Transportation

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING &
SURVEYING
For
CIVIL ENGINEERING
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
& SURVEYING
SYLLABUS
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Highway Planning : Geometric design of highways, Testing and specifications of paving
materials, Design of flexible and rigid pavements.
Traffic Engineering : Traffic characteristics, Theory of traffic flow, Intersection design,
Traffic signs and signal design, Highway capacity.
SURVEYING
Importance of surveying, principles and classifications, mapping concepts, coordinate
system, map projections
Measurements of distance and directions, leveling, Theodolite traversing, plane table
surveying, errors and adjustments, curves
ANALYSIS OF GATE PAPERS
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING SURVEYING
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CONTENTS
(TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING)
Topics Page No
1. GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS
1.1 Introduction 01
1.2 Camber or Cross Fall 03
1.3 Width of Carriage Way 04
1.4 Traffic Separators of Median 05
1.5 Sight Distance 06
1.6 Stopping Sight Distance 08
1.7 Horizontal Alignment 08
1.8 Analysis of Superelevation 10
1.9 Guidelines on Superelevation 10
1.10 Extra Widening 11
1.11 Horizontal Transition Curve 12
1.12 Vertical Alignment 13
1.13 Grade Compensation 14
1.14 Valley Curve 15
2. TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
2.1 Traffic Characteristics 17

2.2 Vehicular Characteristics 17
2.3 Braking Characteristics 18
2.4 Traffic Studies 18
2.5 Traffic Volume Study 18
2.6 Presentation of Traffic Volume Data 19
2.7 Speed Studies 20
2.8 Speed and Delay Study 21
2.9 Capacity and Level of Service 25
3. INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY
3.1 Development of Highway 30

3.2 Early Development of Highway Planning in India
Jaykar committee 31
3.3 Indian Roads Congress 31
3.4 The Nagpur Plan (1943 - 63) 31
3.5 The Bombay Plan (1961 - 81) 32
3.6 The Lucknow Plan (1981 - 2001) 32
3.7 Road Patterns 34
4. TRAFFIC SIGNS AND SIGNAL DESIGN

4.1 Traffic Signs 37
4.2 TrafficControl Devices 38
4.3 Traffic Signals 39
4.4 Various Signal Design Method 40
4.5 Webster Method 41
4.6 IRC Method 41
5. INTERSECTION DESIGN
5.1 Types of Intersection 42

5.2 Traffic Rotaries 44
5.3 Advantage and Disadvantage of Rotary 44
5.4 Resign Elements 44
6. HIGHWAY OR PAVING MATERIALS

6.1 Pavement Materials: SOIL 49
6.2 Pavement Materials: Aggregates 52
6.3 Desirable Properties 52
6.4 Aggregate Tests 53
6.5 Bitumen 57
6.6 Testing of Bitumen 58
6.7 Selection of Appropriate Grade of Bitumen 61
6.8 Mix Design Methods 62
7. DESIGN OF PAVEMENT
7.1 Method of Pavement Design 66

7.2 Group Index Method 66
7.3 California Bearing Ratio Method 66
7.4 Triaxial Method 68
7.5 Design of Rigid Pavement 69
7.6 Temperature Stresses 71
7.7 Frictional Stress Less 71
7.8 Dowel Bar (Design) 73
8. GATE QUESTIONS 84
9. ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS 109
CONTENTS
(SURVEYING ENGINEERING)
Topics Page No
1. FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
1.1 Introduction 128

1.2 Plane & Geodetic Surveying 128
1.3 Classification of Surveying based on Purpose 129
1.4 Classification of Survey based on Instruments used 129
1.5 Principles of Surveying 131
1.6 Scale of a Map 131
1.7 Error due to wrong measuring scale 132
1.8 Use of Verniers in Scales 132
2. DIRECTION & DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Taps 135
2.3 Accessories for Chaining 135
2.4 Ranging or Ranging Out 136
2.5 Errors in Chaining 137
2.6 Error & Corrections 138
2.7 Tape Corrections 141
2.8 Measurements of Direction Compass Surveying 142
2.9 Compass Traverse 143
2.10 Measurement of Angles 143
2.11 Types of Bearings 144
2.12 Designation of Bearings 144
2.13 Reduced Bearing 145
2.14 Fore Bearing and Back Bearing 145
2.15 Calculation of Included Angles from Bearings 145
2.16 Surveyor’s Compass 146
2.17 Prismatic Compass 147
2.18 Magnetic Declination 148
2.19 Variation in Declination 148
3. THEODOLITE

3.2 Classification 150
3.3 Main parts of Vernier Theodolite 150
3.4 Essentials of the Transit Theodlites 151
3.5 Basic Definitions 151
3.6 Temporary Adjustments of a Theodolite 153
3.7 Measurement of Horizontal Angles 154
4. TRAVERSING

4.2 Method of Traversing 156
4.3 Angular Measurements 157
4.4 Consecutive & Independent Co-ordinate 158
4.5 Error of Closure 158
4.6 Relative Error of Closure 159
4.7 Adjustment of Traverse 159
4.8 Gale’s Traverse Table 160
4.9 Omitted Measurements 161
5. LEVELING

5.2 Bench Marks (B.M.) 162
5.3 Different Methods of Leveling 163
6. CONTOURING

6.2 Use of Contours 168
6.3 Definition of Contour 168
6.4 Contour Interval 168
6.5 Characteristics of Contour Lines 169
6.6 Typical Land Features and their Contour Forms Slopes 170
6.7 Valley Line and Ridge Line 171
7. TACHEOMATRY

7.2 Tacheometer 172
7.3 Stadia Rod 172
7.4 Methods of Tacheometry 172
7.5 Distance and Elevation Formula for Inclined Sights 173
7.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Movable-hair Method 174
7.7 Tangential Method of Tacheometry 174
8. PLANE TABLE

8.2 Accessories used in Plane Table Surveying 176
8.3 Setting up the Plane Table 178
8.4 Methods of Plane Table Orientation 179
8.5 Methods of Plane Table Surveying 179
9. GATE QUESTIONS 181
10. ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS 192
TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING
1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.1.2 ROAD USER CHARACTERISTIC

• A driver takes a certain amount of time
• A highway has many visible dimensions to respond to a particular traffic
both in the horizontal plane and in the situation. This can be called as reaction
vertical plane. The art of design of the time.
visible dimensions is known as • The action of applying break on seeing a
Geometric Design. vehicle or obstruction on the road is not
• Proper geometric design will help in the an instantaneous phenomenon. But it is
reduction of accidents and their a time-consuming phenomenon based
severity. Therefore, the objective of on the psychological process involved.
geometric design is the provide • We can call these processes as
optimum efficiency in traffic operation perception, intellection, emotion and
and maximum safety at reasonable cost. volition (PIEV)
• Highway geometric design covers • Perception Time is the time required
elements such as design vehicle for transmission of the sensations
dimensions, user characteristics, received through eyes, ears and body to
terrain, highway classification, design the brain and the spinal chord by the
speed, horizontal curves, vertical nervous system. After perception
curves, gradient, sight distances, cross- intellection occurs, that is the formation
sectional features, junctions, of new thoughts and ideas. Recalling old
interchange etc. memories of similar occasion.
• Linked with these two stages is
1.1.1 FACTORS CONTROLLING emotion, based on the situation, like
1.1.2 fear or anger. This has vital influence on
GEOMETRIC DESIGN the final message or decision sent by
Geometric design is influenced by a the brain to the muscle. This actual act
number of factors such as: of talking a decision to produce action is
(a) Road user characteristics done through volition time.
(b) Vehicle characteristics • The total time required for PIEV, that is,
(c) Safety requirements from the instant the object comes in the
(d) Environmental considerations line of sight of the driver to the instant
(e) Economy in construction, maintenance he arrives at a decision, say, to slow
and operation of vehicles down or to overtake under normal
(f) Topography circumstance is called reaction time.
(g) Functional classification of roads • This could vary from 0.5 second for
(h) Traffic volume and composition simple situations to 3 to 4 seconds for
(i) Design speed complex situation. The reaction time is
affected by the condition of the driver-
Safety, environmental needs and economy fatigue, disease, alcohol consumption
are built into various elements of design. etc., his habits, skill, judgment and
The remaining factors have been discussed environmental conditions like climate,
as given below.
season, weather, time of duty, altitude 1.1.6 CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS
and light.
• Driver characteristics that influence • The features of the cross-section of the
safety are vision and hearing. pavement influences the life of the
• Pedestrian characteristics that pavement as well as the riding comfort
influence the design of pedestrian and safety. Of these, pavement surface
facilities are speed and space occupied. characteristic affect both of these.
A speed of 1.2 m/sec is commonly taken • Camber, kerbs, and geometry of various
for design (AASHTO). cross-sectional elements are important
aspects to be considered in this regards.
1.1.2 TOPOGRAPHY
1.1.7 PAVEMENT SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS
The topography of the land, through which For safe and comfortable driving, four
the road passes, also known as the terrain, aspects of the pavement surface are
controls the geometric design. The important:
following terrain types are identified as (a) The friction between the wheels and the
controls for design in India: pavement surface.
(b) Smoothness of the road surface.
S.No. Terrain Percentage (c) The light reflection characteristics of
cross-slope of the top pavement surface and
country (d) Drainage of water.
1 Plain 0 to 10
2 Rolling 10 to 25 1.1.8 FRICTION
3 Mountainous 25 to 60
4 Steep Greater than 60 Friction between the wheel and the
pavement surface is a crucial factor in the
If cross slope is large, increase in radius of design of horizontal curves and thus the
curvature of road will lead to increase in safe operating speed. Further, it also affect
construction cost. Hence, design speed is the acceleration and deceleration ability of
reduced so that radius of curve reduces vehicles. Lack of adequate friction can
leading in reduction in cost of construction. cause skidding or slipping of vehicles.
• Skidding happens when the path
1.1.5 DESIGN SPEED travelled along the road surface is more
than the circumferential movement of
• The maximum speed at which vehicles the wheels due to friction.
can continuously travel safety under • Slip occurs when the wheel revolves
favorable conditions is known as design more than the corresponding
speed. longitudinal movement along the road.
• It may also be thought of as the
maximum approximate speed that will
be adopted by most drivers. Choice of 1.1.9 VARIOUS FACTOR THAT EFFECT
design speed has to be made carefully, FRICTION ARE
so as to match the terrain condition and
also to be acceptable to most road • Type of the pavement (like bituminous,
users. concrete, or gravel),
• It is the basic parameter which • Condition of the pavement (dry or wet,
determines all other geometric design hot or cold, etc),
feature. • Condition of the tyre (new or old), and
• Speed and load of the vehicle.
The frictional force that develops The pavement surface should be absolutely
between the wheel and the pavement is impermeable to prevent seepage of water
the load acting multiplied by a factor into the pavement layers. Further, both the
called the coefficient of friction and geometry and texture of pavement surface
denoted as f. The choice of the value of f should help in draining out the water from
is a very complicated issue since it the surface in less time.
depends on many variables. IRC 1.2 CAMBER
suggests the coefficient of longitudinal
friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on the Camber or Cant is the cross slope provided
speed and coefficient of lateral friction to raise middle of the road surface in the
as 0.15.These values have been taken transverse direction to drain off rain water
by keeping optimum factor of safety in from road surface. The objective of
mind. The former is useful in sight providing camber area:
distance calculation and the letter in • Surface protection especially for gravel
horizontal curve design. and bituminous road
• Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
1.1.10 UNEVENNESS • Quick drying of pavement which in turn
increases safety
• Unevenness affect the vehicle operating Too steep slope is undesirable because
cost, speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel (a) It will erode the surface.
consumption and wear and tear of (b) Due to too steep slope, transverse
tyres. tilt of vehicles causes uncomfortable
• Unevenness Index is a measure of side thrust and a drag on the
unevenness which is the cumulative steering of automobiles. Also the
measure of vertical undulation of the thrust on the wheels along the
pavement surface recorded per unit pavement edges is more causing
horizontal length of the road. unequal wear of the tyres as well as
• An unevenness index value less than road surface.
150 cm/km is considered as good, a (c) Discomfort causing throw of vehicle
value less than 250 cm/km is when crossing the crown during
satisfactory up to speed of 100 kmph overtaking operations.
and values greater than 320 cm/km is (d) Problems of toppling over of a
considered as uncomfortable even for highly laden bullock carts and
55 kmph. trucks.
• Pavement surface condition is (e) Tendency of most of the vehicles to
measured by Bump Indicator in terms travel along the centre line.
of unevenness index.
1.2.1 SHAPE OF CAMBER
1.1.11 LIGHT REFLECTION
• White roads have good visibility at The common types of camber are parabolic,
right, but cause glare during day time. straight, or combination of them
• Black road has no glare during day, but
has poor visibility at night when the
surface is wet.
• Concrete roads has better visibility and
less glare.
1.1.12 DRAINAGE
1.2.3 CROSSFALL FOR SHOULDERS
• The crossfall for each shoulder should

be at least 0.5 per steeper than the
slope of the pavement subject to a
minimum of 3 percent.
• On superelevated sections, shoulders
should normally have the same crossfall
as the pavement.
Example 1
In a district road where the rainfall is heavy
major district road of WBM pavement, 3.8
• Parabolic or elliptic shape is given so m wide and a state highway of bituminous
that the profile is flat at the middle and concrete pavement, 7.0 m wide are to be
steeper towards the edges, which is constructed. What should be the height of
preferred by fast moving vehicles as crown with respect to the edges in these
they have to frequently cross the crown two cases.
line during overtaking operation on a Solution
two lane highway. For WBM Road
• When very flat cross slope is provided As the rainfall is heavy, provide a
as in cement concrete pavements, camber of 1 in 33.
straight line shape of camber may be From Figure
provided.
• The cross slope for shoulder should be
0.5% steeper than the cross slope of
adjoining pavement, subject to a
1 h
minimum of 3.0%. θ
tan= =
33  3.8 
 
1.2.2 PROVIDING CAMBER IN THE  2 
FIELD ∴Rise of camber with respect to edges
 3.8  1
For providing the desired amount and h=   × = 0.058m n50
 2  33
shape of camber, templates or camber Rise of crown with respect to the Edges
boards are preferred with the specified For Bituminous Concrete Road, Provide a
camber. cross fall of 1
Camber is measured in 1 in n or 1% (Eg., 1
h  1 
in 50 or 20%) and the value depends on the =
tan θ =  h
type of pavement surface. The values  7   50 
 
suggested by IRC for various categories of 2
pavement is given in table below :  1 
IRC Values for camber = 3.5 ×   = 0.07m
 50 
Surface type Heavy Light
rain rain 1.3 WIDTH OF CARRAIGE WAY
Concrete/Bituminous 2% 1.7%
Gravel/WBM 3% 2.5%
Earthen 4% 3.0%
• Width of the carriage way or the width • In order to prevent overcrowding and
of the pavement depends on the width pressure, sufficient space for future
of the traffic lane and number of lanes. road improvement, it is advisable to lay
• Width of a traffic-lane depends on the down restrictions on building activity
width of the vehicle and the clearance. along the roads.
• The maximum permissible width of a Thus, building line represents a line on
vehicle is 2.44 and the desirable side either side of the road, between which
clearance for single lane traffic is 0.68 and the road no building activity is
m. The required minimum lane width is permitted at all.
3.75 m for a single lane road & for • In addition, it will be desirable to
double lane, however, the side exercise control on the nature of
clearance required is about 0.53 m, on building activity for a further distance
either side on 1.06 m in the centre. beyond the building line upto what are
Therefore a two lane road requires known as control lines.
minimum of 3.5 m for each lane. The
desirable carriage way which 1.5 SIGHT DISTANCE
recommended by IRC is given in table
below. 1.5.1 OVERVIEW
1.4 TRAFFIC SEPARATORS OF MEDIAN • The safe and efficient operation of

vehicles on the road depends very much
The main function of traffic separator is to on the visibility of the road ahead of the
prevent head-on collision between vehicles driver.
moving in opposite directions on adjacent • Thus, the geometric design of the road
lanes should be done such that any
The separator may also help to obstruction on the road length could be
i) Channelize traffic into streams at visible to the driver from some distance
intersections ahead. This distance is said to be the
ii) Shadow the crossing and turning traffic sight distance.
iii) Segregate slow traffic and to protect
pedestrians. 1.5.2 TYPES OF SIGHT DISTANCE
• The traffic separators used may be
in the form of pavement markings, • Sight distance available from a point is
physical dividers of area separators. the actual distance the road surface,
• Area separators used may be over which a driver from a specified
medians, dividing island or parkway height above the carriage way has
strips, dividing the two directions of visibility or moving objects.
traffic flow. • The sight distance situations that are
considered for design are :
1.4.1 RIGHT OF WAY i) Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the
absolute minimum sight distance
• Right of way (ROW) or land width is the ii) Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is
width of land acquired for the road, defined as twice SSD
along its alignment. iii) Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe
• It should be adequate to accommodate overtaking operation
all the cross-sectional elements of the iv) Head light sight distance is the distance
highways and may reasonably provide visible to a driver during night driving
for further development. under the illumination of head lights.
V) Safe sight distance to enter into an immediately. Therefore, sight
intersection. distance required is less. While
The computation of sight distance descending a gradient, gravity also
depends on : comes into action and more time
(i) Reaction time of driver will be required to stop the vehicle.
Reaction time of a driver is the time Sight distance required will more in
taken from the instant the object is this case.
visible to the driver to the instant
when the brakes are applied. The 1.6 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
total reaction time may be split up
into four components based on PIEV • Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the
theory. IRV suggests a total reaction minimum sight distance available on a
time of 2.5 sec. 2.5 sec. is actually highway at any spot having sufficient
the 90th percentile reaction time. length to enable the driver to stop a
(ii) Speed of the Vehicle vehicle travelling at design, safety
Higher the speed, more time will be without collision with any other
required to stop the vehicle. Hence obstruction.
it is evident that, as the speed • The stopping sight distance is the sum
increases, sight distance also of lag distance and the braking distance.
increases. • Lag distance is the distance the vehicle
(iii) Efficiency of Brakes travelled during the reaction time t and
The efficiency of the brakes depends is given by vt, where v is the velocity in
upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle m/sec2.
characteristics etc. If the brake • Braking distance is the distance
efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will travelled by the vehicle during braking
stop the moment the brakes are operation.
applied. But practically, it is not • For a level road this is obtained by
possible to achieve 100% brake equating the work done in stopping the
efficiency. Therefore, the sight vehicle and the kinetic energy of the
distance required will be more, vehicle.
when the efficiency of brakes are • If F is the maximum frictional force
less. Also for safe geometric design, developed and the braking distance is l,
we assume that the vehicles have then work done against friction in
only 50% brake efficiency. stopping the vehicle is Fl = fWl where W
1. Frictional Resistance between is the total weight of the vehicle. The
the tyre and the roadWhen the kinetic energy at the design speed is
frictional resistance is more, the
1 1 Wv 2 Wv 2 v2
vehicle stop immediately. Thus =mv 2 =;fwl =l
sight required will be less. No 2 2 g 2g 2gf
separate provision for brake Therefore, the SSD = lag distance +
efficiency is provided while braking distance and given by
computing the sight distance. v2
SSD= vt +
This is taken into account along 2gf
with the factor of longitudinal Where v is the design speed in m/sec2,
friction. IRC has specified the t is the reaction time in sec, g is the
value of longitudinal fraction in acceleration due to gravity and f is the
between 0.35 to 0.4. coefficient of friction. The coefficient of
IV) Gradient of the road While climbing friction f is given below for variation
up a gradient, the vehicle can stop design speed
v2
Coefficient of longitudinal friction SSD= vt +
2g ( f ± 0.01n )
Speed, <30 40 50 60 >80
,kmph • Effect for grade should not be
F 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 considered for undivided highway for
two way traffic but must be considered
for divided highway.
• When there is an ascending gradient of
• On roads with restricted width or single
say +n%, the component of gravity adds
lane road when two-way movement of
to braking action and hence braking
traffic is permitted, the minimum
distance is decreased. The component
stopping sight distance should be equal
of gravity acting parallel to the surface
to TWICE the minimum stopping
which adds to the braking force is equal
distance to enable both vehicle coming
to Wsinθ≈tanθ ≈ Wn/100.
from opposite directions.
Case I: When vehicle is moving up the • SSD on vertical curves should be the
grade. length which a driver from a height of
1.2 m have visibility of an obstruction of
height 0.15 m.
• When the stopping sight distance for

the design speed is not available on any
section of a road, the speed should be
restricted by a warning sign and a
suitable speed-limit regulation sign.
Equating kinetic energy and work done.
 Wn  Wv 2 Design Safe stopping sight
 fw + l =
 100  2g speed distance for design, m
v2 20 20
l= 25 25
 n 
2g  f +  30 30
 100  40 45
50 60
Case II: When vehicle is moving down 60 80
the grade. 65 90
80 120
100 180
1.6.1 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE (OSD)

