DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

ECE: 2211 SURVEYING II NOTES

By Daniel Nyangweso
Lecture 3
ECE 2251 SURVEYING II

Angular measurements by Theodolite: horizontal and vertical

angles, errors and accuracies. Methods of point fixation:
design, order, observations, computations, errors and accuracies
of traverses triangulation, trilateration, trigonometric
levelling, intersection, resection and combination of methods.
Tacheometry: principles of optical distance measurements, stadia
method, field procedures and booking. Differences in heights,
instruments, reductions, plane table surveying. Field work.

ERRORS
Reliability of measurements

Two terms are commonly used. These are:

 Precision: This refers to the degree of closeness or
conformity of repeated measurements of the same quantity to
each other. Closely clustered observations imply a high
precision while widely clustered imply a low precision. A
measure for precision is the standard deviation. The higher
the precision, the lower the standard deviation.
 Accuracy: This is the degree of conformity or closeness of a
measurement to the true value. In the absence of systematic
errors, the standard deviation can also serve as a measure
of accuracy.
In survey context, the terms precise and reliable have
specific meaning. Precision is a measure of the repeatability
of the assessment of a parameter under question. Precise
observations usually lead to precise coordinates. Accuracy is
a measure of truth. Precision is related to accuracy in that
it is a practical best estimate of accuracy because true
values of survey quantities are never known, they can only be
estimated.
Measurement is an estimation process. It is therefore quite
possible to have a set of measurements that are very precise
but wholly inaccurate.
Reliability is an assessment of the fact that what has been
found is what it appears to be. A distance measurement made
with a tape from one control station to another could be in
yards or metres, the difference between them is only about

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 10%. A way to be assured that the measure is in the units that
you believe it to be in, would be to include measurements from
other control points in the solution, so that it will be
apparent that the suspect measurement does or does not fit at
a certain level of statistical confidence.

Sources of Errors in Survey Measurements

Errors are classified into three (3) broad categories.
These are:
• Gross errors,
• Systematic errors and
• Random errors.
1. Gross errors
These are results of blunders or mistakes due to carelessness of
the observer. For example, observing a wrong target, reading
scale incorrectly or reading the wrong scale, recording wrong
values etc.
Presence of gross errors can be controlled by taking such steps
as:
• applying careful checks during measurement procedures,
• taking multiple readings and applying consistency checks,
• verifying recorded data,
• using simple geometric or algebraic checks e.g. sum of
measured angles in a plane triangle is 180° etc.
2. Systematic errors
These are errors that occur according to some deterministic
systems which when known,
can be expressed by some functional relationships. For example,
if a distance is measured
with a steel tape that is cut at one end, the same systematic
error occurs throughout all measurements made using this tape.
The systematic error may depend on:
• the observer due to personal bias,
• instruments used; may be imperfect or not in adjustment,
• physical or environmental conditions at the time the
measurement is made e.g. temperature, humidity etc.
• any combination of the above.
Another source of systematic error is in the simplification of
the model used; for example, assuming a plane triangle instead of
a spherical triangle. The spherical excess emerges as a
systematic error if the points of the network are several
kilometers apart.
In the reduction of survey measurements, it is important to
detect and correct for all possible systematic errors.

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A systematic error of a single kind is cumulative. However,
several kinds of systematic errors occurring in any one
measurement could compensate for each other. Some examples of
systematic errors are:
 EDM that measures 99.95 feet while indicating a measurement
of 100.00 feet.
 Refraction in vertical angles.
 Observer’s tendency to sight on near or distant sights in a
slightly different manner.
Although some systematic errors are difficult to detect, the
surveyor must recognize the conditions that cause such errors.
Once the conditions are known, the effect of these errors can be
minimized as follows:
 Turning angles (with theodolite or total station) in direct
and reverse modes.
 Balancing (maintaining similar distances between level and
rod) foresights and backsights.
 Calibrating all surveying equipment.
 Calibrating EDM’s yearly at a baseline calibration site.
When systematic errors cannot be eliminated by procedural
changes, corrections are applied to the measurements. These
corrections are documented in the user manuals of the equipment
or in surveying textbooks.
Undeterminable systematic errors can also be modeled into the
adjustment computation, but surveyors should not rely on this.
They must eliminate all the known systematic errors prior to
proceeding with any adjustment of the survey data.

