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Assessment of emission reduction potential of Mumbai metro rail

Article  in  Journal of Cleaner Production · June 2018

DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.216

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Arti Roshan Soni Munish Chandel

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Assessment of emission reduction potential of Mumbai metro rail

Arti R. Soni, Munish K. Chandel

PII: S0959-6526(18)31866-3
DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.216
Reference: JCLP 13362

To appear in: Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date: 26 June 2017

Revised Date: 12 June 2018
Accepted Date: 19 June 2018

Please cite this article as: Soni AR, Chandel MK, Assessment of emission reduction potential of Mumbai
metro rail, Journal of Cleaner Production (2018), doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.216.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Amount of words: 5002
Assessment of emission reduction potential of Mumbai metro rail
Arti R. Soni and Munish K. Chandel*
Centre for Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
Mumbai, India
* Corresponding author. Tel: +91-22-25767856, E-mail: munish.chandel@iitb.ac.in

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________________________________________________________________
Abstract

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First line of Mumbai metro rail system was implemented in 2014 for reduction in traffic congestion
and to provide a better connectivity between eastern and western suburbs of Mumbai metropolitan

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region (MMR). Apart from connectivity, reduction in greenhouse gases (GHG), gaseous pollutants
like carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), particulate matter (PM)
were the main goal behind implementation of metro. In this study, we analyse the reduction in carbon

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dioxide (CO2) and other emissions due to shift of commuters to metro from other mode of
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transportation. In addition, monetary savings in travel time is also determined as travel time is the
main attraction for using metro. The emissions were estimated through modal shift of passengers by
converting the ridership data to equivalent number of vehicles on road. Our analysis shows modal
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shift resulted in reduction of 22.7 tonne of CO2 emission per day but ~75.6 tonne of CO2 is emitted
per day from the electricity consumed in metro operation. However, pollutants like CO, HC were
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reduced by metro and high savings in value of travel time was obtained. Overall, the results illustrate
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that so far the metro rail is yet to achieve reduction in greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions since a
major shift occurred from public transportation. However, with increase in ridership metro rail can
achieve the benefits in reduction of emissions.
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Keywords: Mumbai metro; greenhouse gases; modal shift; travel time.

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1. Introduction
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India’s share in global greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in 2012 was 5.73% (INDC database,
2015). To meet GHG mitigation goals, pledge was taken in Paris summit (2015) to reduce GHG
emission intensity by 30–35% by 2030 in comparison to 2005 levels (INDC database, 2015). To cater
the huge need of transportation for its large population, focus is on public transportation systems such
as rail whose share is planned to be increased from 36% to 45%. To achieve this, mass rapid transport
system (MRTS) projects have been identified to play a major role under National Urban Renewal
Policy (NURM). As of 2015, around 236 km of metro rail have been made operational in the country.
Further, about 550 km are under construction and 600 km under consideration for different cities
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across the country (INDC India, 2015). Thus it can be seen that rail transport projects like metro will
likely play a considerable role in India’s future transport policy.

Recently in Delhi, India, the emission reduction potential of metro was estimated. The study utilised
the modal shift details of the riders in estimation of mitigation potential of Delhi metro (Sharma et al.,
2014). Their findings showed that presently Delhi metro is unable to fulfil its GHG mitigation goals,
however, may be possible with an increasing ridership of the metro. Study also estimated that

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approximately 23 111 motor vehicles in 2006 and 110 954 motor vehicles in 2011 got replaced due to
switching over of commuters from road transportation to metro rail after the induction of Delhi metro
rail (Sharma et al., 2014). A study on high speed rail system at Madrid Bajaras, showed that 5 kg of

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carbon dioxide CO2/passenger or 10% of all emissions was reduced due to shift from air travel and
private cars to high speed rail (Zanin et al., 2012). A study on rail transit system for Beijing city show

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that rail transit system of Beijing could reduce 1036.7 tonne of hydrocarbon (HC), 85.8 tonne of
carbon monoxide (CO), 326.2 tonne of nitrogen oxide (NOx) every year (Shang et al., 2013).