The minimum distance open the vision of
the driver of a vehicle intending to
overtake slow vehicle a head with safety
v2
SSD= vt + against the traffic of opposite direction is
2g ( f − 0.01n ) known as minimum overtaking sight
Therefore the general equation is given distance.
by equation
1.7 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
1.7.1 OVERVIEW
A = over taking vehicle travelling at design
Horizontal alignment is one of the most
speed
important features influencing the
B = Slow vehicle on a two-lane road with
efficiency and safety of a highway. A poor
two way traffic
design will result in lower speeds and
C = Third vehicle come from the opposite
resultant in highway performance in terms
direction
of safety and comfort. In addition, it may
The overtaking manoeuvre is split into
increase the cost of vehicle operations and
three parts d1, d2, d3. d1 is the distance
lower the highway capacity. The horizontal
travelled by overtaking vehicle a during the
alignment design elements include radius
reaction time + sec of the driver from
of circular curve, design of superelevation,
position A1 to A2. d2 is the distance
extra widening at horizontal curves, design
travelled by vehicle A from A2 to A3 during
of transition curve, and set back distance.
T sec d3 is the distance travelled by on-
coming vehicle C from C1 to C2.
1.7.2 DESIGN SPEED
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 m for two way traffic.
OSD = d1 + d2 m one way traffic
The design speed is the single most
d1 = ( v b t ) + ( v b t + 2S)( vt ) important factor in the design of horizontal
vb = Speed of slow moving vehicle m/sec. alignment. The design speed depends on
v = Speed of overtaking vehicle m/sec. the type of the road, type of terrain.
S = Spacing of vehicles m Indian road congress (IRC) has classified
A = acceleration m/sec2. the terrains into four categories, namely
If vb is not given than vb = (v - 4.5)m/sec plain, rolling mountains, and steep based
on the cross slope. The recommended
1.6.2 SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTIONS
design speed for various terrains and type
At intersection where two or more roads of roads are given in table below.
meet, visibility should be provided for the Terrain classification
drivers approaching the intersection from Terrain Cross
either sides. Driver should be able to Classification Slope (%)
perceive a hazard and stop the vehicle if Plain 0-10
required. Stopping sight distance for each Rolling 10-25
road can be computer from the design Mountainous 25-60
speed. The sight distance should be Steep >60
provided such that the drivers on either Design Speed in km/hr as per IRC
side should be able to see each other. (rulling and minimum)
This is illustrated in the figure below.
1.7.3 HORIZONTAL CURVE
The presence of horizontal curve imparts

centrifugal force which is a reactive force
acting outward on a vehicle negotiating it.
Centrifugal force depends on speed and wheel the vehicle is just about to
radius of the horizontal curve and is overturn (under this condition, reactor
counteracted to a certain extent by at inner wheel will be zero).
transverse friction between the tyre b P b
= Ph W = or
and pavement surface. 2 W 2H
At the equilibrium, overturning is
possible when
v2 b
=
gR 2H
And for safety the following condition
must satisfy
Wb
Ph ≤
• On a curved road, this force tends to 2
cause the vehicle to overrun or to side P b
outward from the centre of road ≤
W 2h
curvature. For proper design of the
v2 b b v2
curve, and understanding of the forces ≤ or ≥
acting on a vehicle taking a horizontal gR 2H 2H gR
curve is necessary. Various forces acting (for no overturning) …………(iii)
on the vehicle are illustrated in the
figure below. • The second tendency of the vehicle is
These are the centrifugal force (P) for transverse skidding. i.e., when the
acting outward, weight of the vehicle centrifugal force P is greater than the
(W) acting downward and the reaction maximum possible transverse skid
of the ground on the wheels (RA and resistance due to friction between the
RB). The centrifugal force and the pavement surface and tyre.
weight is assumed to be from the centre The maximum skid resistance (F) is
of gravity which is at h units above the given by: F = FA + FB = f(RA + RB ) =
ground. Let the wheel base be assumed fW
to be units. The centrifugal force P is where FA and FB is the frictional force
given by at tyre A and B, R A and R B is the
Wv 2 reaction at tyre A and B, f is the lateral
P= ....(i) coefficient of friction and W is the
gR
weight of the vehicle. This is
where W is the weight of the vehicle, v
counteracted by the centrifugal force
is the speed of the vehicle, g is the
(P), and equating:
acceleration due to gravity and R is the
P
radius of the curve. = P fW = or f
• The centrifugal ratio or the impact W
P At equilibrium, when skidding takes
factor is given by: place [from equation (ii)]
W
P v2
P v2 = f=
= ….(ii) W gR
W gR
and for safety the following condition
• The centrifugal force has two effects.: A must satisfy:
tendency to overturn the vehicle about P ≤ fW
the outer wheels and a tendency for P
transverse skidding. Taking moments of ≤f
the force with respect to the outer W
v2 • W is the weight of the vehicle acting
≤f down-wards through the center of
gR
gravity, and
v2
f≥ • F is the friction force between the
gR wheels and the pavement, along the
(for no skidding) …(iv) surface inward.
Equation (iii) and (iv) gives the stable At equilibrium, by resolving the forces
condition for design. If equation (iii) is parallel to the surface of the pavement
violated, the vehicle will overturn at the we get,
horizontal curve and if equation (iv) is P cos θ = W sin θ + FA + FB
violated, the vehicle will skid at the = W sin θ + f(RA + RB )
horizontal curve. = W sin θ + f(W cos θ + P sin θ)
For no sliding & no overturning where W is the weight of the vehicle. P
P b is centrifugal force, f is the coefficient of
≤ ≤f
W 2h friction, θ is the transverse slope due to
superelevation. Dividing by W cos θ, we
1.8 ANALYSIS OF SUPERELEVATION get:
P cos θ W sin θ fW cos θ fp sin θ
= + +
• Super-elevation or cant or banking is W cos θ W cos θ W cos θ W cos θ
the transverse slope provide at P p
horizontal curve to counteract the
= tan θ + f + f tan θ
W W
centrifugal force, by raising the outer P
edge of the pavement with respect to (1 − f tan θ ) =tan θ + f
W
the inner edge, throughout the length of
P tan θ + f
the horizontal curve. =
• When the outer edge is raised, a W 1 − f tan θ
component of the curve weight will be v2 tan θ + f
=
complemented in counteracting the gR 1 − f tan θ
effect of centrifugal force.
• In order to find out how much this This is an exact expression for
raising should be, the following analysis superelevation. But normally, for f =
may be done. 0.15 and 𝛉𝛉 < 40°, 1 – f tan 𝛉𝛉 ≈ 1 and
for small, tan 𝛉𝛉 ≈ sin 𝛉𝛉 = E/B = e, thus
Force acting on a vehicle while taking a v2
horizontal curve of radius R m at a e+f =
gR
speed v m/sec are: 𝛉𝛉
where, e is the rate of super
elevation, f the coefficient of lateral
friction 0.15, v the speed of the
vehicle in m/sec, R the radius of the
curve in m and g = 9.8 m/sec2.
1.9 GUIDELINES ON SUPERELEVATION
• P is the centrifugal force acting • While designing the various elements of

horizontally out-wards through the the road like superelevation, we design
center of gravity. it for a particular vehicle called design
vehicle which has some standard
weight and dimensions.
• But in the actual case, the road has to otherwise speed is limited to allowable
cater for mixed traffic. Superelevation speed va .
designed for a particular vehicle • Radius beyond which superelevation is
travelling at a particular speed may not required.
be suitable for other vehicle and may ( 0.75v )
2
even cause toppling. Taking into e1 =

gR
account these consideration, IRC has
given some guidelines about the If e1 is taken as camber then R =
( 0.75v )
2
maximum and minimum superelevation
is the radius beyond
etc. ge1
which no superelevation required.
1.9.1 DESIGN OF SUPER-ELEVATION
1.10 EXTRA WIDENING
• For fast moving vehicles, providing
higher superelevation without
• Extra widening refers to the additional
considering coefficient of friction is
width of carriageway that is required
safe, i.e. centrifugal force is fully
on a curved section of a road over and
counteracted by the weight of the
above that required on a straight
vehicle or superelevation.
alignment.
• For slow moving vehicles, providing
• This widening is done due to two
lower superelevation considering
reasons: the first and most important is
coefficient of friction is safe, i.e.
the additional width required for a
centrifugal force is counteracted by
vehicle taking a horizontal curve and
superelevation and coefficient of
the second is due to the tendency of the
friction. IRC suggest following design
drivers to ply away the edge of the
procedure.
carriageway as they drive on a curve.
• The first is referred as the mechanical
Step 1:
widening and the second is called the
Find e for 75 percent of design
psychological widening.
( 0.75v )
2
speed, neglecting f, i.e. e1 =

gR 1.10.1 MECHANICAL WIDENING
Step 2:
• The reasons for the mechanical
( 0.75v )
2
If e1 < 0.07, then e = e1 = , else if widening are: When a vehicle

gR negotiates a horizontal curve, only front
e1 > 0.07 go to step 3. wheel can be turned, the rear wheels
Step 3: does not follow the same path as front
Fin f1 for the design speed max e, i.e. wheel. It follow a path of shorter radius
v2 than the front wheels as shown in figure
=
f1 = 0.07 .
gR below.
If f1 < 0.15, then the maximum e = 0.07 • This phenomenon is called off-tracking,
is safe for the design speed, else go to and has the effect of increasing the
step 4. effective width of a road space required
Step 4: by the vehicle.
Find the allowable speed va for the • In addition speeds higher than the
maximum e = 0.07 and f = 0.15,va = design speed causes transverse
skidding which requires additional
�0.22gR if va ≥ v then the design is
width for safety purpose.
adequate and provide e = 0.07
v v
=
Wps =
2.64 R 9.5 R
Where Wps is in m, v is in m/s, R is in m,
V is in km/hr.
Therefore, the total widening needed at
a horizontal curve We is :
• Let R1 is the radius of the outer track nl 2 v
We = Wm + Wps = +
line of the rear wheel, R2 is the radius of 2R 2.64 R
the outer track line of the front wheel l • The above formula is applicable for
is the distance between the front and two-lane or more.
rear wheel, n is the number of lanes, • Widening of single-lane roads however
then the mechanical widening Wmis is somewhat different, since during
derived below. crossing manouevers outer wheels have
R=2
2
R12 + l 2 in any case to use the shoulders
=( R 2 − Wm ) + l 2 whether on the straight or on the curve.
2
• It is therefore sufficient on single-lane

=R 2 2 − 2R 2 Wm + Wm 2 + l 2
roads if only the mechanical component
2R 2 Wm − Wm 2 =
l2 of widening is taken into account.
Wm ( 2R 2 − Wm ) =
l2
1.11 HORIZONTAL TRANSITION CURVES
Therefore the widening needed for a
l2 Transition curve is provided to change
single lane road is: Wm = . If
2R 2 − Wm the horizontal alignment from straight
the road has n lanes, the extra widening to circular curve gradually and has a
should be provided on each lane. radius which decrease from infinity at
Therefore, the extra widening of a road the straight end (tangent point) to
with n lanes is given by the desired radius of the circular at the
nl 2 nl 2 other end (curve point).
= Wm ≈ There are five objectives for providing
2R 2 − Wm 2R
transition curve and are given below:
Hence, 1. To introduce gradually the centrifugal
nl 2 force between the tangent point and the
Wm =
2R beginning of the circular curve, avoiding
sudden jerk on the vehicle. This
1.10.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL WIDENING increases the comfort of passengers.
2. To enable the driver turn the steering
• Widening of pavements has to be done gradually for his own comfort and
for some psychological reasons also. security.
There is a tendency for the drivers to 3. To provide gradual introduction of
drive close to the edges of the pavement super elevation, and
on curves. 4. To provide gradual introduction of
• Some extra space is to be provided for extra widening
more clearance for the crossing and 5. To enhance the aesthetic appearance of
overtaking operations on curves. IRC the road.
proposed an empirical relation for the
psychological widening at horizontal
curves Wps :
1.11.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the
TRANSITION CURVES length of the road with respect to the
horizontal.
1. Spiral (also called cloth old)
2. Lemniscates 1.12.2 EFFECT OF GRADIENT
3. Cubic parabola
Out of various shapes spiral shape is • The effect of long steep gradient on the
considered to be most ideal vehicular speed is considerable.
shape,because of rate of change of • This is particularly important in roads
centrifugal acceleration is constant where the proportion of heavy vehicles
throughout length of road. is significant.
Length of Transition curve • Due to restrictive sight distance at
V3 uphill gradients the speed of traffic is
Ls = V is in m.sec.
CR often controlled by these heavy
80 vehicles.
C= m / sec 2 (Always) V is in • As a result, not only the operating costs
75 + V
Km/hr, Generally the value of C is in of the vehicles are increased, but also
range of 0.5-0.8. capacity of the roads will have to be
R = radius of the circular curve, m reduced.
Ls = Length of transition curve, m • Further, due to high differential speed
between heavy and light vehicles, and
C = Allowable rate of change of between uphill and downhill gradients,
centrifugal acceleration, m/sec3 accidents abound in gradients.
1.12 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT 1.12.3 REPRESENTATION OF GRADIENT
• The vertical alignment of a road The positive gradient or the ascending

consists of gradients (straight lines in a gradient is denoted as +n and the negative
vertical plane) and vertical curves. gradient as –n. The deviation angle N is :
• The vertical alignment is usually drawn when two grades meet, the angle which
as a profile, which is a graph with measures the change of direction and is
elevation as vertical axis and the given by the algebraic difference between
horizontal distance along the centre line the two grades [n1- (-n2)] = n1 + n2 = α1 +
of the road as the horizontal axis. α2
• Just as a circular curve is used to IRC Specifications for gradients for
connect horizontal straight stretches of different roads (in percentage)
road, vertical curves connect two
gradients.
• When these two curves meet, they form 1.12.4TYPES OF GRADIENT