3. Random errors
Once all gross errors have been removed and all systematic errors
have been corrected for, there still remain some variations in
the measurements.
These variations are due to observational errors which have no
known functional relationships based upon a deterministic system.
These errors instead have random behavior and must be treated
accordingly. We treat the observations as random variables.

Accuracies of horizontal and vertical angles

The method used to evaluate accuracy should be described.
Examples include: statistical testing, least squares adjustment
results, comparison with values of higher accuracy, repeat
measurements, estimation, etc. The accuracy standard for point
data in each part of the document will identify the type of
application and if applicable, the accuracy level recommended for
that application.

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Coordinate values should be based on National datums. Horizontal
coordinate values should preferably be referenced to the UTM Arc
1960 Clarke 1880 Ellipsoid Datum for all the different zone.
Vertical coordinate values should preferably be referenced to SOK
pillars as documented in the cards with various orders of survey
accuracy for all the orders and as prescribed in the Kenya survey
manual. Care should be taken as other values do exist as Mean Arc
1960, Arc 1960 east Africa and Arc 1960 Kenya as evidenced and
provided for in some new upcoming Geospatial Measuring
instruments especially one destined for the East African Region
use.
However, it is recognized that many legacy maps and geospatial
data are referenced to older national datums, such as the
National Surveys by Director of Surveys Kenya, Geological Surveys
and the Ordinance Surveys are used.
If coordinate values are not referenced to the National datum but
their relationship to the national datum is known, identify the
datum and its relationship to a National datum. If the
relationship between the local datum and the National datum is
not specified, identify the datum, but state that its
relationship to a National datum is unspecified.

The following are definitions of various terms used throughout

the Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards.
accuracy - closeness of an estimated (e.g., measured or computed)
value to a standard or accepted [true] value of a particular
quantity. (National Geodetic Survey, 1986).
NOTE Because the true value is not known, but only estimated, the
accuracy of the measured
quantity is also unknown. Therefore, accuracy of coordinate
information can only be estimated
(Geodetic Survey Division, 1996).
accuracy testing - process by which the accuracy of a data set
may be checked.
check point - one of the points in the sample used to estimate the positional accuracy of the data
set against
an independent source of higher accuracy.
component accuracy - positional accuracy in each x, y, and z component.
confidence level - the probability that the true (population) value is within a range of given
values.
NOTE in the sense of this standard, the probability that errors are within a range of given values.
dataset - identifiable collection of related data.
datum - any quantity or set of such quantities that may serve as a basis for calculation of other
quantities.

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(National Geodetic Survey, 1986)
elevation - height of a point with respect to a defined vertical datum.
ellipsoidal height - distance between a point on the Earth’s surface and the ellipsoidal surface, as
measured
along the perpendicular to the ellipsoid at the point and taken positive upward from the ellipsoid.
NOTE also called geodetic height (National Geodetic Survey, 1986)
horizontal accuracy - positional accuracy of a dataset with respect to a horizontal datum.
(Adapted from
Subcommittee for Base Cartographic Data, 1998)
horizontal error - magnitude of the displacement of a feature's recorded horizontal position in a
dataset from
its true or more accurate position, as measured radially and not resolved into x, y.
independent source of higher accuracy - data acquired independently of procedures to generate
the dataset
that is used to test the positional accuracy of a dataset.
NOTE the independent source of higher accuracy shall be of the highest accuracy feasible and
practicable to evaluate the accuracy of the data set.