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Mumbai metropolitan region (MMR) is a densely populated metro city of 20.7 million population.
The average CO2 concentration recorded for Mumbai is 8562.01 mg/km2 in 2009 (Ramachandra et al.,
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2009). Automobiles are one of the major sources of GHG emissions and Mumbai recorded an
increasing annual growth rate 6.5% and 5% in registered vehicles (Figure 1).
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To reduce fuel consumption and GHG emissions, various cities in India are focussing on metro rail
system as an efficient strategy with Delhi and Chennai beginning the metro operation in 2002 and
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2015 respectively. MMR started its first metro line, 11.4 km, in 2014 on the most congested route
which also lacked east–west connectivity (Ghatkopar–Versova). The Versova- Ghatkopar route (Line
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1) had no direct link by Mumbai suburban railway or by public buses. The metro line thus now fulfils
east-west
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30
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Total registerd vehicle X 100000

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26
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24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
2001 2006 2011 2016

Fig. 1. Registered vehicle in Mumbai from 2001 to 2016 (Transform, 2008).

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connectivity in MMR and has significantly reduced the journey time by 90-120 minutes (MMOPL,
2015). The project is part of a larger scheme of metro. Mumbai Metro system would comprise eight
high-capacity metro railway lines, spanning a total of 200 kilometres (20% underground and the rest
elevated), and serviced by 169 stations. It will consist of three phase and 7 lines which will be
constructed in a period of 15 years. Line 1 is already in service and line 2 is expected to start by 2018.

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Similarly, rest of the lines (3, 4, 5, 6 & 7) are expected to be completed by 2022 (MMOPL, 2015).

When shifting from one mode of transportation to other, a commuter will always prefer the most
comfortable and travel time saving mode. Travel time is defined as the cost of time spent on travelling

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from one point to another including the waiting time. This travel time includes personal time (unpaid)
as well as business time (paid). Hence, it is very essential to estimate the travel time during transport

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cost analysis and the total travel time cost as the product of time spent in travelling multiplied by the
unit cost (Kumar, 2014; Small et al., 2005). Number of studies have determined travel time unit cost

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and its value, based on business costs, survey methods, measuring responses of commuters etc.
(Mackie, 2003). Travel time is one attribute of selecting metro for travelling as it is congestion free,
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fewer accidents, more safe and reliable in comparison to bus (Kumar et al., 2009). In case of India,
most of the researchers calculated the travel time cost on the basis of wage of the commuters (Kumar,
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2014).

This paper analyses the impact of metro rail line 1 on the GHG as well as other emissions (CO, HC,
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NOx and PM) in MMR. The pattern of modal shift to metro is identified, which is utilised to
determine savings in the emissions. This is followed by scenario analysis to identify the best possible
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alternatives for reduction in the emissions from the metro in MMR.

2. Methodology
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2.1 Estimation of greenhouse gas emissions from shift of vehicles to metro

To estimate the reduction of GHG emissions due to implementation of Mumbai metro line 1, we
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analyse the transport mode used by passengers before using the metro. Primary survey on the metro
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route is carried out to determine the choice and mode of transport used by the passengers. Commuter
survey is carried out by using a questionnaire (Annexure 1) distributed among the passengers at
Ghatkopar–Versova section of the metro. The survey was carried out for 81 days (1st March 2015 to
20th May 2015) outside all the 12 metro stations during peak morning hours (9 a.m. to 11.00 a.m.)
and peak evening hours (5.00 p.m. to 7.00 p.m.). A sample size estimation at 95% confidence interval
was carried out. Sample size method which estimates the number of people need to be interviewed to
reflect a target population is based on following formula:
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(1 − )



  =  (1)
(1 − )
1 + 
  

Where, z = z score (number of standard deviation from the mean data point), N = population and e =
margin of error. A total of 500 samples (passengers) were surveyed in this study. All the passengers

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were frequent riders travelling more than 4 days a week and most of the origin–destination stops are
to colleges, schools and offices.

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In addition to primary data survey, secondary data survey was carried out at the same location and
duration to gather data from the public transport drivers (auto-rickshaw and buses) about the
frequency of trips per day on Versova - Ghatkopar route. The main aim behind secondary survey was

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to obtain details about the trips generated per day for estimation of travel time savings. In addition to
above mentioned data sources, other necessary information was obtained from different sources

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(Table 1).
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We used 2015 ridership data which was obtained from Mumbai metro one private limited (MMOPL).
We assume that the mode shifts to metro lead to decrease in number of trips on the roads and the
number of road trips are reduced accordingly. The percentage distribution of modes of transportation
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(from survey) is utilised along with the ridership data to obtain the number of commuters shifted from

Table 1. Sources of data used in the study.