either convex or concave.
• The former is called as summit curve, (1)Ruling gradient
while the latter is called a valley curve. (2)Limiting gradient
(3) Exceptional gradient
1.12.1 GRADIENT (4) Minimum gradient
1.12.5 RULING GRADIENT
to 2.5%. The rise of elevation over a
• The ruling gradient or the design length of 2 Km shall not exceed 100 m
gradient is the maximum gradient with in mountainous terrain & 120 m in
which the designer attempts to design steep terrain.
the vertical profile of the road. • IRC code has given following
• This depends on the terrain, length of recommendation for the gradients.
the grade, speed, pulling power of the
vehicle and the presence of the Gradients for Roads In different
horizontal curve. Terrains
• The ruling gradient is adopted by the
Terrain Ruling Limiting Exceptiona
designer by considering a particular gradient gradient l gradient
speed as the design speed and for a Plain or rolling 3.3 5 percent 6.7 percent
percent (1 in 20) (1 in 15)
design vehicle with standard (1 in 30)
dimensions. Mountains terrain, 5 percent 6 percent 7 percent
and steep terrain (1 in 20) (1 in (1 in 14.3)
• With the maximum pulling power, the having elevation 16.7)
vehicle would be able to sustain the more than 3,000
m above the mean
same speed even on long sections only sea level
up to a certain gradient. This is when Steep terrain upto 6 percent 7 percent 8 percent
the maximum power developed by the 3,000 m height (1 in (1 in (1 in 12.5)
above mean ea 16.7) 14.3)
engine is equal to the power required to level
overcome the resistances to motion on
the grade at this speed. 1.12.8 CRITICAL LENGTH OF THE GRADE
• Therefore this gradient, is the one
which should be adopted as a ruling The maximum length of the ascending
gradient by the designer for this vehicle gradient which a loaded truck can operate
and the design speed. without undue reduction in speed is called
critical length of the grade. A reduction in
1.12.6 LIMITING GRADIENT speed of 25 Kmph is a reasonable value.
This gradient is adopted when the ruling 1.12.9 MINIMUM GRADIENT
gradient results in enormous increase in
cost of construction. On rolling terrain and This is important only at locations where
hilly terrain it may be frequently necessary surface drainage is important. Camber will
to adopt limiting gradient. But the length of take care of the lateral drainage. But the
the limiting gradient stretches should be longitudinal drainage along the side drains
limited and must be sandwitched by either requires some slope for smooth flow of
straight roads or easier grades. water. If the terrain is flat, then for flatter-
gradient drain will become much deeper
1.12.7 EXCEPTIONAL GRADIENT than the normal level of ground. To avoid it,
minimum gradient is provided for drainage
• Exceptional gradient are very steeper purpose and it depends on the rain fall,
gradients given at unavoidable type of soil and other site conditions. A
situations. They should be limited for minimum of 1 in 500 as minimum gradient
short stretches not exceeding about 100 of road may be sufficient for concrete drain
metres at a stretch. In mountainous and and 1 in 200 for open soil drains are found
steep terrain, successive exceptional to give satisfactory performance.
gradients must be separated by a
minimum 100 metre length gentler. At 1.13 GRADE COMPENSATION
hairpin bends, the gradient is restricted
• While a vehicle is negotiating a
horizontal curve, if there is a gradient
also, then there will be increased
resistance to traction due to both curve
and the gradient.
• When sharp horizontal curve is to be
introduced on a road which has already
the maximum permissible gradient,
then the gradient should be decreased The valley curve is made fully transitional
to compensate for the loss of tractive by providing two similar transition curves
effort due to the curve of equal length the transitional curve is set
• This reduction in gradient at the out by a cubic parabola y = bx3
horizontal curve is called grade 2N
where b = 2 .
compensation, which is intended to off- 3L
set the extra tractive effort involved at However for small deviation angles we
the curve. generally use parabolic curve the design.
1. Grade compensation is not required
for grades flatter than 4% because 1.14.2 SAFETY CRITERIA
the loss of tractive force is
negligible. Length of the valley curve for headlight
30 + R distance may be determined for two
2. Grade compensation is %,
R conditions:
where R is the radius of the (1)Length of the valley curve greater than
horizontal curve in meters. stopping sight distance and
3. The maximum grade compensation (2) length of the valley curve less than the
75 stopping sight distance.
is limited to %
R
4. The gradient need not be reduced Case A: Length of valley curve greater
beyond 4%. than stopping sight distance (L > S)
The total length of valley curve L is greater
than the stopping sight distance SSD. The
1.14 VALLEY CURVE sight distance available will be minimum
when the vehicle is in the lowest point in
Valley curve or sag curves are vertical the valley. This is because the beginning of
curves with convexity downwards. They the curve will have infinite radius and the
are formed when two gradients meet as bottom of the curve will have minimum
illustrated in figure below in any of the radius which is a property of the transition
following four ways: curve. The case is shown in figure.
1. When a descending gradient meets
another descending gradient.
2. When a descending gradient meets a
flat gradient.
3. When a descending gradient meets an
ascending gradient.
4. When an ascending gradient meets
another ascending gradient. From the geometry of the figure, we have:
(assuming small deviation angle,
1.14.1 LENGTH OF VALLEY CURVE
N 2 Note that the above expression is
y= x )
2L approximate and is satisfactory because in
NS2 practice, the gradients are very small and is
h1 + S tan tan α =aS = 2
acceptable for all practical purposes. We
2L will not be able to know prior to which case
Where N is the deviation angle in radians, to be adopted. Therefore both has to be
h1 is the height of headlight beam, α is the calculated and the one which satisfies the
head beam inclination in degree and S is condition is adopted.
the sight distance. The inclination α ≈ 1
For h1 = 0.75 & α o
degree and 0.75 as per IRC code.
NS2 1.5 + 0.035S
L(m) = = 2S −
L
1.5 + 0.035S N
Where S = SSD in m While calculating SSD, we should neglect
+While calculating SSD in this case neglect the effect of grade because SSD will be both
the effect of slope because minimum sight in up and down grades.
is at lowest point and beyond that there is
gradient.
Case B: Length of valley curve less than

stopping sight distance (L>S)
The length of the curve L is less than SSD.
In this case, the minimum sight distance is
from the beginning of the curve. The
important points are the beginning of the
curve and the bottom most part of the
curve. If the vehicle is at the bottom of the
curve, then its headlight beam will reach
far beyond the endpoint of the curve
whereas, if the vehicle is at the
beginning of the curve, then the headlight
beam will hit just outside the curve.
Therefore, the length of the curve is
derived by assuming the vehicle at the
beginning of the curve. The case is shown
in figure below.
From the figure,

 L
h1 + S tan tan α =
S −  N
 2
2h + 2S tan tan α
= 2S − 1
L
N
2 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
2.1 TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS • The width of the vehicle affects the

width of the traffic lanes, shoulders and
• Study of traffic characteristics is the parking facilities. Height of the vehicle
most important, for any improvement affects the clearance to be provided
of traffic facilities. under structures such as over bridges
• In traffic characteristics, we generally under bridges, electric and other
study service lines.
(a) Road user characteristics • Length of the vehicle is an important
(b) Vehicular characteristics factor in the design of horizontal
(c) Breaking characteristics alignment as it effects the extra width of
pavement and minimum turning radius.
2.1.1 ROAD USER CHARACTERISTICS Length affects the safe overtaking
distance, capacity of a road and parking
• It is important to study the facilities.
characteristics and limitations of road
(ii) Weight of Loaded Vehicle
users because the physical, mental and
The maximum weight of loaded vehicle
emotional characteristics of human
affects the design of pavement
beings affect their ability.
thickness and gradients. In fact, the
• Factors affecting Road user
limiting gradients are governed by both
characteristics are
the weight and power of the heavy
i) Physical: Vision, hearing, strength
vehicles.
and General reaction to traffic
situations. (iii) Power of vehicle
ii)Mental: Knowledge, skill, The power of the heavy vehicles and
intelligence, experience and literacy. their loaded weights decides the
iii)Psychological: Attentiveness, fear permissible and limiting values of
anger, superstition, impatience, gradient on roads. The total resistances
general attitude towards traffic and to traction consisting of inertia, rolling
regulations and maturity. resistance, air resistance and grade
iv) Environmental: Facilities to the resistance.
traffic, atmosphere condition and
locality. (iv) Speed of vehicle
Vehicle speed affects,
2.2 VEHICULAR CHARACTERISTICS (i) sight distances
(ii) superelevation, length of transition
The study of vehicular characteristics curve and limiting radius on
affects the design and traffic performance. horizontal curves
(iii)length of transition curves on
(i) Vehicle Dimensions vertical valley curves and on humps
• Vehicle dimension mainly considered (iv)width of pavement and shoulders on
are the overall width, height, and length straight and on horizontal curves
of different vehicles, particularly of the (v) design gradient
largest ones. (vi) capacity of traffic lane
(vii)design and control measures on q = The equivalent hourly flow
intersections. Complete traffic volume study includes :
Classified volume study, (i.e. no. of
2.3 BRAKING CHARACTERISTICS different types of vehicle), directional
study (distribution on different lanes)
• Deceleration & braking characteristics • Following are the means of conducting
of vehicles depend on the design and traffic surveys : By toll plaza ticketing,
type of braking system and its Registration offices, Statistical
efficiency. approach, By interview, By check post,
• The safety of vehicle operation, Modern Global Positioning Studies.
stopping distance and the spacing
between the two consecutive vehicles in 2.5.1 USES AND OBJECTIVES OF TRAFFIC
a traffic stream are affected by the VOLUME STUDIES
braking capacity.
(i) It provides a true measure of the
2.4 TRAFFIC STUDIES relative importance of roads and
decides the priority of improvement
• The traffic surveys for collecting traffic and expansions.
data are also called traffic census. (ii) It is used in planning of traffic
• These studies help in deciding the operations, control of existing facilities
geometric design feature and traffic and designing of new facilities.
control for safe and efficient traffic (iii) It helps in analysis of traffic patterns
movements. and trends.
The various traffic studies generally (iv) It provides useful data for structural
carried out are: and geometric design of pavements and
(a) Traffic volume study computation of road capacity.
(b) Speed studies: (v) It is used in planning one-way streets
(i) Spot speed study and other regulatory measures.
(ii) Speed and delay study (vi) Turning movement study is used in the
(c) Origin and Destination (O & D) design of intersections, in planning
study signal timings, channelization and other
(d) Traffic flow characteristics control devices.
(e) *Traffic capacity study (vii) Pedestrian traffic volume study is
(f) Parking study used for planning side walks, cross
(g) Accident studies walks subways and pedestrian signals.
2.5 TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY 2.5.2 TRAFFIC VOLUME CALCULATION
• Traffic volume is the number of vehicles • The traffic flow varies from time to time
crossing a section of road per unit time. as hourly traffic volume varies
• It is used to measure the quantity of considerably during day, hourly volume
traffic flow (vehicle/day or will be much higher than the average
vehicles/hr). hourly volume.
It can be determined by • Daily traffic volumes vary in a week and
n × 3600 during seasons.
q= vph • Therefore true picture is to be obtained
T
where , for patterns of hourly, weekly, daily and
n = the number of vehicles passing a seasonal variation including class of
point in the roadway in T (sec).
traffic (buses, trucks, cars and facilities and regulation needed during
Motorcycles and etc.) peak traffic periods.
• During traffic volume study traffic • Traffic Flow map along the route : The
variations and the directions of each thickness of the line representing the
class of traffic is recorded with the traffic volume to any desired scale.
information of their turning movements. • Volume flow diagram : at intersection
• Traffic volume counts is done with the are drawn indicating traffic volume as
help of mechanical counters or manually, shown in figure ‘A’ are prepared,
using pneumatic tube, multipen recorder. showing the details of crossing and
• At first the fluctuations of traffic volume turning traffic. This data is needed for
during the hours of day and the daily intersection design.
variations are observed.
• After that with the help of statistics the
peak hourly traffic volumes and average
daily traffic volumes are calculated.
• Thirtieth highest hourly volume : Or the

design hourly volume is found from the
2.6 PRESENTATION OF TRAFFIC VOLUME plot between hourly volume and the
DATA number of hours in an year that the
traffic volume is exceeded. For this all
• Annual average daily traffic (AADT) : It hourly volumes are arranged in
is the average 24-hr traffic volume at a decreasing order and order no. is given
given location over a full 365-days. to each of them. The data at order no.
Total traffic and classified are 30 is the 30th highest hourly volume.
calculated. It helps in deciding the The 30th highest hourly volume is the
relative importance of a route & road hourly volume that will be exceeded
development. It includes seasonal only 29 times in a year and all other
variations also. hourly volumes of the year will be less
• Average Daily traffic (ADT): It is the than this value.
average 24-hr volume at a given • The highest or peak hourly volume of
location for some period of time less the year will be too high that it will not
than a year. For this minimum of 7-days be economical to design the facilities
count is done to include the dialy according to this volume and the annual
variaion like on Saturday & Sunday. average hourly volume (AAHV) found
• Trend Chart : Showing volume trends from AADT will not be sufficient during
over period of years. These data are considerable period of an year.
useful for planning future expansion, • Thus, it has been observed that 30th
design & regulation. highest hourly volume gives a
• Variation charts showing hourly, daily satisfactory results in terms of
and seasonal variations are also performance and is also economic in
prepared. These help in deciding the nature. As per Indian condition, 30th
highest hourly is 8-10% of AADT. For
example if AADT is 2000 veh/day, 30th • Time mean speed is the arithmetic
highest hourly volume will be 160-200 mean of the speed of the vehicles
veh/hr. passing a point on a highway during an
• If 30th highest hourly volume is adopted interval of time.
for desire than there will be congestion • It represents the speed distribution of
only during 29 hours in the year. The vehicles at a point on the roadway.
thirtieth highest hourly volume is • Time mean speed is found by
generally taken as the hourly volume
∑
n
V
for design. Vt = i =1 i
In order to obtain certain traffic volume n

data such as AADT, it is necessary to Where,
obtain data continuously. However, it is Vt = time-mean speed, kmph
not feasible to collect continuous data Vi = observed instantaneous speed of ith
on all roads because of cost involved. To vehicles, kmph
make reasonable estimates of annual N = number of vehicles observed
traffic volume characteristics on an area
wise basis, different types of periodic 2.7.2 SPACE MEAN SPEED (VS)
counts with count durations ranging
from 15 minutes to continuous are • It is the average speed of vehicles over a
conducted. certain road length at any time.
• It is obtained by dividing the total
2.7 SPEED STUDIES distance travelled by two or more
vehicles on a section of highway by the
Speed of different vehicles vary with
total time required by these vehicles to
respect to time & space. To represent these
travel that distance.
variation several types of speed can be
defined. These are • Space mean speed is the harmonic
mean of the speed of the vehicles
1. Spot Speed : passing a point at highway during an
It is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at interval of time.
a specified location or instant. Spot Speed is • It is the speed used for flow density
needed to design. relationship.(i.e., in traffic flow studies).
(i) Horizontal and vertical curve nL n
= Vs =
(ii) Location and size of signs
∑ i=1t i ∑ in=1  1 
n
(iii) Design of signals

(iv) Accident analysis  ui 
Spot speed is measured using Enoscope,
Pressure contact tubes and Loop deflector 2.7.3 SPOT SPEED STUDY
and Doppler radar.
• Uses of spot speed study
2. Average Speed : (a) In planning traffic control and in
It is the avg. of spot speed of all vehicle traffic regulations.
passing a given point on the road. (b) In geometric design for redesigning
There are two types of mean speeds or existing highways or for deciding
average speed. design speed for new facilities.
1. Time mean speeds (c) In accident studies.
2. Space mean speed (d) To calculate the traffic capacity
(e) Decide the speed trends
2.7.1 TIME MEAN SPEED (VT)
(f) Compare diverse types of drivers • But for the purpose of highway
and vehicles under specified geometric design we consider 98th
conditions. percentile speed.
• Factors affecting spot speed are • Also, 15th percentile speed is taken
pavement width curve, sight distance, as a lower speed limit. It is derived
gradient, pavement unevenness to prohibit the slow moving vehicles
intersections and road side to decrease delay and congestion i.e.
developments. Other factors affecting for segregation of fast moving
environmental conditions enforcement, vehicles with slow moving vehicles.
traffic conditions, driver, vehicle and
motive of travel. c) Modal Average
Spot speed studies cannot be used to A frequency distribution curve of spot
find density because measurements are speed is plotted with speed of vehicle or
done at one point only. avg. values of each speed group of
Note that, density = no. of vehicles per vehicle on the X-axis and the percentage
km. of vehicles in that group on the Y-axis,
this graph is called speed distribution
2.7.4 PRESENTATION OF SPOT SPEED curve.
DATA • This curve helps in determining the
a) Average speed of vehicle i.e. space speed at which the greatest
mean speed and time mean speed. proportion of the vehicles moves.
From the spot speed data of the This speed is called Modal Speed.
selected samples, frequency
distribution tables are prepared for
various speed ranges and no. of vehicle
in such range. This frequency
distribution table prepared gives the
general information of the speed
distribution pattern. Form this space
mean & time mean speed are calculated.
b) Cumulative speed of vehicles. The model speed is 47 km/hr

because largest percentage of
• A graph is plotted between average vehicle are moving at this speed.
value of each speed group and
cumulative percentage of vehicles 2.8 SPEED AND DELAY STUDY
travelled at or below different
speeds. We know that spot speed study cannot give
• From the above graph, 85th the density of traffic. Hence speed & delay
percentile speed is found out which studies are carried out over a long distance
means that only 15 percent of and hence it is possible to determine
vehicles exceeds this speed during density of traffic. This study gives
that stretch. information such as the amount, location
• 85th percentile is considered as the and causes of delay in traffic stream.
safe limit under the zone and all the Information of this study can be used in
drivers exceeding this speed (85th planning and in taking remedia measures
percentile speed) are considered to tackle delays at specific locations.
faster than safe speed.
In this case the test is carried out in two
directions. Say, when flow & average.
Journey time of all vehicles is to be
calculated in North-South direction, the
test is run in N-S as well as S-N
direction.
ORIGIN AND DESTINATION STUDIES
2.8.2 OBJECTIVES OF O & D STUDIES