local accuracy - The local accuracy of a control point is a value that represents the uncertainty
in the coordinates of the control point relative to the coordinates of other directly connected,
adjacent control points at the 95-percent confidence level. The reported local accuracy is an
approximate average of the individual local accuracy values between this control point and other
observed control points used to establish the coordinates of the control point.
network accuracy - The network accuracy of a control point is a value that represents the
uncertainty in the coordinates of the control point with respect to the geodetic datum at the 95-
percent confidence level. For -National Spatial Reference System (NSRS) network accuracy
classification, the datum is considered to be best expressed by the geodetic values at the
Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS) supported by NGS. By this definition, the
local and network accuracy values at CORS sites are considered to be infinitesimal, i.e., to
approach zero.
orthometric height - distance measured along the plumb line between the geoid and a point on
the Earth’s surface, taken positive upward from the geoid. (adapted from National Geodetic
Survey, 1986).
positional accuracy - describes the accuracy of the position of features (adapted from ISO
Standard 15046- 13)
precision - in statistics, a measure of the tendency of a set of random numbers to cluster about a
number determined by the set. (National Geodetic Survey, 1986).
NOTE If appropriate steps are taken to eliminate or correct for biases in positional data,
precision measures may also be a useful means of representing accuracy. (Geodetic Survey
Division, 1996).
root mean square error (RMSE) - square root of the mean of squared errors for a sample.
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spatial data - information that identifies the geographic location and characteristics of natural or
constructed features and boundaries of earth. This information may be derived from, among
other things, remote sensing, mapping, and surveying technologies (Federal Geographic Data
Committee, 1998).
NOTE also known as geospatial data.
vertical accuracy - measure of the positional accuracy of a data set with respect to a specified
vertical datum. (adapted from Subcommittee for Base Cartographic Data, 1998).
vertical error - displacement of a feature's recorded elevation in a dataset from its true or more
accurate elevation.
well-defined point - point that represents a feature for which the horizontal position is known to
a high degree of accuracy and position with respect to the geodetic datum.
Zenith. The zenith angle is an angle measured from the z -axis in
spherical coordinates, denoted phi ... It is also known as the
polar angle and colatitude. also
The zenith angle is the angle between the sun and the vertical.
The zenith angle is similar to the elevation angle but it is
measured from the vertical rather than from the horizontal, thus
making the zenith angle = 90° - elevation.
GEODETIC CONTROL ACCURASY
Most monuments with a horizontal network accuracy of 5-millimeters
(0.016 ft) 95% confidence are CORS or other active stations, such
as Continuous GPS (CGPS). Some may be passive marks.
The 5 mm standard for vertical control is equivalent to First
Order, Class I vertical standards9, when proper field procedures are
followed.
This is the preferred accuracy for project control surveys.
Project Control Surveys that establish new coordinates based on
CORS or CGPS10 control should meet the 1-cm standard. This is
also the preferred accuracy for azimuth pairs, as it reduces the
minimum distance required between monuments (see Fig. 5-5).
The 1 –cm standard for vertical control is equivalent to Second
Order, Class I vertical standards.
These stations have a network accuracy (95% confidence) of 1
centimeter (0.01 meter, or 0.03 ft) or better.
The formula8 for a vertical least squares adjustment is: 𝑏=𝑆/√𝑑
Where:
d = the approximate horizontal distance in kilometers between
control points traced along existing level routes.
S = the propagated standard deviation of elevation difference in
millimeters between survey points obtained from the least squares
adjustment. Note that the units of b are (mm) / √ (km).

