecie s tem perate areas. They host a variety of plant, bird, and
a n d t h ei r p h y sical e n v iro n m e n t. H a r m t o t h e mam mal life. Marsh vegetation, especially root systems,
p h y sical e n vi ro n m e n t w ill oft e n le a d t o h a r m fo r is easily damaged by fresh light oils.
o n e o r m o re s p ecies i n a fo o d c h ai n, w h ic h m a y
• Mangrove forests are located in tropical regions and are
l ea d t o d a m a g e fo r o t h e r s p ecies f u r t h e r u p t h e
home to a diversity of plant an d animal life. Mangrove
c h a i n . W h e re a n o rg a n i s m s p e n d s m o s t of it s
trees have long roots, called prop roots, that stick out well
t i m e—i n o p e n w a t e r, n e a r co a s t a l a re a s, o r o n t h e
above the water level and help to hold the mangrove
s h o reli n e— w ill d e t e r m i n e t h e effect s a n oil s p ill i s
tree in place. A coating of oil on these prop roots can be
li k ely t o h a v e o n t h a t o r g a n is m .
fatal to the mangrove tree, and because they grow so
In open water, fish an d whales have the ability to swim slowly, replacing a mangrove tree can take decades.
away from a spill by going deeper in the water or further • Marshes and swamps with little water movement are
out to sea, red ucing the likelihood that they will be harmed likely to incu r more severe im pacts than flowing water.
by even a major spill. Aquatic animals that generally live In calm water con ditions, the affected habitat may take
closer to shore, such as turtles, seals, and dolp hins, risk years to restore.
contamination by oil that washes onto beaches or by
• Other standing water bodies, such as inland lakes and
consuming oil-contaminated prey. In shallow waters, oil
pon ds, are home to a variety of birds, mam mals, and
may harm sea grasses and kelp beds, which are used for
fish. The hu man food chain can be affected by spills in
food, shelter, an d nesting sites by many different species.
these environ ments.
Spilled oil and cleanu p operations can threaten different • River habitats may be less severely affected by spills than
types of aquatic habitats, with different results. standing water bodies because of water movement.
• Coral reefs are im portant n urseries for shrim p, fish, an d However, spills in these water bodies can affect plants,
other animals as well as recreational attractions for grasses, and mosses that grow in the environment.
divers. Coral reefs and the aquatic organisms that live When rivers are used as drinking water sources, oil
within an d around them are at risk from exposure to the spills on rivers can pose direct threats to hu man health.
toxic substances within oil as well as smothering.
• Exposed sandy, gravel, or cobble beaches are usually
cleaned by man ual techniques. Although oil can soak
into sand and gravel, few organisms live full-time in
this habitat, so the risk to animal life or the food chain is
less than in other habitats, such as tidal flats.

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 7

Sensitivity of Birds and Mammals
An oil spill can harm birds an d m am mals in several ways:
direct physical contact, toxic contamination, destruction of food
sources and habitats, an d reproductive problems.
• Physical contact – When fur or feathers come into contact
with oil, they get matted down. This matting causes fur
an d feathers to lose their insulating properties, placing
animals at risk of freezing to death. For birds, the risk of
drow ning increases, as the com plex structure of their
feathers that allows them to float or to fly becomes
damaged.
• Toxic contamination – Some species are susceptible to the
toxic effects of inhaled oil vapors. Oil vapors can cause
damage to the animal’s central nervous system, liver,
an d lu ngs. Animals are also at risk from ingesting oil,
w hich can red uce the animal’s ability to eat or digest its
food by damaging cells in the intestinal tract.
• Destruction of food resources and habitats – Even species
w hich are not directly in contact with oil can be harmed
by a spill. Predators that consu me contaminated prey
can be exposed to oil through ingestion. Because oil
contamination gives fish an d other animals un pleasant
tastes an d smells, predators will sometimes refuse to eat
their prey an d will begin to starve. Sometimes a local
population of prey organisms is destroyed, leaving no
food resources for predators. Depending on the
environ mental con ditions, the spilled oil may linger in
the environ ment for long periods of time, ad ding to the
detrimental effects. In calm water con ditions, oil that
interacts with rocks or sediments can remain in the
environ ment indefinitely.
• Reproductive problems – Oil can be transferred from birds’
plu mage to the eggs they are hatching. Oil can smother
eggs by sealing pores in the eggs and preventing gas
exchange. Scientists have also observed developmental
effects in bird embryos that were exposed to oil. Also,
the nu mber of breeding animals and the of nesting
habitats can be red uced by the spill. Long-term
reprod uctive problems have also been shown in some
stu dies in animals that have been exposed to oil.

SUMMARY
SPILLED OIL im mediately begins to move an d weather,
breaking down and changing its physical an d chemical
properties. As these processes occur, the oil threatens
surface resources and a wide range of subsurface aquatic
organisms linked in a com plex food chain. Many different
types of aquatic habitats exist, with varied sensitivities to
the harmful effects of oil contamination an d different
abilities to recu perate from oil spills. In some areas,
habitats and pop ulations can recover quickly. In other
environ ments, however, recovery from persistent or
stranded oil may take years. These detrimental effects are
caused by both petroleu m an d non-petroleu m oil.

8 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

 Mechanical Containment
And Recovery of Oil
Following A Spill

INTRODUCTION
TWO MAJOR STEPS involved in controlling oil spills are • A “longitu dinal su p port,” usually a chain or cable
containment an d recovery. This chapter outlines some of ru nning along the bottom of the skirt, that strengthens
the techniques an d equipment that are used to con d uct oil the boom against win d and wave action; may also serve
spill control efforts. as a weight or ballast to ad d stability and help keep the
boom u pright
Booms can be divided into several basic types. Fence
CONTAINMENT booms have a high freeboard an d a flat flotation device,
WHEN AN OIL SPILL occurs on water, it is critical to making them least effective in rough water, w here wave
contain the spill as quickly as possible in order to minimize an d win d action can cause the boom to twist. Round or
danger an d potential d amage to persons, property, an d “curtain” booms have a more circular flotation device and
natural resources. Contain ment equip ment is used to a contin uous skirt. They perform well in rough water, but
restrict the spread of oil an d to allow for its recovery, are more difficult to clean and store than fence booms.
removal, or dispersal. The most com mon type of Non-rigid inflatable booms come in many shapes. They are
equipment used to control the spread of oil is floating easy to clean an d store, an d they perform well in rough
barriers, called booms. seas. However, they ten d to be expensive, more
com plicated to use, an d p uncture and deflate easily. All
boom types are greatly affected by the conditions at sea;
Booms
the higher the waves swell, the less effective booms
Contain ment booms are used to control the spread of oil to become.
red uce the possibility of polluting shorelines an d other
resources, as well as to concentrate oil in thicker surface Booms can be used to control the spread of oil.
layers, making recovery easier. In ad dition, booms may be
used to divert and channel oil slicks along desired paths,
making them easier to remove from the surface of the
water.
Although there is a great deal of variation in the design
and construction of booms, all generally share four basic
characteristics:
• An above-water “freeboard” to contain the oil an d to
help prevent waves from splashing oil over the top of
the boom
• A flotation device
• A below-water skirt to contain the oil an d help red uce
the amou nt of oil lost un der the boom

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 9