• Origin and destination studies of
vehicles determine their numbers,
There are various methods of carrying out origin and destination in the concerned
speed and delay study. zone of study.
(i) Floating car or riding check method • It gives information like the actual
(ii)License plate or vehicle number method direction of travel, selection of route
and length of trip. Therefore these
studies are very helpful in planning new
highways and improving new existing
services. It is also used in planning
mass rapid transit system.
• Future and present scientific of
transportation system and mass transit
system should be based on O & D data
(iii) Interview technique of passenger trips.
(iv)Elevated observations,
(v) Photographic technique 2.8.3 METHODS OF COLLECTION OF O &
D DATA
2.8.1 FLOATING CAR METHOD
Road side interview method: The
This method is suitable for two lane traffic. vehicles are stopped at predefined
• In floating car method a test vehicle in interview stations and the answers to
driven over a given course of travel at prescribed question are collected on the
approximately the avg. speed of the spot.
stream, thus trying to float with the • Information collected include the place
traffic stream. Four observers are and time of origin and destination,
required in this case. route, location of stoppages, the
• Observer 1: Notes time at various purpose of the trip, type of vehicle and
control points such as interaction, numbers of passengers in each vehicle.
bridges, and any other fixes points in • In this method the data is collected
each trip. He also notes the amount of quickly in short duration.
delay at each point. • Main drawback of the method is that
• 2nd Observer: Notes the time, location the vehicles are stopped for interview.
and cause of these delays.
• 3rd Observer: Notes the no. of vehicle 2.8.4 LICENSE PLATE METHOD
overtaking the test vehicle and that
overtaken by the test vehicles. • Entire area under study is marked out
• 4th Observer: Notes the no. of vehicle and the observers are simultaneously
travelling in the opposite direction in stationed at all points of entry and exit
each trip.
on all the routes leading into and out of • A pre-coded card is stuck on the vehicle
the area. as it enters the area under study.
• Each party notes the license plate • When the car leaves the marked area
numbers of the vehicles entering and the other observations are recorded on
leaving the marked area and the time. the tag.
• After collecting the field data major • This method is useful when the traffic is
work remains of the office heavy and moves continuously.
computations and analysis, by tracking • But this method only gives information
each vehicle number and its time of regarding the points of entry and exit
entering and leaving the marked area. and the time taken to travel the area.
• This method is quite easy and quick as
far as field work is concerned. However 2.8.7 HOME INTERVIEW METHOD
involves a lot of office computations in
tracing the trips through a network of • A random sample of 0.5 to 10 percent of
stations. the population is selected and their
• Hence a large number of teams are residences are visited by the trained
required to take simultaneous personal who collect the travel data
observations when a large area is to be from each member of the house hold.
surveyed. • The problem of stopping vehicle and
• This method is quite advantageous consequent difficulties are avoided.
when the area under consideration is • Care should be taken in deciding the
small, like a intersection or a small sample size by keeping in view the
business centre. desired accuracy.
2.8.5 RETURN POST CARD METHOD 2.8.8 WORK SPOT INTERVIEW METHOD
• Pre-paid business reply post cards with The transportation needs of work trips can
return address are distributed to the be planned by collecting the O & D data at
road users at some selected points work spots like the offices, factories,
along the route or the cards are mailed educational institutions, etc, by personal
to the owners of vehicles. interviews.
• Questionnaire to be filled in by the road
user is printed on the card, along with a PRESENTATION OF O AND D DATA
request for co-operation and purpose of
the study. The data are presented in the following
• Distributing stations for the cards may forms :
be selected where vehicles have to stop (1) O&D Table
as in case of a toll booth. (2) Desire Lines
• This method is suitable where the (3) Pie-Chart
traffic is heavy. Only a part of the road (4) Contour lines.
users may return the cards promptly (i) Origin and destination tables are
after filling in the desired details prepared showing number of trips
property and correctly. If conclusions between zones.
are drawn in such cases, it is likely that (ii) Desire lines are plotted which is a
these may not give a true picture. graphical representation prepared
in almost all O and D surveys.
2.8.6 TAG ON CAR METHOD • Desire lines are straight lines
connecting the origin points
with destinations.
• Desire lines show the actual Traffic capacity is the ability of a road way
desire of road user and thus to accommodate traffic volume. It is
helps to find the necessity of a expressed as the maximum number of
new road link or a diversion or a vehicles in a lane or a road that can pass a
bypass. given point in unit time, usually an hour,
• The width of such desire lines is i.e., vehicles per hour per lane or roadway.
drawn proportional to the Capacity and volume are measures of
number of trips in both traffic flow and have the same units.
directions. These desire lines Volume represents and actual rate of flow
may be compared with the and responds to variations in traffic
existing flow pattern along the demand, while capacity indicates a
existing routes by capability or maximum rate of flow with a
superimposing one over the certain level of service characteristics that
other with the help of tracing can be carried by the roadway. The
sheets. capacity of a roadway depends on a
(iii) The relative magnitude of the number of prevailing roadway and traffic
generated traffic and geometrical conditions.
relationship of the zones involved Basic capacity is the maximum number of
may be represented by pie charts, in passengers cars that can pass a given point
which circles are drawn, the on a lane or roadway during one hour
diameter being proportional to the under the most nearly ideal roadway and
number of trips. traffic conditions which can possible be
(iv) Contour lines may be plotted attained. Two roads having the same
similar to topographic contours. physical features will have the same basic
The shape of the contours would capacity irrespective of traffic conditions,
indicate the general traffic need of as they are assumed to be ideal. Thus basic
the area. capacity is the theoretical capacity.
Possible capacity is the maximum number
2.8.9 TRAFFIC CAPACITY STUDY of vehicles that can pass a given point on a
lane or roadway during one hour under
2.8.10 TRAFFIC VOLUME prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
The possible capacity of a road is generally
Traffic volume is the number of vehicle much lower than the basic capacity as the
moving in a specified direction on a given prevailing roadway and traffic conditions
lane or roadway that pass a given point or are seldom ideal. In a worst case when the
cross section during specified unit of time. prevailing roadway and traffic conditions
Traffic volume is expressed as vehicles per are seldom ideal. In a worst case when the
hour or vehicles per day. prevailing traffic conditions is so bad that
Traffic density is the number of vehicles due to traffic congestion, the traffic may
occupying a unit length of lane of roadway come to a standstill, the possible capacity of
at a given instant, usually expressed as the road may approach zero.
vehicles per kilometer. Traffic volume is When the prevailing roadway and traffic
the product of the traffic density and traffic conditions approach the ideal conditions,
speed. the possible capacity would also approach
The highest traffic density will occur when the basic capacity. Thus the value of
the vehicles are practically at a standstill on possible capacity varies from zero to basic
a given route, and in this case traffic capacity varies from zero to basic capacity.
volume will approach zero. For the purpose of design, neither basic
capacity nor possible capacity can be
adopted as they represent two extreme 2.8.12 FACTORS OF AFFECTING
case of roadway and traffic conditions. PRACTICAL CAPACITY
Practical capacity is the maximum number
of vehicle that can pass a given point on a Some of the important factors are
lane or roadway during one hour, without 1. Lane width: As the lane width
traffic density being so great as to cause decreases the capacity also decreases.
unreasonable delay, hazard or restriction The practical capacity of 3.0 m wide
to the drivers freedom to manoeuvre lane in two-lane rural road may
under the prevailing roadway and traffic decrease to 76 percent of the capacity
conditions. It is the practical capacity which of a 3.5 m lane.
is of primary interest to the designers who 2. Lateral clearance: Vertical
strive to provide adequate highway obstructions such as retaining walls, or
facilities and hence this is also called design parked vehicle near the traffic lane
capacity. reduce the effective width of a lane and
2.8.11 DETERMINATION OF THEORETICAL thus result in reduction in the capacity
MAXIMUM CAPACITY of lane. A minimum clearance of 1.85 m
form the pavement edge to the
Theoretical maximum or basic capacity of a obstruction is considered desirable.
single law may be made from the relation: When the distance from pavement edge
1000V to an obstruction decrease to 0.75 m on
C=
s the side only, the capacity decrease to
C = capacity of a single lane, vehicle per 963% and when this obstruction is on
hour both sides the percentage further
V = Speed km/hr decreases to 80% of the standard
S = average Centre spacing of vehicle, when design capacity.
they follow one behind the other as a 3. Width of shoulders: Narrow shoulders
queue or spare headway, m reduce the effective width of traffic
The minimum space gap sg lanes as the vehicles travel towards the
Sg = Vt = 0.278 Vt, m centre of the pavement.
Where V is in m/sec. V is in km/hr 4. Commercial vehicles: Large
The minimum space headway is commercial vehicles like truck and
S = Sg + L = 0.278Vt + L buses occupy greater space and
The empirical relation for spacing influence the other traffic in the same
S = (0.7 V + L) = (0.2V +L), m lane as well as the vehicles along the
The minimum time head way Ht adjoining lanes.
3600 5. Alignment: Particularly, restrictions to
C= sight distance requirements cause will
Ht
decrease. Steep and long grades affect
C = capacity, vehicles per hour (3600-Sec)
the capacity.
Ht = minimum time headway in seconds.
6. Presence of intersection at grade:
Intersections restrict free flow of traffic
and thus adversely affect the capacity.
The capacity of an intersection of two
roads crossing at grade will be slightly
less than the road lower capacity of the
two.
2.9 CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE
• Capacity standards are fixed normally • Represents a zone of stable flow, with
in relation to the level of service (LOS). the drivers still having reasonable
• Capacity is the quantities measure freedom to select their desired speed
whereas level of service is the and maneuver within the traffic stream.
qualitative measure of flow. • Average travel speeds are usually about
• Capacity of road depends on 70 percent of the free flow speed for the
geometrical design facility, arterial class.
environmental condition etc. • Level of comfort and convenience
• Level of service is defined as a provided is somewhat less than Level of
qualitative measures describing Service A because the presence of other
operational conditions with in a traffic vehicles in the traffic stream begins to
stream and their perception by drivers affect individual behavior.
/ passengers.
• Six levels of service are recognized 2.9.3 LEVEL OF SERVICE C
commonly, designated from A to F, with
Level of Service A representing the best • This also a zone of stable flow, but
operating condition (i.e. free flow) and marks the beginning of the range of
Level of Service F the worst (i.e. forced flow in which the operation of
or breakdown flow). individual users becomes significantly
affected by interactions with others in
the traffic stream.
• The selection of speed is now affected
by the presence of others, and
manoguvring within the traffic stream
requires substantial vigilance on the
part of the user.
• The general level of comfort and
convenience declines noticeably at this
level.
• Average travel speeds are about 50 per
cent of the average free flow speed.
2.9.1 LEVEL OF SERVICE A
• Represents a condition of free flow with 2.9.4 LEVEL OF SERVICE D

average travel speeds usually about 90
percent of the free-flow speed for the • Represents the limit of stable flow,
arterial class. with conditions approaching close to
• Individual users are virtually unaffected unstable flow.
by the presence of others in the traffic • Due to high density, the drivers are
stream. severely restricted in their freedom to
• Freedom to select desired speeds and to select desired speed and maneuver
manoeuvre within the traffic stream is within the traffic stream.
high. • The general level of comfort and
• The general level of comfort and convenience is poor.
convenience provided to the road users • Small increases in traffic flow will
is excellent. usually cause operational problems at
this level.
2.9.2 LEVEL OF SERVICE B • Average travel speeds are about 40
percent of free flow speed.
unless the different vehicle classes are
2.9.5 LEVEL OF SERVICE E converted to one common standard
vehicle unit.
• Represents operating conditions when • A common practice to consider the
traffic volumes are at or close to the passenger car as the standard vehicle
capacity level. unit to convert the other vehicle classes
• The speeds are reduced to a low, but and this unit is called Passenger Car
relatively uniform values, average value Unit or PCU.
being one-third the free flow speed. • Hence, in mixed traffic flow, the traffic
• Freedom to manoeuvre within the volume and capacity are generally
traffic stream is extremely difficult, and expressed as PCU per hour or
is generally accomplished by forcing a PCU/lane/hour and the traffic density
vehicle to give way to accommodate as PCU per kilometer length of lane.
such maneuvers. • If one vehicle of a particular class in the
• Comfort and convenience are extremely traffic stream produces the same effect
poor and driver frustration is generally as that due to the addition of one
high. passenger car, then that vehicle class is
• Operations at this level are usually considered equivalent to the passenger
unstable because small increase in flow car with a PCU value equal to 1.0.
or minor disturbances within the traffic • PCU value of a vehicle class may be
stream will cause breakdowns. considered as the ratio of the capacity
of a roadway when there are passenger
2.9.6 LEVEL OF SERVICE F cars only to the capacity of the same
roadway when there are vehicles of that
• Represents zone of forced or class only.
breakdown flow.
• This condition occurs when the amount 2.9.8 FACTORS AFFECTING PCU VALUES
of traffic approaching a point exceeds
the amount which can pass it. (a) Speed of the vehicle under the
• Queues from behind such locations. prevailing roadway and traffic
• Operations within the queue are conditions within the desired speed
characterized by stop-and-go waves range.
which are extremely unstable. (b) Length and width of the vehicle
• Vehicles may progress at a reasonable (c) Transverse gap and longitudinal gap
speed for several hundred meters and allowed between the vehicles of the
may then be required to stop in a cyclic same class in the speed range under
fashion. consideration, during compact stream
• Due to high volumes, breakdown occurs flow.
and long queues and delays result Equivalency factors suggested by the IRC
• The average travel speeds are between for Rural Road in Sections of Plain
25 percent and 33 percent of free flow Terrain.
speed.
S.No. Vehicle class Equivalency
Factors
2.9.7 PASSENGER CAR UNIT (P.C.U.) 1. Passenger, temp, 1.0
auto-rickshaw,
• It is difficult to estimate the traffic agricultural
volume and capacity of roadway tractor
facilities under mixed traffic flow, 2. Bus, truck, 3.0
agricultural
tractor-tailer unit
3. Motor cycle, 0.5 2. Parking characteristics: The first
scooter and pedal
thing is to analyse the present parking
cycle
4. Cycle rickshaw 1.5 facilities and to find out the general
5. Horse drawn 4.0 problems in parking accidents involved
vehicles during parking and unparking of
6. Small bullock cart 6.0 vehicles operations.
and hand cart
7. Large bullock cart 8.0
3. Parking space inventory: The area
under study is fully surveyed and a map
2.9.10 PRACTICAL CAPACITY VALUES is prepared showing all places where
The practical capacity values suggested by kerb parking and off- street parking
the IRC for the purpose of design of facilities can be provided to meet the
different types of roads in rural area are as parking demands. Engineer has to keep
under. a balance between capacity and parking
demands and to design proper facilities.
Capacity of different types of roads in
rural areas 2.9.12 ACCIDENT STUDIES
Types of road Capacity PCU Traffic has to carry out systematic accident
per day (both studies to investigate the cause of accidents
directions) and take safety measured in terms of
Single lane with 3.75 m 1000
design proper facilities.
wide carriageway and
normal earthen shoulders
Single lane roads with 3.75 2500 Type of accident Portal Non - Portal
m wide carriageway and 1.0 Motor vehicle ⊙ ⊚
m wide hard shoulders pedestrian
Road with intermediate 5000 Other motor vehicle
lanes of width 5.5 m and traffic
normal earthen shoulders
Two lane roads with 7.0 m 10,000
wide carriageway and 2.9.13 COLLISION DIAGRAM & SYMBOLS
earthen shoulders.
Four lanes divided highway 20,000 to 30,000
(depending on traffic, Motor vehicle
access control, etc.) moving ahead
Motor vehicle
2.9.11 PARKING STUDIES backing
Pedestrian
Parking space is one of the major problems Fixed object
of highway transportation various aspects Rear &
to be investigated during parking studies collisions
are Side scrape
1. Parking demand: The parking demand Out of control

may be evaluated by different methods. Fatal
By making wrdon count of selected area accidents
and recording accumulation of vehicles personal
during peak hours by subtracting the injury
outgoing traffic from the traffic volume property
entering the condoned area. damage only
2.9.14 STAGES OF ACCIDENT
INVESTIGATION:
It may be carried out scientifically n the

follow up three stages.
1. Accident investigation.
2. Analysis of individual accidents.
3. Statistical analysis of accidents.
Measure for the reduction in accident rates
1. Engineering
2. Enforcement
3. Education
3 INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY
3.1 DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHWAY • The main feature of his proposal was

that the thickness of construction need
3.1.1 ROMAN ROADS to be only in the order of 30 cm. Due
consideration was given by him to
• During this period of Roman civilization subgrade moisture condition and
many roads were built of stone blocks drainage of surface water.
of considerable thickness.
3.1.4 TELFORD CONSTRUCTION
3.1.2 MAIN FEATURES OF THE ROMAN
ROADS • Telford provided level subgrade of
width 9 meters.
(i) They were built straight regardless of • A binding layer of wearing course 4 cm
gradients. thick was provided with cross slope of 1
(ii) They were built after the soft soil was in 45.
removed and a hard stratum was • Thickness of foundation stone varied
reached. from 17 cm at edges to 22 cm at the
(iii) The total thickness of the construction centre.
was as high as 0.75 to 1.2 metres at
some places, even though the
magnitude of wheel loads of animal
drawn vehicles was very low.
(iv) The wearing course consisted of
dressed large stone-blocks set in lime
mortar.
3.1.5 MACADAM CONSTRUCTION
• John macadam (1756-1836) put

forward an entirely new method of road
construction as compared to all the
previous methods.
3.1.3 TRESAGUET CONSTRUCTION • Macadam was the first person who h
than 5 mm to a uniform thickness of 10
• Pierre Trasaguet (1716-1976) cm.
developed an improved method of • The importance to subgrade drainage
construction in France by the year and compaction was given so the
1764, A.D. subgrade was compacted and prepared
with cross slope of 1 in 36.
• The size of broken stone for the top
layers was decided on the basis of
stability under animal drawn vehicles.
• The pavement surface was also given • They suggested a dedicated research
the cross slope of 1 in 36. organization to carry out research and
• Total thickness was kept uniform form development work. This resulted in the
edge to centre to a minimum value of 25 formation of Central Road Research
cm. Institute (CRRI) in 1950.
3.2 EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN 3.3 INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