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TRAVERSING ACCURACY
Relative Closure Ratio Accuracy
Relative closure ratio accuracy is the relationship between the
length of a measurement and the closure distance to a known
point. It can apply to both horizontal and vertical surveys.
Traverses within a project are typically performed using total
stations and can be analyzed using relative closure techniques.
If the traverse includes redundant measurements, the traverse
should be adjusted using least squares techniques.
"The relative precision of a traverse is expressed by a fraction
that has the linear misclosure as its numerator and the traverse
perimeter or total length as its denominator, or relative
precision=linear misclosure/ traverse length.
The fraction that results from (the equation) is then reduced to
reciprocal form…"
In angle measurement, if the no. of readings is n, precision
attained will be ±( minimum seconds reading of angle of total
station or theodolite times n or least count/2 times no. of
observations.
In short, measuring n angle by repetition (i) improves accuracy,
(ii) compensates for systematic errors and (iii) eliminates
blunders.

Accuracy of angle measurement

So that they can be used to measure angles, theodolites and total
stations have to be centred over a point and they must also be
levelled to bring their angle reading systems into the horizontal
and vertical planes.
When assessing the relationship between angular and linear
precisions the following
are useful:
20” is equivalent to 10 mm at a sighting distance of 100 m
10” is equivalent to 5 mm at a sighting distance of 100 m
5” is equivalent to 2.5 mm at a sighting distance of 100 m
1” is equivalent to 0.5 mm at a sighting distance of 100 m
Based on these, if a 5 mm tolerance was specified for site work
up to a distance of
100 m, a 10” theodolite (or total station) is required.
By simple proportion, if a 5 mm tolerance was specified but the
maximum distance to be set out was 50 m, a 20” instrument is
sufficient.

A high specification theodolite or total station is not needed

for most site work

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(setting out).
The only time a high precision is required (5_, 1_) is for
establishing control or on
special construction projects demanding high quality positioning.
E.g. Dams, Nuclear
Power Plants, etc.
Care has to be taken when assessing the requirement for angular
precision in this way as the minimum reading on a theodolite (or
total station) is not the same as its accuracy. Always read
through the technical specification of the instrument to find
out what its accuracy is quoted as by the manufacturer
Don’t forget to make an allowance for centring and sighting
errors when assessing angular precisions

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Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards
Standards for Architecture, Engineering, Construction (A/E/C) and Facility
Management

Source: Federal Geographic Data Committee FGDC-STD-007.4-2002

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BRITISH STANDARD 5606 : 1990 CODE OF PRACTISE FOR ACCURACY IN
BUILDING  
  MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT DEVIATION
30m steel tape
LINEAR ± 5mm upto 5m
1 general use
      ±10mm 5 to 25m
±15mm above
   
  25m
30m steel tape
  ±3mm to 10m
  practise use
      ±6mm 10 to 30m
EDM (standard
  ±6mm 30 to 50m
  infrared)
20" glass arc
ANGULAR ±20"(±5mm in 3m)
2 theodolite
    1" glass arc theodolite ±5"(±2mm in 80m)

  1" electronic ±3"(±1mm in 50m)

  theodolite
       
3 VERTICALITY spirit level ± 10mm in 3m

  plumb bob, freely ± 5mm in 5m

  suspended
  plumb bob, damped ± 5mm in 10m
  in oil
theodolite with
  vertical plummet and ± 5mm in 30m
diagonal eyepiece
  laser (visible)
    laser (visible) ± 7mm in 100m

  optical plumbing ± 5mm in 100m

  device
4 LEVELS spirit level ± 5mm in 5m
    water level ± 5mm in 15m
    laser (visible) ± 5mm upto 100m
    laser (invisible) ± 5mm upto 100m
    optical level (builders) ± 5mm per sight
optical level
  ± 2mm per sight
  (engineer)
      ± 10mm per km
    optical level (precise) ± 2mm per sight
      ± 8mm per km

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Recommended A/E/C Surveying and Mapping Standards
Table 1: Recommended Accuracies and Tolerances (a)

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Table 2: Recommended Accuracies and Tolerances (b)

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Table 3: Recommended Accuracies and Tolerances (c)

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Table 3: Recommended Accuracies and Tolerances (d)

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Table 3: Recommended Accuracies and Tolerances (e)

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Table 3: Recommended Accuracies and Tolerances (f)

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