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Data Source
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Choice of transport, mode of Primary survey

transport, travel time
Ridership data for 2015 RTI application to MMOPL
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Occupancy of vehicle MMRDA, 2009

Age distribution based on the type of Aggarwal et al., 2016
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vehicle
Emission factors ARAI, 2007 and Gabi software
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database 2014
Electricity consumed by Mumbai RTI application to MMOPL
metro line 1
Average wage of person Kumar, 2014
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Table 2 (a). Emission factors based on the age profile of the vehicle.

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Age wise emission factor (gm/km)
Mode of share
Technology Fuel use Occupancy
transportation (age
CO2 CO HC NOx PM

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wise)

Petrol 71.56 141.74 1.67 0.26 0.25 0.003

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Car 4 stroke Diesel 13.62 2.4 148.9 0.07 0.08 0.29 0.019

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CNG 14.82 140.82 0.73 0.58 0.28 0.0015

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Diesel 30 50 602 3.97 0.26 6.77 1.07

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Bus 4 stroke
CNG 70 50 806.5 3.72 3.75 6.21 0.04

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2-wheeler 4 stroke Petrol
EP 17.21 1.5 24.82 1.48 0.5 0.54 0.035

2 stroke, 4
Auto-Rickshaw CNG 100 2.5 70.16 2.62 1.31 0.52 0.022
stroke
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Train Electricity - 1700 0.84 0.56 0.0002 3.1308 1.013

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Table 2 (b). Estimation of CO2 reduced from modal shift of vehicles to metro. The shift is calculated for a single day based on commuters using metro and
their choice of transportation before implementation of metro as obtained from survey.

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Mode of % of shift Fraction of Fuel use Vehicle Vehicle CO2 CO HC NOx PM
transport to metro commuters categori shifted due

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Emissions from vehicles on road before Metro (kg/day)
(A) using zation( to metro E =
public/private Age C/ F = E * Emission Factor (Table 2a) X Trip Length (6.02 km)

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vehicle before wise) Occupancy
Mumbai Metro C= (%
B = (229 008 * share

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A)/100 age wise
* B)/100

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Petrol 6555 2731 2331 27.59 4.42 4 0.06

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Car 4 9160 Diesel 1248 519 466 0.25 0.26 1 0.06

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CNG 1357 565 480 2.49 2 1 0.01

Diesel 48092 962 3486 22.99 1.51 39.2 6.22

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Bus 70 160306
CNG 112214 2244 10896 50.26 50.66 83.9 0.59
2-wheeler 4 9160 Petrol 1576 1051 157 9.36 3.16 3.41 0.22
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Auto-
12 27481 CNG 27481 10992 4643 174 87 34 1.49
Rickshaw

Train 10 22901 Electricity - 13 330 0.22 8 X 10-5 1.22 0.39

Total emissions 22.7 0.287 0.149 0.167 0.01
(tonne/day)
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different modes of transport to metro. The percentage share of commuters in different modes is
divided with average occupancy of respective vehicle in Mumbai (MMRDA, 2009) to obtain number
of vehicles on road before shifting to metro. The number of vehicles on road was distributed based on
type of vehicle and age of the vehicle (Aggarwal et al., 2016).

The distribution obtained from above step was multiplied with trip length (6.02 km as obtained from
survey) and respective emission factors (ARAI, 2007; GaBi software, 2014). The weighted average of

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emission factor was taken for calculation with the vintage of vehicles as the weights. Detailed
calculation and data used in the study are displayed in Table 2 (a and b).

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2.2 Estimation of emission from Mumbai metro operation
Methodology adopted in the study is on similar line as by Sharma et al., (2014). The GHG emission

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generated in operation of Mumbai metro is calculated based on the unit of electricity consumed.
Mumbai metro consumes a total of 90 000 units (kWh/day), out of which traction is 50 000 units and
non- traction is 40 000 units (MMOPL RTI, 2016). India’s CO2 emission factor for electricity was

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obtained from Central electricity authority of India which is 0.84 kg/kWh (CEA, 2009).
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2.3 Estimation of monetary value of travel time savings in rupees per day for 2015.
From the commuter survey, it was noticed that the major factor for the commuters to travel by metro
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is saving in time as compared to other modes of transport. During the primary survey commuters were
asked about the time taken by them to commute before and after the metro. From this travel time data,
average travel time savings due to metro for each passenger was in range 20-50 minute an average of
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33 minutes per trip (Table 3). The value of travel time savings was obtained based upon average wage
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of a person which is ₹ 2.33/minute (Kumar, 2014).