HIGHWAY PLANNING IN INDIAJAYAKAR
COMMITTEE 3.3.1 THE INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS
(IRC) WAS ESTABLISHED IN 1934
• Since 1853, rail transport was mainly WITH THE FOLLOWING OBJECTIVES:
used for long distance transportation,
and roads acted as a feeder service to • To promote and encourage the science
the railways. After First World War, as and practice of road building and
the motor cars came on the roads, the maintenance.
inadequacy of the existing road • To provide a forum for expression of
network came into light. collective opinion of its members on
• Hence, in 1927, the government matters affecting roads.
appointed a Road Development • To promote the use of standard
Committee headed by Mr. M.R. Jayakar specifications and practices.
• To advise regarding education,
3.2.1 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE experiment and research connected
JAYAKAR COMMITTEE with roads.
• To hold periodic meetings to discuss
• Committee suggested that Central technical questions regarding roads.
government should take the proper • To suggest legislation for the
charge of road considering it as a development, improvement and
matter of national interest. protection of roads.
• They gave more stress on long term • To suggest improved methods of
planning programmed, for a period of administration, planning, design,
20 years (hence called twenty year operation, use and maintenance of
plan). roads.
• They suggested the holding of periodic • To establish, furnish and maintain
road conferences to discuss about road libraries and museums for furthering
construction and development. This the science of road making.
paved the way for the establishment of
a semi-official technical body called 3.4 THE NAGPUR PLAN (1943-63)
Indian Road Congress (IRC) in 1934.
• They suggested imposition of additional • Due to the overall economic depression
taxation on motor transport which in the country after First World War,
included duty on motor spirit, vehicle the Road Development Fund was not
taxation, license fees for vehicles plying used for development work, but spent
for hire. This led to the introduction of a in routine maintenance. This caused
development fund called Central road further deterioration of the roads under
fund (CRF) in 1929. Road development the impact of the heavy war time traffic.
in the country was beyond the financial • A this point of time, conference of Chief
capacity of local governments; and Engineers of the Provinces was
therefore, the central revenue should convented at Nagpur in 1843.
support it.
• A long-term road development plan for different classes, considering the
India was drawn up and was known as geographical, agricultural and
the Nagpur Plan. population conditions:
3.4.1 FEATURES OF NAGPUR PLAN (I) Length of National and Provincial
Highway and Major District Roads,
• In the Nagpur plan, roads were divided A B
(in miles) = + + N + 5T + D − R
into four classes: 5 20
(i) National Highway which would where,
transverse several provinces or A = Agricultural area of province in
states and would be of national sq. miles.
importance for strategic, B =Non-agricultural area in sq. miles
administrative and other purposes. N = Number of towns and villages
(ii) Provincial and State Highways having a population of 2,000-5,000
which would be the other main T = Number of towns and villages
roads of a province or state. having a population of over 5,000,
(iii) District Roads, which would take D = An allowance for agricultural &
traffic from the main roads to the industrial development (about 15%)
interior of each district or similar R = Railway mileage in the area
units. According to their under consideration.
importance, some of these are to be (II) Length of other District and Village
considered Major District Roads Roads, (in miles)
and the remaining as Other District V Q
Roads. = + + R + 2S + D
5 20
(iv) Village Roads, which would link Where,
the villages to the road system and Q = Number of villages with
would be designed, constructed and population 501 – 1000,
maintained under the authority of R = Number of villages with
the provincial or state highway population 1,001 – 2,000,
departments. S = Number of villages with
• National Highway would be the population 2,001 – 5,000, and
framework within which the road D = An allowance for agricultural
system of the country should be and industrial development during
developed & the financial responsibility the next 20 years.
of the Centre will have an efficiency say
in the use and control of these roads. 3.5 THE BOMBAY PLAN (1961-81)
• National and Provincial Highway and
Major District Roads would be provided • By the end of the Nagpur plan, the
with a hard durable curst. length of roads envisaged under it was
• The committee planned to construct 2 achieved, but the road system was
lakh Kms of road across the country deficient in many respects. The changed
within 20 years. economic, industrial and agricultural
• They recommended the construction of conditions in the country in that period
star and grid pattern of roads needed a review of the Nagpur plan.
throughout the country. • Hence, a second long-term plan of 20-
• They recommended that road length year was drafter by the Roads wing of
should be increased so as to give a road Government of India, which is popularly
density of 16 kms per 100 sq. km. known as the Bombay plan.
• The Nagpur Plan laid down the
following formulae for road length of 3.5.1 FEATURES OF BOMBAY PLAN
• An all-weather road should connect all
• The total road length targeted to villages or groups of villages with a
construct was about 10 lakhs km which population of 500 and above by 2001.
will give a road density of 32 km per For villages less than a population of
100 sq. km. 40 percent of the length 500, the road network shall be so
would be surfaced. planned as to result in an all-weather
• The construction of 1600 km of road being available at a distance of less
expressways was also included in the than 3 km in plain areas and 5 km in
plan. hilly terrain.
• Funds for highway financing should • Expressways should be constructed on
come not only from direct beneficiaries major traffic corridors to provide
(motor vehicles), but also from those on speedy travel.
whom indirect benefits accrue. Sources • National Highways should form a
which may be tapped are betterment square grid of 100 km × 100 km.
levy, cases on land revenue, toll projects • State Highways should be extended to
and tax on diesel oil used for motor serve district headquarters, sub-
vehicles. divisional (taluka) headquarters, major
• The question of vesting authority with industrial centres, places of commercial
toad engineers to remove interest, places of tourist attraction,
encroachments needs to be examined. major agricultural market centres and
• Traffic engineering cells should be ports.
established in each State. • The major District Roads should serve
and connect all towns and villages with
3.6 THE LUCKNOW PLAN (1981-2001) a population of 1,500 and above.
• The other District Roads should serve
Earlier two road development plans led to and connect villages with a population
2 shortcomings : of 1,000 – 1,500.
(i) Ist two plans were not conceived to • Energy conservation, environmental
meet the needs of freight & passenger quality of roads and road safety
movement by road measures were also given due
(ii)The plans were not part of the total importance in this plan.
transportation plan of the country. • Selection of specifications should be
done on the basis of (i) their
3.6.1 FEATURES OF LUCKNOW PLAN
amenability to stage construction (ii)
• Roads should be classified for India as the need to adopt appropriate
follows: technology (iii) the use of local
(a) Primary system: materials (iv) the use of soil-
(i) Expressways stabilization techniques (v) the use of
(ii) National Highways alternate binders (vi) the use of cement
(b) Secondary system: concrete pavements wherever
(i) State highways economically feasible and (vii) the need
(ii) Major District Roads to conserve bitumen.
(c) Tertiary system (Rural Roads):
3.6.2 FOLLOWING FORMULAE GIVE
(i) other District Roads
THE LENGTH OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF
(ii) Village Roads
ROADS AS PER THE ABOVE GUIDELINES:
• Road length for the year 2001 should be
27,00,000 km giving a density of 82 1. Length of NH (in km) =
km/100 sq. km.
Area Area(in sq.Km)
=
10000 50
2. Length of SH (in km) =
Area Area(in sq.Km)
=
10000 50
Or Length (in km) = 62.5 × Number of
towns with population above
Area(in sq.Km)
5, 000 −
50
3. Length of MDR (in km) =
Area(in sq.Km)
12.5
4. Total road length (in km) = 4.74 ×
Number of villages and town
5. Rural Road Length (in km) = This can be
calculated by finding the total road
length and subtracting the other
categories.
3.7 ROAD PATTERNS
The various road patterns may be classified

as follows:
• The choice of the pattern very much

depends on the locality, the layout of
different towns, villages, industrial and
production centres and on the choice of
the planning engineer.
• The rectangular or the block pattern
has been adopted in the city roads of
Chandigarh.
• Radial and circular pattern is the road economical. The initial cost of
network of Cannought Place in New construction can be decreased if high
Delhi. embankments and deep cuttings are
• The Nagpur road plan formulae were avoided and the alignment is chosen in
prepared assuming Star and Grid a manner to balance the cutting and
pattern. filling.
HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS e) Other Consideration:
Various other factors which may govern
3.7.1FACTORS CONTROLLING ALIGNMENT the alignment are drainage
The various factors which control the considerations, hydrological factors,
highway alignment in general may be political considerations and monotony.
listed as:
a) Obligatory Points 3.7.2 ENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR
b) Traffic HIGHWAY LOCATIONS
c) Geometric design
d) Economics Before a highway alignment is finalized in
e) Other considerations highway project, the engineering surveys
are to be carried out. The Stages of the
a) Obligatory Points: engineering surveys are
There are control points governing the a) Map study
alignment of the highways. Obligatory b) Reconnaissance
points through which the road c) Preliminary surveys
alignment has to pass may cause the d) Final location and detailed surveys.
alignment to often deviate from the
shortest or easiest path. The various 3.7.3 MAP STUDY
examples of this category may be bridge
site, intermediate town, a mountain By careful study of maps, it is possible to
pass or a quarry. have an idea of several possible alternate
b) Traffic : routes so that further details of these may
The alignment should suit traffic be stupid later at the site. The probable
requirements. Origin and Destination alignment can be located on the map from
study should be carried out in the area the following details available on the map.
and the desire lines be drawn showing a) Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or
the trend of traffic flow. The new road lakes.
to be aligned should keep in view the b) When the road has to cross a new of
desired lines, traffic flow patterns and hills, possibility of crossing through a
future trends. mountain pass.
c) Geometric Design : c) Approximate location of bridge site for
It may be necessary to make adjustment crossing rivers, avoiding bend of the
in the horizontal alignment of roads river, if any.
keeping in view the minimum radius of d) When a road is to be connected
curve and the transition curves. between two stations, one on the top
Alignment should be finalized in such a and the other on the foot of the hill,
way that the obstructions to visibility then alternate routes can be suggested
do not cause restrictions to the sight keeping in view the permissible
distance requirements. gradient.
d) Economy:
The alignment finalized based on the 3.7.4 RECONNAISSANCE
above factors should also be
The second stage of surveys for highway (iv) Drainage studies and Hydrological
location is the reconnaissance to examine data
the general character of the area for (v) Soil survey
deciding the most feasible routes for (vi) Material survey
detailed studies. A field survey of land (vii) Traffic survey
along the proposed alternative routes of (viii) Determination of final centre line.
the map in the field is studied. All relevant
details to be collected during 3.7.6 FINAL LOCATION AND DETAILED
reconnaissance are given below. SURVEY
(i) Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, • The alignment finalized at the design
bridge, hills permanent structures and office after the preliminary survey is to
other obstructions along the route be first located on the filed by
which are not available in the map. establishing the centre line.
(ii) Approximate values of gradient, length • Next detailed survey should be carried
of gradients and radius of curves of out for collecting the information
alternate alignments. necessary for the preparation of plans
(iii) Number and type of cross drainage and construction details for the
structures, maximum flood level and highway project.
natural ground water level along the
probable routes. 3.7.7 LOCATION
(iv) Soil type along the routes.
(v) Sources of construction materials. • The centre line of the road finalized in
From the details collected during the the drawings is to be translated on the
reconnaissance, the alignment ground during the location survey.
proposed after study may be altered or
even changed completely. 3.7.8 DETAILED SURVEY
3.7.5 PRELIMINARY SURVEY • Temporary bench marks are fixed at

intervals of about 250 meter and at all
The main objectives of the preliminary drainage and under pass structures.
survey are: Levels along the final centre line should
(i) To survey the various alternate be taken earth work calculation and
alignments proposed after the drainage details are to be worked out
reconnaissance and to collect all the from the level notes. The cross section
necessary physical information and levels are taken upto the desired width,
details of topography, drainage and soil. at interval of 50 to 100 meter in plain.
(ii) To compare the different proposals in • The data during the detailed survey
view of the requirements of a good should be elaborate and complete for
alignment. preparing detailed plans, design and
(iii) To estimate quantity of earth work and estimates of the project.
to workout the cost of alternate
proposals.
(iv) To finalize the best alignment from all
considerations.
The procedure of preliminary survey is
given in following steps:
(i) Primary traverse
(ii) Topographical features
(iii) Leveling work.
4 TRAFFIC SIGNS AND SIGNAL DESIGN
4.1 TRAFFIC SIGNS
Classification of signs
Mandatory/Regulatory: these inform the
road users of laws and regulations.
Violation is a legal offence.
Cautionary/Warning: Warn road users of
the existence of certain hazardous conditions.
Informatory: For information and
guidance of road users.
Cycle – the period time required for one
complete sequence of signals indications is
called cycle.
Phase – A part of signal cycle allocated to a
traffic movement or a combination of
traffic movement is called phase
Interval – Any of the division of the signal
cycle during which signal indications do
not change the interval.
4.1.1 TRAFFIC SIGNALS
Traffic signals are control devices which

could alternative direct the traffic to stop
proceed at intersections using red and
green traffic light signals automatically. Types of traffic signals
The main requirements of traffic signals (i) Traffic control signals
are draw attention provide meaning and a) Fixed – time signal
time to respond and have minimum waste b) Manually operated signal
of time. c) Traffic actuated (automatic) signal
Advantage of traffic Signals: (ii) Pedestrian signal
(i) They provide orderly movement of (iii) Special traffic signal
traffic and increase the traffic handling
(ii) Accidents are reduced 4.2 TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
(iii) Pedestrians can cross the road safely
(iv) Heavy traffic can flow smoothly Traffic control devices are all the traffic
(v) Reasonable speed of flow is maintained signals, signs, pavement marking, or other
(vi) Automatic traffic signal without man- devices placed or erected with the approval
power. of a traffic authority having the
necessary jurisdiction, to regulate, warn, or
Disadvantage of Traffic Signals guide traffic.
(i) Rear-end collisions may increase due to
sometimes sudden stopping of vehicles.
(ii) The control system should be properly 4.2.1 FUNCTION OF TRAFFIC CONTROL
designed otherwise it will cause DEVICES
violation.
(iii) Confusion can occur on road due to Devices are classified into three functional
failure of signal due to electric power groups as follows:
failure or due to mal function of traffic
signals. 1. Regulatory devices
• These give the road user notice of traffic
4.1.2 SOME TERMS REGARDING TRAFFIC laws or regulation that apply at a given
SIGNALS place or on given roadway.
• Disregard of such devices in punishable
as an infraction, violation, or
misdemeanor, e.g., stop, no turning, do
not enter, no parking, one-way street, amber or yellow light allows the
etc. clearance time for the vehicles
2. Warning devices which enter the intersection area by
These call attention of the road user to the end of green time, to clear off.
conditions, on ore adjacent to the roadway, Fixed-time signal or pre-timed
that are potentially hazardous to traffic signals are set to repeat regularly a
operations. e.g., road narrow, divided cycle of red, amber and green lights.
highway wands, slippery when wet, The timing of each phase of the cycle
railroad crossing, etc. is predetermined base on the traffic
3. Guiding devices studies. Signal timing does not
These provide directions and information change in response to changes in
to the road user regarding route traffic flow at the intersection. No
designations, distances, destinations point vehicle detection is necessary with
of interest, and other geographical or this mode of operation.
cultural information. e.g., Airport 20 km., • The man draw back of the signal is
Railway 30 km. that some times the traffic flow on
one road may be almost nil and
4.3 TRAFFIC SIGNALS traffic on the cross road may be
Traffic signals are control devices which quite heavy but time available for
could alternately direct the traffic to stop cross road may be less.
and proceed at intersections using red and Semi-actuated signal is a signal
green traffic light signals automatically. whose timing (cycle length, green
Main requirements of traffic signal are to time, etc.) is affected when vehicles
draw attention, provide meaning and time are detected (by video, pavement-
to respond & to have minimum waste of embedded inductance loop
time. detectors, etc.) on some, but not all,
approaches.
4.3.1 TYPE OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS • This mode of operation is usually
found where a low-volume road
The signals are classified into the following intersects a high-volume road, often
types: referred to as the minor and major
(i) traffic control signals street, respectively.
(a) Fixed-time signal • In such cases, green time is allocated
(b) Semi actuated signal to the major street until vehicles are
(c) Fully activated signal detected on the minor street : then
(ii) Pedestrian signal the green indication is briefly
(iii) Special traffic signal allocated to the minor street and
then returned to the major street.
Fully actuated signal is a signal
whose timing (cycle length, green
time, etc.) is completely influenced
by the traffic volumes, when
detected, on all of the approaches.
• Fully actuated signals are most
• The traffic control signals have three commonly used at intersections of
coloured light glows facing each two major streets and where
direction of traffic flow. substantial variations exist in all
• The red light is meant for stop, the approach traffic volumes over the
green light indicates Go and the course of a day.
4.3.2 TYPES OF CO-ORDINATION OF 4.3.6 FLEXIBLE PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM
TRAFFIC SIGNAL SYSTEM
• In this system it is possible to
There are four general types of co- automatically vary the length of cycle,
ordination of signals for road network, as cycle division and the time schedule at
listed below: each signalized intersection with the
(i) Simultaneous system help of a computer.
(ii) Alternate system • This is the most efficient system of all
(iii) Simple progressive system, and the four types described above.
(iv) Flexible progressive system
4.4 VARIOUS SIGNAL DESIGN METHOD
4.3.3 SIMULTANEOUS SYSTEM
The various methods of signal design are:
• In this system all the signals along a a) Trial cycle method
given road always show the same b) Approximate method
indication (green, red etc.) at the same c) Webster method
time. d) IRC method
• As the division of cycle is also the same
at all intersections, this system does not 4.4.1 TRIAL CYCLE METHOD
work satisfactorily. • 15 minutes count nA and nB on road A
and B are noted during the design peak
4.3.4 ALTERNATE SYSTEM hour flow.
• Assume a cycle time = C=CYCLE
• In this system, alternate signals or LENGTH
groups of signals show opposite No. of vehicles passing in one cycle
indications in a route at the same time. time.
• This system is also operated by a single  nA 
On Road =A x=  C
controller, but by reversing the red and A
 15 × 60 
green indicator connections at
 nB 
successive signal systems. On Road= B x=  C
 15 × 60 
B
• This system generally is considered to
be more satisfactory than the
simultaneous system. • Average time required for one vehicle
to cross the intersection is equal to time
4.3.5 SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM headway (2.5 sec assumed generally.)
• The green period GA and GB will be
• A time schedule is made to permit, as calculated as
nearly as possible, a continuous GA = 2.5 xA
operation of groups of vehicles along GB = 2.5 xB
the main road at a reasonable speed. • Total cycle time = GA+ RA+ AA
• The signal phases controlling “Go” Hence
indications along this road is scheduled C1 = GA + AA +( GB + AB)+Pedestrian
to work at the predetermined time Time
schedule. • It is basically a Hit and Trial
• The phases and intervals at each signal method,since, calculated cycle time C1 is
installation may be different; but each equal to assumed cycle time C then the
signal unit works as fixed time signal, calculated cycle time is taken as the
with equal signal cycle length. actual or design cycle time.
n = no. of phase
APPRIXIMATE METHOD FOR TWO tL = start-up loss time and loss time due
PHASE SIGNAL ALONG WITH REDESRAIN to falling of discharge rate during
SIGNAL amber period.
R = All red time
For the average signal cycle, the lost
time (t L ) amounts to around 2 sec.
=
L 2n + R
Y= y1 + y 2 +……….
q
y1 = 1
4.4.2 PEDESTRIAN MOVEMENT S1
q
y2 = 2
S2
q1 = Critical lane volume for phase one
(maximum volume per lane)
S1 = Saturation flow for phase one.
Note:
 veh  3600
S1  =
 hr  time headways(sec)
• Y should not be greater than one.
• Webster method is a most rational
DW = Do not walk time method of design.
W = Walk time • The saturation flow can be assumed as
C1 = Clearance time given in the table below.
D W1= R2 = G1 +A1
D W2= R1 = G2 +A2 (Do not walk period for Road Width Saturation flow for full
carriageway or road width
pedestrian) (puc/hr)
W 3m 1850
CI1= 1 (Clearance internal for pedestrian)
1.2 3.5m 1890
W 4m 1950
CI2= 2 4.5m 2250
1.2
W1= R1 - CI1 5m 2350
W2= R2- CI2 (walk period for pedestrian) 5.5m 2990
>5.5m 525/m width
W1= width of road 1 in meter
1.2 = speed of pedestrian in m/sec.
Green Time =
( C0 − L ) y1 = G1
4.5 WEBSTER METHOD y1 + y 2 +…
( C0 − L ) y 2 = G2
• In this method, optimum cycle time is
y1 + y 2 +…
calculated from least total delay at
signalized intersection.
Optimum Cycle time (sec.) = 4.6 IRC METHOD
1.5L + 5
= C0 In IRC method signal timing is declared by
1− Y
approximate method and design is checked
=
L nt L + R
5 INTERSECTION DESIGN
5.1 TYPES OF INTERSECTION Channelizing islands are used to guide

the traffic into proper channel through
1. At-grade intersection the intersection area. Channelizing
2.Grade-separated intersection islands are very useful as traffic control
devices for intersection at grade,
5.1.1 AT-GRADE INTERSECTION particularly when the area is large.
All road intersection which meet at about 5.1.4 THE VARIOUS USES OF PROPERLY
the same level allowing traffic manoeuvres DESIGNED CHANNELIZING ISLANDS ARE
like merging, diverging, crossing, and LISTED BELOW
weaving are called intersections at grade.
These intersections may be further (i) The area of possible conflicts between
classified as unchannelized, channelized traffic stream is reduced. By
and rotary intersection. introducing channelizing islands, both
the major and minor conflict areas are
5.1.2 TRAFFIC ISLANDS reduced.
(ii) They establish the desired angles of
Traffic islands are raised areas constructed crossing and merging of traffic streams.
within the roadway to establish physical (iii) They are useful when the direction of
channels through which the vehicular the flow is to be changed.
traffic may be guided. Traffic islands often (iv) They serve as convenient locations for
serve more than one function. other traffic control devices.
(v) They serve as refuge islands for
5.1.3 THE TRAFFIC ISLANDS MAY BE pedestrians.
CLASSIFIED BASED ON THE FUNCTION • Pedestrian loading islands are provided
AS at regular bus stops and similar place
for the protection of passengers. A
(i) Divisional islands pedestrian island at or near a cross
(ii) Channelizing islands walk to aid and protect pedestrian
(iii)Pedestrian loading islands crossing the carriageway may be
(iv) Rotary termed as pedestrian refuge islands.
• Divisional islands are intended to For crossing multilane highways,
separate opposing flow or traffic on a pedestrian refuge island after two or
highway with four or more lanes. three lanes would be desirable.
• By thus dividing the highway into two • Rotary island is the large central island
one-way roadways, the head on of a rotary intersection, this island is
collisions are eliminated and in general much larger than the central island of
other accidents are also reduced. channelized intersection. The crossing
• The width of the divisional islands manoeuvre is converted to weaving by
should be large if the head light glare is providing sufficient weaving length.
to be reduced during night driving. The
5.1.5 GRADE SEPARATED INTERSECTION
kern should be high enough to prevent
vehicles from entering into the islands.
• Intersection at grade is eliminated by
the use of grade-separation structures Channelized intersections is achieved by
that permit the cross flow of traffic at introducing islands into the intersectional
different levels without interruptions. area, thus reducing the total conflict area
• A grade separation is a crossing of two available in the unchannelized intersection.
highways, a highway and a railroad, or a The radius of the entrance and exit curves
pedestrian walkway, and a highway at and the area suitably designed to
different levels. accommodate the channelizing islands of
• An overpass is a highway passing over proper size and shape. Channelization
an intersection street, railroad, or may be either partial or complete with
pedestrian facility. divisional and directional islands and
• An underpass is a highway passing medians. From traffic operation point of
under an intersecting street, railroad or view there is a better control on the traffic
pedestrian facility. entering and leaving the intersection and
hence channelized intersections are
5.1.6 THE VARIOUS FORMS considered superior to the all-paved types.
OFINTERSECTIONS ARE SHOWN IN FIG.
5.1.7 UNCHANNELIZED INTERSECTIONS
The intersection area is paved and there is

absolutely no restriction to vehicle to use
any part of intersection area. Hence the
unchannelized (all-paved) intersections are
the lowest class of intersection, easiest in
the design; when no additional pavement
width for turning movement is provided, it
is called plain intersection. But when the
pavement is widened at the intersection
area. By a traffic lane or more, t is known as
flared intersection. The arrows indicate 5.1.9 THE ADVANTAGES OF
path of traffic flow, turning crossing and THECHANNELIZED INTERSECTIONS MAY
through movements. It may be seen that BE
the conflict area is quite large as path of
turning vehicles are not restricted or 1. The canalization vehicles can be
controlled. One of the crossing vehicles will confined to definite paths
have to stop while the other proceeds. 2. Angle of merging streams can be forced
to be at flat angles.
5.1.8 CHANNELIZED INTERSECTIONS
3. Both major & minor conflict areas intersection legs though these can also
within the intersection can be be adopted at intersections with 3 or 4
considered to be c= decreased. legs.
4. Angle between intersecting streams of (d) Rotaries are self-governing.
traffic may be kept as desire in a
favorable way. 5.3.2 DISADVANTAGES
5. Speed control can be established over (a) All vehicles are forced to reduce speed
vehicles entering the intersection, even if traffic volume is less.
6. Points of conflicts can be separated (b) A rotary requires a comparatively
7. Refuse islands can be provided for larger area and may not be feasible in
pedestrians many built-up locations.
(c) Not suitable for pedestrian movement
5.2 TRAFFIC ROTARIES because vehicle do not stop.
(d) Where the angle of intersection
• A traffic rotary is a specialized form of between two roads is too acute, it
“at-grade” intersection where vehicles becomes difficult to provide adequate
from the converging arms are forced to weaving length
move round an island in one direction (e) Traffic turning right has to travel a little
in an orderly and regimented manner extra distance.
and “weave” out of the rotary (f) Because of the above limitation rotaries
movement into their desired direction. are not suitable for every location.
• Traffic rotaries the complexity of
crossing traffic by forcing them into 5.4 DESIGN ELEMENTS
weaving operations.
• The slope and size of the rotary are • The design elements include design
determined by the traffic volume and speed, radius at entry, exit and the
share of turning movements. Capacity central island, weaving length and
assessment of a rotary is done by width, entry and exit widths. In addition
analyzing the section having the the capacity of the rotary can also be
greatest proportion of weaving traffic. determined by using some empirical
formula.
5.3 ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAHE
OF ROTARY
5.3.1 ADVANTAGE
The advantages of traffic rotaries are:

(a) All traffic proceeds at a fairly uniform
speed. Frequent stopping and starting
are avoided. Actually vehicle do not
stopped rotary.
(b) Weaving replaces the usual crossing
movements. Direct conflict is
eliminated, all traffic streams merging 5.4.1 DESIGN SPEED
of diverging at small angles. Accidents
occurring from such movements are • All the vehicles are required to reduce
usually of a minor nature. their speed at a rotary. Therefore, the
(c) Rotaries are especially suited for design speed of a rotary will be much
intersections with five or more lower than the roads leading to it.
• The normal practice is to keep the 5.4.4 WEAVING LENGTH
design speed as 30 and 40 kmph for
urban and rural areas respectively. • The weaving length determines the
ease with which the vehicles can
5.4.2 RADII OF CURVES AT ENTRY AND manoeuvre through the weaving
EXIT section and thus determines the
At entry capacity of the rotary.
Entry to the rotary is not straight rather a • The weaving length is decided on the
curvature is introduced. This will force the basis of factors such as the width of the
driver to reduce speed. weaving section, the average width of
Rotary Design Speed Suggested Values of entry, total traffic and the proportion of
V (kmph) Radius at Entry weaving traffic in it.
40* 20-35 • As a general rule, effort should be made
30** 15-25 to keep the weaving length at least 4
*Speed generally suitable for rotaries in times the width of the weaving section.
rural areas. • The following minimum values of
**Speed generally suitable for rotaries in weaving lengths for different design
urban areas and other restricted locations. speeds should be observed.
At exit Design Speed (kph) Minimum
• The radii of the curves at exit should be Weaving Length
larger than that of the central island and 40 45
30 30
at entry so as to encourage the drivers
to pick up speed and clear away from • In order to discourage speeding in the
the rotary expeditiously. weaving sections, the maximum
• For this reason, the radius of the exit weaving length should be restricted to
1 twice the values given below. Larger
curves may be kept about 1 to 2 times weaving length encourate ever speeding.
2
the radius of the entry curves.
5.4.5 WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY AT
• If, however, there is a large pedestrian
ENTRY AND EXIT
traffic across the exit road, radii similar
to those at entrances should be
• The carriageway width at entrance and
provided to keep the exit speeds
exit of a rotary is governed by the
reasonably low.
amount of traffic entering and leaving
the rotary. Entry width should be lower
5.4.3 RADIUS OF CENTRAL ISLAND
than the width of carriage way at
• Theoretically, the radius of the central approach.
island should be equal to the radius at • It is recommended that the minimum
entry. width of carriageway be at least 5 metre
• In practice, however, the radius of the with necessary widening to account for
central island is kept slightly larger than the curvature of the road.
that of the curve at entry, this being an
attempt to give a sight preference to the Carriageway Radius at Width of
width of the entry (m) carriageway
traffic already on the rotary and to slow approach road at entry and
down the approaching traffic. exit (m)
• A value of 1.33 times the radius of entry 7 m (2 lanes) 25-35 6.5
curve is suggested as a general 105m(3lanes) 7.0
guidelines for adoption. 14 m (4 lanes) 8.0
21 m (6 lanes) 13.0
7 m (2 lanes) 15-25 7.0
10.5m(3 lanes) 7.5 be calculated from the following
14 m (4 lanes) 10.0 formula:
21 m (6 lanes) 15.0
 e  p 
280w 1 +  1 − 
5.4.6 WIDTH OF NON-WEAVING SECTION Qv =  w  3 
w
The width of non-weaving section of the 1+
l
rotary should be equal to the widest single Where, Qv = Practical capacity of the
entry into the rotary and should generally
weaving section of the rotary in
be less than the width of the weaving
passenger car units (PCU) per hour.
section.
w = width of weaving section in metres
Width of the weaving section of the rotary
(within the range of 6-18 m)
should be one traffic lane (3.5 m) wider
e = average entry width in metres (i.e,
than the mean entry width.
e
e1 + e 2 average of entry & exit width) to be
N=
weaving + 3.5 w
2
within an range of 0.4 to 1.00
e1 = Entry width (m)
e2 = Exit width (m) l = length in metres of the weaving
section between the ends of
w
channelizing island ( 𝑙𝑙 to be within the
range 0.12 and 0.4)
p = proportion of weaving traffic, i.e.,
ratio of sum of crossing streams to the
total traffic on the weaving section
 b+c 
p =  (range of p being 0.4
 a+b+c+d
to 1.0)
5.4.7 ENTRY AND EXIT ANGLES
• P will be calculated at all the weaving
section and height value is adopted. If e,
• Entry angles should be larger than exit
w etc. are different for difference
angle, and it is desirable that the entry
weaving section, we will have to
angles should be 600 if possible.
calculate capacity of all the weaving
• The exit angles should be small, even
section & minimum value will be
tangential. An idealized design showing
adopted.
entry angles of 600 and exit angles of
The following adjustments in the
300.
capacity calculated by the above
formula are suggested:
5.4.8 CAPACITY OF THE ROTARY
(i) Where the entry angle is between 00
and 150, deduct 5 percent from the
• Capacity of rotary is determined by the capacity of the weaving section
capacity of each weaving section. The (ii) Where the entry angle is between
overall capacity of the rotary is 1
reported as the minimum value. 150 and 300, deduct 2 2 percent from
• Capacity of the individual weaving the capacity of the weaving section.
sections depends on factors such as (i) (iii) Where, the exit angle is 600 and
1
width of the weaving section (ii) 750, deduct 2 2 percent from the
average width of entry into the rotary capacity of the weaving section.
(iii) the weaving length and (iv)
proportion of weaving traffic and could
even right turn movement is made quite
easy and safe by converting into
diverging to left and merging from left.
3. There is overall increase in comfort and
(iv) Where the exit angle is greater than convenience to the motorists) and
750, deduct 5 percent from the saving in travel time and vehicle
capacity of the weaving section. operation cost.
(v) Where the internal angle is greater 4. The capacity of the grade operated
than 950, deduct 5 percent from the intersection can practically approach
capacity of the weaving section. that of the two cross roads.
5. Grade separation is an essential part of
controlled access highway like
expressway and freeway.
6. It is possible to adopt grade separation
for all likely angles and layout of
intercepting roads.
7. Stage construction of additional ramps
are possible) after the grade separation
structure between main roads are
5.4.9 GRADE SEPARATED INTERSECTIONS constructed.
Grade separated intersection design is the 5.4.11 DISADVANTAGES OF GRADE

highest form of intersection treatment. A SEPARATION
highway grade separation is achieved by
means of vertical level separation of 1. It is very costly to provide complete
intersecting roads by means of a bridge grade separation and interchange
then eliminating all crossing conflicts at the facilities
intersection. The grade separation may be 2. Where there is limited right of way like
either by an over bridge, or underpass. built up or urban area or where the
Transform of route at the grade separation topography is not favorable,
is provided by intersection facilities construction of grade separation is
consisting of range. costly, difficult and undesirable.
3. Flat or plain terrain, grade separation
may introduce undesirable crests and
sags in the vertical alignment.
5.4.12 THE SEPARATION STRUCTURES
The various types of bridge structure used

to separate the grades of the two
5.4.10 ADVANTAGE OF GRADE SEPARATION intersecting highway may be T-beam
bridge arch bridge. Rigid portal frame type
1. Maximum facility is given to the and prestressed concrete bridges. The type
crossing traffic. As the roads are of the bridge structure should be selected
separate; this avoids necessity of depending upon the design construction
stopping and avoids accidents while and other considerations like site
crossing. conditions and aesthetics.
2. There is increased safety for turning The grade separated intersection are
traffic and by indirect interchange ramp classifies as over-pass and under-pass.
Where the major highway is taken above decelerate while ascending the ramp to the
by raising its profile above the general cross roads.
ground level by embankment and an over-
bridge across another highway, it is called 5.4.16 DISADVANTAGE OF AN UNDER-
an over-pass. On the contrary if the PASS
highway is taken by depressing it below the
ground level to cross another road by There may be troublesome drainage
means of an under-bridge, it is known as problems at the under pass, especially
under-pass. when the ground water level rise high
during rainy season and the road at the
5.4.13 ADVANTAGE OF AN OVER-PASS under-pass is to be depressed as much as 5
m to 7 m below the ground level. There is
Troublesome drainage problems may be felling of restriction to the traffic as the
reduced by taking the major highway above sides while passing along the under-pass
the cross road, for the same type of and unless the clearance is sufficiency
structure when the wider road is taken large, this may affect the capacity at the
above the span of the 1 bridge being small, intersection. There is no possibility of stage
the cost of the bridge structure will be less. construction for the bridge structure at the
In an over-pass of major highway “there is under-pass.
an aesthetic preference to the main
through traffic and less feeling of 5.4.17 INTERCHANGES
restriction or confinement when compared
with the under-pass”. Grade separated intersection with
complete interchange facilities is essential
5.4.14 DISADVANTAGES OF AN OVER- to develop a highway with full control of
PASS access. When there is intolerable
congestion and accident at the
In rolling terrain if the major road is to be intersection of two highways carrying very
taken above, the vertical profile will also heavy traffic there is no better solution
have rolling grade line. It, the major than to provide grade separated
highway, is to be taken over by intersection.
constructing high embankments and by
providing steep gradients, the increased
grade resistance may cause speed
reduction on heavy vehicles. Also there will
be restrictions to sight distance unless long
vertical curves are provided.
5.4.15 ADVANTAGE OF AN UNDER-PASS
There is a warning to traffic in advance due

to the presence of an under pass which can
be seen from distance. When the major
highway is taken below, it is advantageous
to the turning traffic because the traffic
from the cross road can accelerate while
descending the ramp to the major highway
and the traffic from the major highway can
6 HIGHWAY OR PAVING MATERIALS
6.1 PAVEMENT MATERIALS : SOIL

2. analysis and the soil fine by
6.1.1 SUB GRADE SOIL sedimentation analysis. The grain size
analysis or the mechanical analysis is
• Soil is an accumulation or deposit of hence carried out to determine the
earth material, derive naturally from percentage of individual grain size
the disintegration of rocks or decay of percent in a soil sample.
vegetation, that can be excavated 3. Liquid Limit : is the minimum water
readily with power equipment in the content at which the soil will flow
field or disintegrated by gentle under the application of very small
mechanical means in the laboratory. shearing force.
• The supporting soil beneath pavement 4. Plastic Limit : is defined as the
and is special under courses is called minimum moisture content at which
sub grade. the soil remains in a plastic state.
• Compacted sub grade is the soil 5. Shrinkage Limit : is the maximum
compacted by controlled movement of moisture content at which further
heavy compactors. reduction in water content does not
cause reaction in volume. It is the
6.1.2 DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF SUB lowest water content that can occur in
GRADE SOIL clayey soil sample which is completely
saturated.
The desirable properties of sub grade soil Gravel
as a highway material are Coarse 2.0*
(1) Stability Sand Medium 0.6
(2) Incompressibility Fine 0.2
(3) Permanency of strength Coarse 0.06
(4) Minimum changes in volume and Silt Medium 0.02
stability under adverse conditions of Fine 0.006
weather and ground water Coarse 0.002
(5) Good drainage, and Clay Medium 0.0006
(6) Ease of compaction Fine 0.0002
Indian Standard Classification System
6.1.3 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOIL of soil Grains
*Values are in mm
Index properties of soil are
6.1.5 TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION
1. Grain Size distribution: The
components of soils which are coarse
grained may be analyzed by sieve
2. Moisture content
3. Doy density
4. Internal stural of the soil
5. The type & mode of stress
supplication
6.1.8 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST
The unconfined compression test may be

considered as a special case of tri-axial
compression test where the confining
pressure is zero and the axial
compressible stress only is applied to the
cylindrical specimen. The stress may be
6.1.6 SOME TESTS TO DETERMINE applied and the deformation and load
THE SOIL STRENGTH reading are noted until the specimen fails.
The tests are

1. Shear tests
2. Bearing tests
3. Penetration tests
A Shear test is usually carried out on
relatively small soil samples in the
laboratory. In order to find the strength
properties of a soil, a number of
representative samples from different 6.1.9 PLATE BEARING TESTS
locations are tested. Some of the
commonly known shear tests are The plate bearing tests is used to evaluate
direct shear test tri-axial compression test the supporting power of subgrade for use
and unconfined compression test. in pavement design by using relatively
Bearing tests are loading tests carried out large diameter, plates the plate bearing
on subgrade soils in situ with a load test was originally devised to find the
bearing area. The results of the bearing modules of subgrade reaction.
tests are influenced by the variations in
the soil properties within the stressed soil
mass underneath. Penetration-tests may
be considered as small scale bearing tests
in which the size of the loaded area is
relatively much smaller and ratio of the
penetration to size of loaded area is much
greater than the ratios in bearing tests.
The California Bearing ratio test and cone 6.1.10 TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
penetration test are commonly known
penetration tests. It is used to determine the shear strength
of coil under lateral confinement. An
6.1.7 FACTOR AFFECTING STRENGTH attempt is made to simulate the confining
PROPERTIES OF SOIL pressure observed in a loaded soil mass.
1. Soil type
Carrying out an undrained (quick) test on
a sandy soil is rather impracticable in the
shear box.
6.1.13 EVALUATION OF COIL