3. Results
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Metro observed an average ridership of 312 295 in 2014 and about 229 008 (up to May) in 2015 thus
becoming a dense rail corridor with 26 000 commuters per kilometre daily. Metro has a maximum
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speed of 50 kmph. Around 2.26 million units of electricity is consumed per month by Mumbai metro.
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Table 3. Travel time savings in minutes for each mode of transportation due to metro (Obtained from
commuter survey).

Mode of Auto-
Bus 2-Wheeler Car Train
transportation Rickshaw
Travel time savings 50
32 38 20 25
(minutes)
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3.1 Share of transportation mode
The result obtained in the study are based on the methodology of modal shift from one mode of
transportation to other. The data on the transport mode before and after metro (obtained from survey)
was used to determine the emissions due to modal shift. Seventy percent of the respondents were
earlier using public buses operated by Brihanmumbai Electric Supply & Transport
Undertaking (BEST), transport company in Mumbai and only 4% of them were travelling with their
own personal cars or 2-wheelers (Figure 2). The possible reason behind this share may be that 75% of

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the people in Mumbai are dependent upon public mode of transportation. As 75% of mode share in
Mumbai is via public transport, hence major shift observed was from public buses followed by auto-

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rickshaw and then from suburban railways. A small percentage of shift from suburban rail obtained
may be because prior to metro and today there is no direct connectivity by train on this route. So,

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buses and auto-rickshaw were the only mode available on this route for point to point destination. The
weighted average travel distance on the metro route is estimated to 6.02 km. The favourite source and
destination stations are Ghatkopar, Andheri and Sakinaka.

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3.2 Estimating the modal shift of vehicles after metro and reduction of vehicle kilometres
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Based on the occupancy data (Transform, 2008) for each type of vehicle and number of trips per day
(from secondary survey), the results of the total number of vehicle shifted is presented in Table 2b.
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Majority of the riders of metro have been shifted from the buses followed by auto-rickshaw. Similar
studies conducted for Delhi metro showed a different trend of almost 40% shift from cars and only
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3% shift was observed from buses (Sharma et al., 2014). In Mumbai, the opposite trend is observed
due to large share occupied by public transport (Transform, 2008).
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Fig. 2. Percentage mode share of transportation used by the passengers before moving to the metro.
The share is obtained from the passenger survey at metro stations.
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3.3 Emission estimation before induction of metro
Emissions estimation was calculated based on the vehicle kilometres obtained and the emissions
factors. Figure 3(a and b) shows the emissions from the transport mode which the commuter would
have used, had there been no metro. Buses were responsible for a major share of greenhouse gases
emissions, followed by auto rickshaw. Although only 4% of the passengers shifted from private cars
to metro, CO2 contributions from private car is very close to that of auto rickshaw (as can be seen
from the figure 3a). A total of 22.7 tonne/day of CO2 emission reduction due to shift of vehicles was

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obtained from the estimation. Apparently, this savings in CO2 emissions could have been more if the
shift was from private vehicle to metro. Delhi metro had achieved a saving of 264 208 tonne of CO2

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emissions in 2011, majorly from 4 wheelers and 2 wheeler shift (Sharma et al., 2014).

(a)

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2-wheeler

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train
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Auto-
rickshaw

Car
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Bus
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0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0

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CO2 emissions (tonne/day)

(b)
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Car
C

Bus
CO
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2-Wheeler HC
Auto- NOx
rickshaw
PM
Train

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Emissions (kg/day)

Fig. 3 (a) and (b) CO2 and other emission reduction from different modes due to shift of the
commuters to metro.
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For other pollutants, the highest concentration was obtained for CO followed by NOx. High levels of
NOx emission may be due to the use of diesel as a fuel in buses and also the electricity consumed in
operation of train (which comes from coal power plant). Amongst all the emission, the major
contribution came from buses followed by auto rickshaw.

3.3.1 Emission estimation due to operation of Mumbai metro

Emissions from the operation of metro was determined by obtaining the electricity consumption data

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of metro rail. In metro, ~60% of electricity is for traction while remaining 40% is for non-
traction/auxiliary electricity consumption i.e. lighting, air conditioning, lifts, escalators, shops. GHG

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emissions due to electricity consumed by Mumbai metro was estimated to be 75.6 tonne/day. The
GHG emission obtained from metro is at a higher side (75.6 tonne/day) as compared to that from

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vehicles shifted due to metro (22.7 tonne/day). The results show that the metro operation is
contributing 60.95 tonne/day more as compared to all the vehicles shifted to metro. Although the
emission from buses is reduced, the GHG emissions from the metro exceed this emission reduction

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(Figure 4a). Other pollutants like CO, and HC were reduced significantly due to metro operation
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(Figure 4b).