STRENGTH
Test used to evaluate strength properties

of coil may be broadly divided into three
groups.
I. Shear tests
A. Direct shear test
B. Triaxial condition test
C. Unconfined compressed test
D. Vane shear test
II. Bearing test
6.1.11 ALLOW ONCE FOR WORST A. California penetration test
SUBGRADE MOISTURE B. Cone penetration test
III. Penetration test
Module of subgrade reaction for the A. Standard penetration test
loaded condition is B. Dynamic cone penetration test
P C. Plate bearing test
Ks = K s
P
Where 6.1.14 MODULUS OF SUBGRADE
K = Modules of subgrade condition at un- REACTION (K)
soaked condition.
Ps = Pressure of soaked condition to It may be define as the pressure sustained
produce same deformation per unit deformation of subgrade at
Correction for small plate size: specified deformation. The standard plate
KK size for finding K – value is 75 cm
K= 1 2
a diameter.
Where A graph is plotted with mean settlement
K = Modulus of subgrade reaction for versus mean bearing pressure. The
standard plate size. pressure & corresponding to a settlement
K1 = Modulus of subgrade reaction for of 0.1254 cm is read and K-value is
smaller plate. calculated as
a1 = Radius of smaller plate.
a = radius of smaller plate
K= =
P P
V 0.125
kg / cm 2 kg / cm3 ( )
Where
6.1.12 DIRECT SHEAR TEST P = pressure ay unsoaked
condition to produce deformation.
This is one of the oldest of shear tests. The
direct shear test consist of apparatus
essential of a box divided horizontally
into two halves one half is kept fixed and
the other half is free to more horizontally.
A vertical load is applied and the
horizontal pull is caused to produce a
certain rate of horizontal displacement.
The pressure p corresponding to a
settlement of 0.125 cm is read the K-value
is calculated by the reaction.
6.1.15 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO

(CBR) TEST
This is a penetration test developed by

the California Division of Highway, as a
method for evaluating the stability of soil
subgrade. The test results have been
correlated with flexible pavement
thickness requirements for highways and
air fields. The CBR test may be conducted The load values are noted corresponding
in the laboratory on a prepared specimen to penetration values of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5,
in a mould or in-situ in the field. 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0, and 12.5 mm.
The laboratory CBR apparatus consist of a Two typical of curves may be obtained as
mould 150 mm diameter with a base plate shown the normal curve is with
and a collar a loading frame with convexity upwards as for specimen no.1
cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter and the loads corresponding to 2.5 and
and dial gauges for measuring their 5.0 mm penetration values are noted.
expansion soaking and the penetration Sometimes a curve with initial upward
values. concavity is obtained, indicating the
Penetrations test consist of causing of necessity of correction as for specimen
cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter to no.2 corrected origin is established by
penetrate a pavement component drawing a tangent AC from the steepest
material at 1.25 mm/minute. The load point A on the curve. The load values
value o cause 2.5 min and 5.0 mm corresponding to 2.5 and 5.0 mm
penetration are recording. These load are penetration values from the corrected
expressed as percentages of standard origin C are noted.
load values at respective deformation
levels to obtain CBR value. The standard 6.2 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AGGREGATES
load values obtained from the average of a
large number of tests on crushed stones • Aggregate is a collective term for the
are 1370 and 2055 kg (70 and mineral materials such as sand, gravel,
105kg/cm2) respectively values are and crushed stone that are used with a
noted. binding medium (such as water,
The specimen in the mould is subjected to Portland cement, lime, etc.) to form
four days soaking and the swelling and compound materials (such as
water absorption values are noted. bituminous concrete and Portland
cement concrete).
• By volume, aggregate generally
accounts for 92 to 96 percent of
Bituminous concrete and about 70 to
80 percent of Portland cement
concrete.
6.3 DESIRABLE PROPERTIES
6.3.1 STRENGTH with water when compared with
bituminous materials, otherwise the
• The aggregates used in top layers are bituminous coating on the aggregate
subjected to stress action due to traffic will be stripped off in presence of
wheel load, wear and tear, crushing. water.
• For a high quality pavement, the
aggregates should possess high 6.3.6 DURABILITY
resistance to crushing, and to
withstand the stresses due to traffic • The property of aggregates to
wheel load. withstand adverse action of weather is
called soundness.
6.3.2 HARDNESS • The aggregates are subjected to the
• The aggregates used in the surface physical and chemical action of rain
course are subjected to constant and bottom water, impurities there-in
rubbing or abrasion due to moving and that of atmosphere, hence it is
traffic. desirable that the road aggregates
• The aggregates should be hard enough used in the construction should be
to resist the abrasive action caused by sound enough to withstands the
the traffic movement. weathering action.
• The abrasive action is severe when
steel tyred vehicles moves over the 6.3.7 FREEDOM FROM DELETERIOUS
aggregates exposed at the top surface. PARTICLES
6.3.3 TOUGHNESS • Aggregates used in bituminous mixes
or Portland cement concrete mixes
• Resistance of the aggregates to impact usually require the aggregate to be
is termed as toughness. clean, tough and durable in nature and
• Aggregates used in the pavement free from excess amount of flat or
should be able to resist the effect elongated pieces, dust, clay balls and
caused by the jumping of the steel other objectionable material.
tyred wheels from one particle to
another at different levels causes 6.4 AGGREGATE TESTS
severe impact on the aggregates.
In order to decide the suitability of the
6.3.4 SHAPE OF AGGREGATES aggregate for use in pavement
construction, following tests are carried
• The flaky and elongated particles will out:
have less strength and durability (1) Crushing test
when compared with cubical, angular (2) Abrasion test
or rounded particles of the same (3) Impact test
aggregate. (4) Soundness test
(5)Shape test
• Hence too flaky and too much
(6)Specific gravity and water absorption
elongated aggregates should be
test
avoided as far as possible
(7) Bitumen adhesion test
6.3.5 Adhesion with bitumen
6.4.1 CRUSHING TEST
• The aggregates used in bituminous
pavements should have less affinity
• One of the mode in which pavement
material can fail is by crushing under 6.4.2 ABRASION TEST
compressive stress.
• The aggregate crushing value provides • Abrasion test is carried out to test the
a relative measure of resistance to hardness property of aggregates and
crushing under gradually applied to decide whether they are suitable for
crushing load. different pavement construction
• The test consists of subjecting the works.
specimen of aggregate in standard Test are of following type:
mould to a compression test under (1) Los Angles abrasion test
standard load conditions. (2) Devel abrasion test
• Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 (3) Dorry abrasion test
mm sieves and retained on 10 mm • Los Angeles abrasion test is a
sieves are filled in a cylindrical preferred on for carrying out the
measure of 11.5 cm diameter and 18 hardness property and had been
cm height in three layers. standardized in India (IS : 2386 part-
• Each layer is tampered 25 times with IV)
standard tamping rod. • The principle of Los Angeles abrasion
• The test sample is weighed and placed test is to find the percentage wear due
in the test cylinder in three layers each to relative rubbing action between the
layer being tampered again. aggregate and steel balls used as
• The specimen is subjected to a abrasive charge.
compressive load of 40 tonnes Los Angeles machine consists of
gradually applied at the rate of 4 circular drum of interval diameter 700
tonnes per minute. mm and length 520 mm mounted on a
• Crushed aggregates are then sieved horizontal axis enabling it to be
though 2.36 mm sieve and weight of rotated.
passing material (W2) is expressed as • An abrasive charge consisting of cast
percentage of the weight of the total iron spherical balls of 48 mm
sample (W1) which is the aggregate diameters and weight 340. 445 g is
crushing value placed in the cylinder along with the
W
Aggregate crushing value = W2 × 100 aggregates.
1 • The number of the abrasive spheres
• A value less than 10 signifies an varies according to the grading of the
exceptionally strong aggregate while sample.
above 35 would normally be regarded • The quantity of aggregates to be used
as weak aggregates. depends upon the gradation and
usually ranges from 5-10 kg.
• The cylinder is then locked and
rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a
total of 500-1000 revolutions
depending upon the gradation of
aggregates.
• After specified revolutions, the
material is sieved through 1.7 mm
sieve and passed fraction is expressed
Note: The crushing value for surface as percentage total weight of the
course should be less than 30% and sample.
should not exceed 45% for base course.
• This value is called Los Angeles W2
Aggregate impact value = ×100
abrasion value. A maximum value of W1
40 percent is allowed for WBM base
course in Indian conditions.
• For bituminous concrete, a maximum
value of 35 is specified.
• Aggregates to be used for wearing

course, the impact value shouldn’t
exceed 30 percent. For bituminous
macadam the maximum permissible
value defined by IRC is 40 percent.
Note: The abrasion value of good
6.4.3 IMPACT TEST aggregates for high quality pavement
material should be less than 30%,
• The Aggregate impact test is carried however for base course in WBM it
out to evaluate the resistance to may be 50%.
impact of aggregates or roughness of Coefficient of hardness
aggregate. Loss of Wt.in gram
• Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and = 20 −
3
retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a
cylindrical steel cup of internal dia 6.4.4 SOUNDNESS TEST
10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is • Soundness test is intended to study
attached to a metal base of impact the resistance of aggregates to
testing machine. weathering action, by conducting
• The material is filled in 3 layers where accelerated weathering test cycles.
each layer is tamped for 25 number of • The porous aggregates subjected to
blows. freezing and thawing are likely to
disintegrate prematurely. To ascertain
the durability of such aggregates, they
are subjected to an accelerated
soundness test as specified in IS:2386
part-V.
• Aggregates of specified size are
subjected to cycle of alternate wetting
• Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 kg
in a saturated solution of either
is arranged to drop with a free fall of
sodium sulphate or magnesium
38.0 cm by vertical guides and the test
sulphate for 16-18 hours and then
specimen is subjected to 15 number of
dried in oven at 105 – 1100C to a
blows.
constant weight.
• The crushed aggregate is allowed to
• After five cycles, the loss in weight of
pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. And
aggregates is determined by sieving
the impact value is measured as
out all undersized particles and
percentage of aggregates passing sieve
weighing. And the loss in weight
(W2)to the total weight of the sample
should not exceed 12 percent when
(W1).
tested with sodium sulphate and 18
percent with magnesium sulphate W
Angularity no.= 67 − ×100 [The
solution. CG a
value is expressed as nearest whole
6.4.5 SHAPE TEST number]
Where, W = weight of aggregate in a
The particle shape of the aggregate mass cylinder;
is determined by the percentage of flaky C = Weight of water in same cylinder
and elongated particles in it. Aggregates Ga = Sp. Gravity of aggregate/
which are flaky or elongated are
detrimental to higher workability and 6.4.9 SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER
stability of mixes. ABSORPTION
6.4.6 FLAKINESS INDEX • The specific gravity of a solid is the
ratio of mass of solid to that of an
• The flakiness index is defined as the equal volume of distilled water at a
percentage by weight of aggregate specified temperature.
particles whose least dimension is less • Because the aggregates may contain
than 0.6 times their mean size. water-permeable voids, so two
measures of specific gravity of
6.4.7 ELONGATION INDEX aggregates are used: apparent specific
gravity and bulk specific gravity.
• The elongation index of an aggregate Apparent Specific gravity (Gapp) : It
is defined as the percentage by weight is computed on the basis of the net
of particles whose greatest dimension volume of aggregates i.e. the volume
(length) is 1.8 times their mean excluding water-permeable voids.
dimension. This test is applicable to Thus
aggregates limits for the elongation M /V
index. G app = D N
W
Where,
MD = is the dry mass of the aggregate,
VN = is the net volume of aggregates
excluding the volume of the absorbed
matter,
W is the density of water.
6.4.8 ANGULARITY NUMBER Bulk Specific Gravity (Gbulk) : It is
computed on the basis of the total
• This represents the degree of packing volume of aggregates including water
angularity no = 67 % solid volume. permeable voids. Thus
• 67 represents the volume of solids (in M /V
%) of most rounded gravels in a well G bulk = D B
W
compacted state, which would have where, VB is the total volume of the
33% voids. Thus the angularity no aggregates including the volume of
measures the voids in excess of 33%. absorbed water.
• Higher the angularity number, more
angular is the aggregate. 6.4.10 WATER ABSORPTION
• The range of angularity no. for
aggregates used for construction is 0 • The difference between the apparent
to 11. and bulk specific gravities is nothing
but the water-permeable voids of the water maintained at 400C temperature
aggregates. for 24 hours.
• We can measure the volume of such Note: IRC has specified maximum
voids by weighing the aggregates dry stripping value of aggregates should
and in a saturated, surface dry not exceed 5%.
condition, with all permeable voids Property of Type of Test
filled with water. aggregate
Crushing Crushing test
• The difference of the above two is Mw. strength
• Mw is the weight of dry aggregates Hardness Los angeles abrasion test
minus weight of aggregates saturated Toughness Aggregate impact test
surface dry condition. Thus Durability Soundness test-accelerated
M durability test
Water Absorption = W ×100 Shape factors Shape test
MD Specific gravity Specific gravity test and
Note: The specific gravity of and porosity water absorption test
aggregates normally used in road Adhesion to Stripping value of aggregate
construction ranges from about 2.5 to bitumen
2.9. Water absorption values ranges
from 0.1 to about 2.0 percent for 6.5 BITUMEN
aggregates normally used in road
surfacing. Bituminous materials are widely used in
road construction and maintenance. After
6.4.11 BITUMEN ADHESION TEST gaining experience from their use in
obtaining smooth riding surface,
• Bitumen adheres well to all normal bituminous mixtures are being used as
types of road aggregates provided structural layers. These material are
they are dry and free from dust. considered to be flexible from structural
• In the absence of water, there is point of view.
practically no adhesion problem of
bituminous construction. Adhesion 6.5.1 SOURCE
problem occurs when the aggregate is
wet and cold. The most common source of bitumen is
• This problem can be dealt with by through petroleum crude. It is also found
removing moisture from the aggregate as rock asphalt in some parts of Europe
by drying and increasing the mixing and as Lake Asphalt in Trinidad. Indian
temperature. crude does not yield good bitumen
• Further, the presence of water causes suitable for roadwork, except Digboi
stripping of binder from the coated bitumen (in Assam). Thus, India gets its
aggregates. This problem occurs when entire bitumen through imported crude.
bitumen mixture is permeable to DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN
water. In road construction one looks for the
• Several laboratory tests are conducted following desirable properties in bitumen.
to arbitrarily determine the adhesion (a) Bitumen should have good affinity to
of bitumen binder to an aggregate in aggregates.
the presence of water. (b) Bitumen should be fluid enough to
• Static immersion test is one specified coat all particles of the aggregates in a
by IRC and is quite simple. The premix process. This is achieved by
principle of the test is by immersing heating the bitumen and the
aggregate fully coated with binder in aggregates too.
(c) In spraying work, bitumen should be A thin film of bitumen of thickness d
susceptible of being sprayed to a thin (20 to 50 microns) is held between
film. This is achieved either by heating two plates, the area of contact being A.
it or by fluxing it or by emulsifying it. The tangential force F to move the top
(d) When the binder cools down to plates at a velocity V is measured.
atmosphere temperature is should The coefficient of viscosity, η is then
harden to hold the aggregates given by:
together. F.D
η=
(e) Its susceptibility to change its A.V
viscosity when temperature varies In CGS units it is measure in Poise.
should be low. In particular, its Kinematic Viscosity =
viscosity characteristics should be Dynamiv Viscisity η
reasonably constant within the range =
Density ρ
of temperatures the road experiences.
(f) The bitumen should retain its Kinematic Viscosity is measured in
properties over a long period. In other CGS units in Stokes (cm2/sec)
words, it should be a durable binder
and should not lose its properties too
soon.
6.5.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN
• The viscosity of liquid bitumen is
Bitumen possesses the following properties: measured by efflux viscometers.
(a) It is a viscous liquid; black or brown in • The liquid is kept at a constant
colour temperature and is made to pass
(b) It consists predominantly of through an orifice; the time required
hydrocarbons derived from petroleum to pass a measured quantity through
crude the orifice is noted and is an indirect
(c) It is soluble in carbon disulphide measure of the viscosity (shown in
(d) It is insoluble in water figure).
(e) Its specific gravity is around 1.00
(f) It has water-proofing properties
(g) It is thermoplastic, i.e. it becomes soft
on heating and in the reverse process
becomes hard on cooling.
(h) It oxides slowly.
(i) It is chemically inert.
• The methods used are STV (Standard
6.6 TESTING OF BITUMEN Tar Viscometer), SayboltFurol,
Redwood and Engler.
6.6.1 VISCOSITY • The diameter of orifice varies in the
range of 3 to 10 mm and the volume of
• Viscosity is the property of bitumen fluid is in the range of 50 to 200 ml.
which resists flow due to internal • Furol Viscosity is standardized test.
friction.
• Absolute or dynamic viscosity is 6.6.2 DUCTILITY
measured by means of a sliding plate
viscometer (see figure). • Bitumen binder should be sufficiently
ductile. i.e, it should be capable of
being stretched without breaking.
Ductility is the opposite of brittleness.
• Ductility is measured by stretching a
standard briquette of bitumen (in
figure) having a cross-sectional area of
1 sq cm at a temperature of 270C the
rate of pull being 5 cm/min.
• The distance in cm that the briquette
can be stretched before breaking is the
ductility.
• Its value varies from 5 to 100
• A minimum value of 50 is commonly
specified. For waxy bitumen, value
may be as low as 15.
• ISI has recommended a minimum
ductility value of 75 cm for grades of
45 and above.
6.6.3 PENETRATION
• A measure of the hardness of bitumen

is indirectly obtained by the
penetration test. 6.6.4 SOFTENING POINT
• It measures the distance a standard
blunt-pointed needle will vertically • The softening point is measured by
penetrate a sample of material at 270C, the “Ring and Ball” test.
the load being 100 g and time of • Softening point is the temperature at
application of load being 5 secs (in which bitumen attains a particular
figure). degree of softness under standardized
• The unit of penetration is 1/10 mm. test conditions.
• Thus 80/100 pen means a penetration • The temperature at which a standard
of 8-10 mm. steel ball placed on a layer of bitumen
• Penetration limits enable bitumen to kept in a standard ring passes through
be classified on the basis of the bitumen layer and touches the
consistency. Common grades are bottom plate kept at a distance of 2.54
30/40, 60/70 and 80/100. cm is the softening point.
• Tars are soft and penetration test is • The both liquid is water/glycerine.
not used. The softening point of paving grade
bitumen 80/100 is 35-500C. The
significance of the softening point is
that it indicates the temperature at
which bitumen passes from solid to • The safe limit for heating bitumen is
liquid consistency. normally 500C below the flash point.
• For satisfactory performance and
avoidance of “bleeding”, bitumen 6.6.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
should have a softening point 5 to
100C above the maximum atmospheric • Specific gravity of bitumen is
temperature. determined by the pycnometer method.
• The measurements are taken at 270C.
The specific gravity is generally
around 1.00.
• Specific gravity of pure bitumen is in
the range of 0.97 to 1.02 whereas tars
have specific gravity ranging from
1.10 to 1.25.
6.6.7 SOLUBILITY
• The solubility of bitumen in