(a)
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D
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C EP
AC
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(b)
0.35

Emissions (tonne/day) 0.30 Metro

0.25 Modal shift

0.20

0.15

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0.10

0.05

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0.00
CO HC NOx PM

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Fig. 4. Comparison of CO2 emissions (a) and other emissions (b) generated from modal shift and
electricity used in operation of Mumbai metro (tonne/day).

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Two major reasons for higher GHG are shift of passengers from one public transport mode (buses) to
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another public transport (metro) and also the non–traction energy utilised in metro for comfort of
passengers. As ~57% of the electricity in India comes from coal power plants (MoPNG, 2013) the
GHG emissions are occurring at source. O’Toole, (2008) highlighted that rail transit consumes more
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energy/passenger mile and also emits more GHG emissions than any other passenger vehicle.
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3.4 Travel time saving

The travel time value was based on the amount of time spend in travelling (obtained from survey)
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before and after implementation of metro rail. Table 3 highlights the savings in travel time by each
mode of transportation. This data on travel time saving was obtained from primary survey of the
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commuters. For the estimation of travel time savings, average value per minute of a government and
private passenger was taken as ₹ 2.33/min (Kumar, 2014). With the use of above data on travel time
savings and value of time per minute we arrived at a saving of ₹ 323 299/day (Figure 5). Studies
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conducted on value of travel time savings from a shift to metro from bus at Rohini station, Delhi,
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resulted in savings of ₹ 553 320/day for private employees and ₹ 662 940/day for government
employees (Kumar, 2014). The value savings in terms of money is the saved opportunity cost due to
metro.
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Train 22614

2-Wheeler 7237

Bus 240619

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Auto-rickshaw 34736

Car 18092

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0 100000 200000 300000
Value of travel time (Indian rupees)

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Fig. 5. Value of travel time saved (Indian Rupee per day) due to metro operation.

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4. Discussion
The results show that the GHG mitigation potential from Mumbai metro line 1 is not yet achieved,
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however, the scenario would change in future. We evaluate the mitigation potential of metro line 1
under various scenarios like percentage increase in the share of car as mode of transport (Scenario 1),
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estimation of mitigation potential with the use of Mumbai metro regional development authority’s
(MMRDA) projected ridership for line 1 (Scenario 2) and replacing the metro’s modal share (which
was obtained from survey) by Mumbai’s transport modal share (Scenario 3).
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In the scenario 1, it is assumed that higher/ larger mode shift is from cars and the metro runs at its
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maximum capacity. The maximum capacity of metro rail is estimated by multiplying the number of
cars in metro (6 nos.) by maximum capacity of one car (270) and by daily trips taken by metro (270).
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This scenario is based on the reasoning that in last 15 years Mumbai observed an increasing record in
registration of private cars by 137% (Transform, 2008). Also a study on cost-benefit analysis for
Delhi metro reported that benefits from metro can be increased if the mode shift is from cars rather
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than from the buses (Doll et al., 2013). If 30% of the users of metro are shifted from the cars, then the
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CO2 emissions avoided due the cars would be more than the CO2 emissions from the metro operations
(Figure 6a). Thus it can be concluded that with increase in share of modal shift from private cars (by
30% and above) and balancing the other modes of transportation (bus, auto-rickshaw, 2-wheeler and
train) proportionately, the reduction in CO2 emissions can be achieved in Mumbai (Figure 6b). Also
as the Indian electricity sector would reduce its CO2 emissions intensity which would further decrease
CO2 emissions from the metro.
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(a)

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(b)

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(c)
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(d)
60

50

40 2008
% Share

2014
30

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20

10

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0
Car Bus Auto-rickshaw

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(e)

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D
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Fig. 6. (a) CO2 emissions with increasing share of modal shift from cars, (b) Mode share at which
CO2 emissions from metro are less than the modes it replaces. To obtain benefits of metro at assumed
scenario of 30% rise in share of private cars and ridership to be at maximum level, (c) Reduction in
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CO2 emission at different ridership levels, (d) % Mode share of different vehicles in Mumbai for 2014
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and 2008 (CMP, 2016), (e) CO2 emissions from different % modal share.

The above findings may demonstrate more advantages in favour of metro if congestion levels are also
accounted in estimation. A study reported that Mumbai’s roads have an average travel time index of
1.51 i.e. around 51% more time is taken by vehicles to complete trip under congestion conditions
(Bharadwaj et al., 2016). The extra time taken to complete the journey may result in extra fuel
consumed by the vehicle and hence generation of extra amount of GHG emissions. Thus metro surely
has a mitigation potential as compared to any other modes of transportation, but the ridership levels
and modal share would determine the potential.
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Table 4: Projected and current per day ridership of Mumbai metro line 1
(Source: MMRDA, 2016 & MMOPL RTI, 2016).
Ridership 2008 2011 2014 2021 2031
Projected
475 046 513 338 - 664 703 882 533
(MMRDA, 2016)
Actual
- - 229 008 - -
(MMOPL, 2016)

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In scenario 2, we assess the GHG mitigation potential of line 1 based on ridership. Mumbai metro line

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1 attracts on an average 229 008 riders/day as of 2015. However, the projected ridership by MMRDA
was higher than actual (Table 4). The results show that once the metro ridership increases to 882 533

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(in 2031), the GHG emission avoided because of shift from other mode will be higher than the
emissions of metro operation (figure 6c). Thus with an increase in metro ridership, the GHG reduction

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benefits of metro can be accomplished. AN
In scenario 3, we analyse a case in which the shift of commuters to the metro is assumed
proportionate to the mode share of Mumbai, not the one we obtain from the survey. With rise in
population and gross domestic product (GDP), the mode share in Mumbai is also changing with a
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decrease observed in the share of public transport (Figure 6d) (CMP, 2016). The results show that the
metro did not reduce the GHG emissions (Figure 6e). The reason behind this is the dominance of
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public transport over private in Mumbai. Compared to base scenario, the emissions from the mode
share of 2014 and 2005 are lower because of higher % share of train as mode choice.
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If the commuter shift is from one mode of public transportation (i.e. buses) to another mode of public
transportation (e.g. metro rail), then there will be no significant emission reduction due to modal shift.
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As the present vehicle fleet moves towards the cleaner fuels and engine technology, the emission
gains or emission reduction potential will also reduce due to shifting of commuters. Further, unlike
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Delhi, where commuters use private vehicles to a large extent along with buses (public
transportation), Mumbai commuters use buses or suburban rail for commuting. As a result, commuter
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shifting pattern will also be quite different in the two cities. Also, an individual metro corridor may
not be carbon neutral or have limited potential to reduce CO2 and other air pollutants as the ridership
on a particular corridor/line cannot go beyond a particular level due to infrastructure and connectivity
related constraints. However, with more lines operating on a metro rail network, emission reduction
potential could be significant in future.

5. Conclusion
This paper analyses the effect of addition of Mumbai metro line 1 on the emissions. The results show
that CO2 reduction potential of metro is not yet fulfilled as metro is contributing 75.6 tonne/day as
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compared to CO2 emission from modal shift which was 22.7 tonne/day. However, in case of other
pollutants (CO, HC), significant reduction is achieved from addition of metro. Possible explanation
for higher CO2 emissions is the larger shift from public buses (public transportation) to metro and
most of energy consumed as non-traction energy. However, modal shift from private cars to metro
increased ridership and more metro lines would help in reducing CO2 emissions in future. The survey
results show that the main reason attracting the passengers is travel time savings; an average 33
minutes is saved by passenger per trip with the use of Mumbai metro. This time savings in terms of its

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monetary value is about 323 299 rupees/day.

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Aggarwal, P., Jain, S., 2016. Energy demand and CO2 emissions from urban on-road transport in

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Delhi: current and future projections under various policy measures. J. Clean. Prod. 128, 48-61.
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Annexure I
Survey questionnaire used to understand the mode of transportation used by metro passengers before
switching to metro rail
Name: (Optional) Date:
Age: Time
Sex: M/F

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1. What mode of transportation you were using before Mumbai Metro to travel?
• Bus

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• Car (Petro / Diesel )
• Auto

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• Bike

2. What was source and destination travelled by you by the above mode of transportation?

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• Source :
• Destination :
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• Time Taken :

3. What is your current source and destination by Mumbai Metro?

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• Source :
• Destination :
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• Time taken :
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4. What is purpose of your visit?

• Office :
• Personal :
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• College/School :

5. How frequently do you use Mumbai Metro?

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• Less than 5 days in a week

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• 5 day
• 6 day
• 7 day
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Highlights

• The modal shift analysis resulted in reduction of 22.7 tonne of carbon dioxide.
• Additionally reduction of travel time and other pollutants were also achieved.
• Emission reduction potential cannot be achieved with single metro corridor.
• Increased ridership and modal shift from private vehicles can reduce emissions.

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