6.6.5 FLASH AND FIRE POINT trichloroethylene is a measure of its
purity.
• At high temperature, bitumen • A minimum value of 99 percent is
becomes volatile, and thus catches fire generally desired.
which is very hazardous. Thus it is
necessary that we quantify this 6.6.8 FLOAT TEST
temperature for each grade of
bitumen.
• The flash point (shown in figure) is the
lowest temperature in degrees C at
which the application of a test flame
causes the vapour from bitumen to of
a test flame causes the vapour from
bitumen to catch fire momentarily in
the form of a flash.
• Normally the consistency of
bituminous material can be measured
either by penetration test or by
viscosity test.
• But for certain range of consistencies,
these test are not applicable and float
test is used.
• The float test is a modified viscosity
test adopted for use with small
quantities of very viscous bituminous
• The fire point is the lowest materials.
temperature in degrees C at which the • It is the time in seconds required for a
application of the test flame causes the small plug of chilled bitumen, which is
bitumen to ignite and burn for at least held in a open mould attached to the
5 secs under specified conditions of bottom of a saucer, to become
test.
sufficiently fluid when the saucer is (i) For surface dressing
floated in water at 500C. (ii) For premix works in
high altitudes.
(iii) For premix works in
6.6.9 LOSS ON HEATING roads with less traffic
intensity.
• When a bituminous material is heated, Cutback (i) Surface dressing in cold
it loses its volatile and therefore Bitumen weather
(ii) Premix in cold weather
hardness. (iii) MC and SC cut backs
• The less the loss on heating, the better are used for priming.
is the bitumen. Emulsion (i) used for surface
• The test is conducted by an dressing in cold weather,
accelerated heat test. 50 g of bitumen wet conditions and
maintenance works
is placed in a container in one of the (ii) Used for premix works
recesses of revolving shelf. The shelf in wet weather (except
rotates at 5 to 6 revolutions per dense and semi-dense
minute. The test is carried out for 5 carpet and maintenance
hrs in an oven at 1630C. works.)
(iii) Priming
• Not more than one percent loss in
weight is desirable.
6.7.1 CUTBACK BITUMEN
6.6.10 WATER CONTENT TEST
The viscosity of bitumen is reduced by a
volatile diluents. Cut back bitumens are
It is desirable that the bitumen contains
available in three types.
minimum water content to prevent
1. Rapid Curing (RC)
foaming of bitumen when it is heated
2. Medium Curing (MC)
above the boiling point of water. The
3. Slow Curing (SC)
maximum water content in bitumen
• The cutbacks are designated by
should not exceed 0.2% by weight.
numerals representing progressively
thicker or viscous cutback.
6.7 SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE
For example RC-2 is more thick than
GRADE OF BITUMEN
RC-1 but RC-2, MC-2 and SC-2 have
same viscosity.
Guidelines for selection of bitumen grade
• RC-0 and SC-0 may have 45% solvent
in India are given below:
and 55% bitumen where as RC-5 and
Type of Use
MC-5 may contain 15% solvent and
Bitumen 85% bitumen.
• RC-Cutback : They have penetration
Penetration Hot-mix work in areas value of 80 to 120 eg., petroleum such
grade 30/40 where the difference
between maximum and
as naptha or gasoline,
minimum temperature is • MC-Cutback: They have good wetting
less than 250C and on roads properties. eg., kerosene and light
with high volume of traffic diesel oil.
(expressways, urban roads
• SC-cutback: These can be obtained by
and factory roads)
Penetration Hot-mix work for blending bitumen with high boiling
Grade 60/70 bituminous mecadams and point gas oil or by controlling the rate
bituminous concrete for of flow and temperature of crude
superior type of roads with during the first cycle of refining.
high traffic and in normal
summer temperatures.
6.7.2 BITUMINOUS EMULSION
6.8 MIXDESIGN METHODS
Emulsion is a two phase system
consisting of two immiscible liquids. There are four popular methods of mix
• The bitumen/tar content in emulsion design:
range from 40 to 60% and the 1. Marshall method
remaining portion is water. 2. Hubbard-Field method
• The average diameter of globules of 3. Haveem method
bitumen portion is about 2 mm. 4. Smith traxial method
• Emulsion are used especially in • Each of the above methods is
maintenance and patch repair works. associated with a set of design
The main advantage of emulsion is criteria for the properties of the
that it can be used in wet weather mix.
even when it is raining. Emulsions • The marshall method is the most
can be used for soil stabilization in popular in India.
deserts.
6.8.1 OBJECTIVES OF MIX DESIGN
6.7.3 TAR
The objective of the mix design is to
Tar can be produced in 3 stages produce a bituminous mix by
(i) Carbonization of coal to produce crude proportioning various components so
tar. as to have.
(ii) Refining or distillation of crude tar. 1. Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable
(iii) Blending of distillation residue with pavement,
distillate oil fraction to give desired 2. Sufficient strength to resist shear
road tar. deformation under traffic at higher
• RT-1 is lowest viscosity used for temperature,
surface painting whereas RT-4 3. Sufficient air voids in the compacted
may be used for premix in bitumen to allow for additional
macadam. compaction by traffic,
• RT-5 is used for grouting which 4. Sufficient workability to permit easy
has highest viscosity. placement without segregation.
5. Sufficient flexibility to avoid
6.7.4 TAR & BITUMEN (COMPARISON) premature cracking due to repeated
bending by traffic, and
• Bitumen is a petroleum product 6. Sufficient flexibility at low
whereas tar is produced by the temperature to prevent shrinkage
destructive distillation of coal or cracks.
wood.
• Bitumen is soluble in ‘carbon 6.8.2 SELECTION OF AGGREGATES
disulphide’ and ‘carbon tetrachloride’
but tar is soluble in only toluene. • The desirable qualities of a
• Bitumen is more resistant to water bituminous paving mixture are
than tar. dependant to a considerable degree on
• Tar is more temperature susceptible the nature of the aggregates used.
resulting in great variation in viscosity • Aggregates are classified as coarse,
with temperature. fine, and filler.
• The free carbon content is more in tar • The function of the coarse aggregates
as seen from the solubility test. in contributing to the stability of a
bituminous paving mixture is largely Gb is the apparent specific gravity of
due to interlocking and frictional bitumen.
resistance of adjacent particles.
• Similarly, fines or sand contributes to BULK SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF MIX (GM)
stability failure function is filling the The bulk specific gravity or the actual
voids between coarse aggregates. specific gravity of the mix (Gm) is the
• Mineral filler is largely visualized as a specific gravity considering air voids and
void filling agent. Crushed aggregates is found out by:
and sharp sands produce higher Wm
Gm = ……………..(ii)
stability of the mix when compared Wm − WW
with gravel and rounded sands. G t > G m always Where, Wm is the
6.8.3 THEORETICAL SPECIFIC GRAVITY weight of mix in air (actual wt), Wm is the
OF THE MIX (GT) weight of mix in water (Bouyant
weight).
Theoretical specific gravity (Gt) is the Wm − Vγ W = WW = buoyant weight
specific gravity without considering Wm − WW
V=
air voids, and is given by γw
Wm
Gm =
Wm − WW
6.8.4 PREPARE GRAPHICAL PLOTS
The average of the above properties are

determined for each mix with different
bitumen content and the following
graphical plots are prepared:
1. Binder content versus corrected
Marshall stability.
2. Binder content versus Marshall flow
3. Binder content versus percentage of
Wtotal
Gt = void (Vv) in the total mix.
Vsolid γ w 4. Binder content versus voids filled with
W + W2 + W3 + Wb bitumen (VFB)
Gt = 1
W1 W2 W3 Wb 5. Binder content versus unit weight or
+ + + bulk specific gravity (Gm)
G1 G 2 G 3 G b
Total weight
= ……………..(i)
( Volume of solids ) γ w
Where, W1 is the weight of the coarse
aggregate in the total mix, W2 is the
weight of fine aggregate in the total mix,
W3 s the weight of filler in the total mix,
Wb is the weight of bitumen in the total
mix, G1 is the apparent specific gravity of
coarse aggregate, G2 is the apparent
specific gravity of fine aggregate, G3 is 6.8.5 DETERMINE OPTIMUM BITUMEN
the apparent specific gravity of filler and CONTENT
• Determine the optimum binder
content for the mix design by taking
average value of the following three
bitumen contents found from the
graphs obtained in the previous step.
1. Binder content corresponding to
maximum stability
maximum bulk specific gravity
(Gm)
the designed limits of percent air
voids (Vv) in the total mix (i.e. 4%)
• The stability value, flow value, and
VFB are checked with Marshall mix
design specification chart given in
Table below.
Test Property Specified Value
Marshall Stability, Kg 340(minimum)
Flow value, 0.25mm 8 to 16
units
Air voids in total mix, 3 to 5
VV %
Voids filled with 75 to 85
bitumen, VFB%
Mixes with every high stability value and

low flow value are not desirable as the
pavements constructed with such mixes
are likely to develop cracks due to heavy
moving loads.
7 DESIGN OF PAVEMENT
7.1 METHOD OF PEVEMENT DESIGN p = percentage finer (percentage of soils

passing from 0.075 mm sieve)
Various approach for flexible pavement wL = Liquid limit
design may be classified in a three broad IP = plasticity index = (wL – wP)
groups.
• To design the pavement thickness by
(a) Empirical Methods:
this method, first the G.I value of the
• These are based on physical soil is found. The anticipated traffic is
properties and strength parameter estimated and is designated as light.
of soil subgrade. Medium or heavy.
• The group index method, CBR Traffic volume No. of vehicle per day
method Stabilometer method and (commercial vehicle) (Anticipated Traffic)
Mc-lead method etc. are empirical Light Less than 50
methods. Medium 50 to 300
Heavy Over 300
(b) Semi Empirical or semi theoretical
method: These methods are based on • Based on the anticipated traffic and
stress strain function and experience. group index value, thickness of
E.g., Triaxial test method. pavement layer is calculated. The
(c) Theoretical Method: These are based thickness of sub-base depends only on
on mathematical computation for e.g., group index value. However the
Burmister method is based on elastic thickness of surface and base course
two layer theory. combined depends on both the traffic as
well as GI value.
7.2 GROUP INDEX METHOD • In the exam a table would be given.
From the table thickness corresponding
• Group index value is an arbitrary index to GI value can be calculated
assigned to the soil types in numerical Note : In actual practices we have
equations based on the percent fines, curves available for total combined
liquid limit and plasticity index. thickness and thickness of surface and
• The G.I. value of soils vary in the range base course only corresponding to
of 0 to 20. traffic and GI value. Hence from total
• The higher the G.I. value weaker the soil thickness, thickness of sub-base is
subgrade hence greater thickness of obtained by deducting, the thickness of
pavement required. (Surface + Base course) from Total
G.I.=(0.2 a + 0.005 ac+ 0.01 bd) …..(i) thickness.
Where,
a = p – 35 ≯40 (expressed as whole no Limitation
between 0 – 40) (1) G.I. Method does not consider quality of
b = p – 15≯ 40 (expressed as whole no material used from pavement.
between 0 – 40) (2) Thickness is suggested same for poor
c = wL – 40≯20 (expressed as whole no good quality material.
between 0 – 20)
d = Ip – 10≯20 (expressed as whole no 7.3 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO METHOD
between 0 – 40)
• CBR method of flexible pavement
design is based on strength parameter
of subgrade soil and subsequent
material.
• In order to design a pavement by CBR
method, first the soaked CBR value of
the soil subgrade is evaluated and the
appropriate design curve is chosen by
taking the design wheel load as given in
figure or by taking the anticipated
traffic into consideration. IRC RECOMMENDATIONS [AS PER
• The total thickness of pavement needed IRC 37:1970]
to cover the subgrade of the known CBR 1. CBR test should be performed on
value is obtained. remoulded soils in the laboratory,
• In case there is a material superior than inset test are not recommended for
the soil sub-grade, such that it may be design purpose.
used as sub base course then the 2. The soil should be compacted at
thickness of construction over his OMC to proctor density.
material could be obtained from the 3. Test sample should be soaked in
design chart knowing the CBR value of water for 4 days period before
the sub-base. Thickness of sub-base is testing. However in dry zone (< 50
the total thickness minus the thickness cm rainfall) it is not necessary to
over the sub-base. Based on CBR value soak.
of any material,over which a flexible 4. At least 3 samples should be tested
pavement is required, thickness of on each type of soil at the same
pavement over this is given by density and moisture content, if
1 variation is more than permissible
 1.75 1  2
value, an average of six samples
=t P − 
 CBR pπ  should be considered.
1 Permissible CBR (%)
1.75P P  2 variations
=t  − 
 CBR pπ  3% Up to 10%
1 5% 10 to 30%
1.75P A  2 10% 30 to 605
= t  − ……………………..(i)
 CBR π 
Note: This formula is applicable only when 5. The top 50 cm of subgrade should
the CBR value of the subgrade soil is less be compacted at least up to 95 to
than 12%. 100% of proctor density
Here, 6. Following formula may be used in
t = pavement thickness, cm case estimating future heavy
P= wheel load, kg vehicles in view of growth rate for
CBR = California Bearing ratio, percent design.
p = tyre pressure, kg/cm2. A = P (1 + r)n+10
A = area of contact, cm2. Where,
[if radius of contact area is r, A = πr2] A = number of heavy vehicles/day
for design (weight > 3 tonnes).
P = No. of heavy vehicles per day at
last count.
r = annual rate of increase of
vehicles Traffic coefficient (X) ADT (number)
n = No. of years between the last 1/2 40 – 400
count and the year of completion of 2/3 401 – 8 00
construction. 5/6 801 – 1200
P should be seven days’ average and, 1 1201 – 1800
r can be taken as 7.5% for roads in 7/6 1801 – 2700
rural areas. 8/6 2701 – 4000
7. The design thickness is considered 9/6 4001 – 6000
applicable for single axle loads upto 10/6 6001 – 9000
8200 kg and tandem axle loads up to 11/6 9000 – 13,500
14500 kg. For higher axle loads, the 12/6 13501 – 20,000
thickness values should be further Rainfall coefficient Average
increases. (Y) annual rainfall,
8. When sub base course materials cm
contain substantial proportion of 0.5 38 – 50
aggregates of size above 20 mm, the 0.6 51 – 64
CBR value of materials contain 0.7 65 – 76
would not be valid for the design of 0.8 77 – 90
subsequent layer above them. 0.9 91 – 100
1.0 101 – 127
Limitations
The CBR method gives the total thickness If pavement and subgrade are •
requirement of the pavement above a considered as a two layer system a
subgrade and this thickness requirement ofstiffness factor has to be introduced to
the pavement above a subgrade and this take into account the different values a
thickness value would remain same modulus of elasticity of the two layers.
irrespective of the quality of materials used
• The pavement thickness is then
in component layers. Thus the component modified using the stiffness factor equal
of materials should be judiciously chosen to (Es/Ep)1/3 where Es and Ep are values
for durability and economy. of modulus of elasticity of the subgrade
and pavement, respectively. Thus the
7.4 TRIAXIAL METHOD thickness of pavement, Tp is calculated
from the relation:
• The pavement thickness Ts consisting of
 
1
2
material with modulus Es is given by the   3PXY    E  3
= TP    − a 2   s  ……….(ii)
equation
  2πE s    E P 
2
 3PXY  • The relation between pavement layers
= Ts   − a …………………..(i)
2
 2πE s  of thickness t1 and t2 of elastic modulus

P = Wheel load in Kg; E1 and E2 is given by:
1
∆ = design deflection (0.25 cm)
t1  E 2  3
A = radius of contact area (cm) = 
X = traffic coefficient t 2  E1 
Y = Saturation coefficient
Es = Modulus of elasticity in Kg/cm2 7.4.1 MC LEOD METHOD
The recommended values of coefficients • From the plate load tests an empirical
X and Y based on ADT of design traffic design equation was recommended:
and rainfall are given below: T = K log10 P/S
T = required thickness of gravel base, cm
P = gross wheel load, kg
S = total subgrade support, kg (for the
same contact area, deflection & number
of repetitions of load P)
K = base course constant.
• It is found that the base course constant
K depends on the loaded area.
• The subgraded support S for the design
of highway pavement is calculated from
the support measured or calculated for
30 cm diameter plate at 0.5 cm • It is observed from this figure that
deflection and ten repetitions. the vertical stress on the subgrade is
reduced from 70 to 30 percent by
7.4.2 BURMISTER’S (LAYERED SYSTEM) introducing a pavement layer of
METHOD thickness equal to the radius of the
load or h = a, having elastic modulus
Assumption: 10 times higher than the elastic
1. Materials is each layers are isotropic, modulus of subgrade soil, i.e., for
homogenous and Elastic. Ep/Es=10.
2. Pavement forms a stiffer layer having • The Burmister’s approach therefore
higher value of E than that of subgrade. utilizes the reinforcing action of the
pavement layer.
• The deflection factor F2 is
introduced in two layered system
which is dependent on Ep/Es and
3. The surface layer is infinite in h/a.
horizontal directions but finite in
vertical direction length and width of 7.5 DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENT
infinite, height is finite.
4. Layers are in constant contact.
• The rigid pavement is constructed using
• Donald M. Burmister developed the cement concrete and the load carrying
layered system analysis. The flexible capacity in this case is primarily due to
pavement sections are composed of rigidly in the slab.
layers and the elastic modulus of the
• Rigidity is due to high modulus of
top layer is the highest. This method
elasticity of concrete.
is based on Modulus of Elasticity of
• Cement concrete pavement is rested on
different layers:
soil foundation which can be treated as
As per Layered System
a spring having constant K. This K is
EB > ESB > ES
called modulus of subgrade reaction.
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of
• Modulus of subgrade reaction is found
upper layers should be higher as
out using plate loud test (plague
compared to that of lowered layer.
bearing test).
E = Modulus of elasticity of cement
concrete in kg/cm2(3 × 105 kg/cm2).
μ = poission ratio of concrete is taken as
0.15
h = slab thickness in cm
K = modulus of subgrade reaction
7.5.2 CRITICAL LOAD POSITION

• Modulus of subgrade reaction is
calculated corresponding to the
• Intensity of maximum stress in the slab
settlement of 1.25 mm
depends on the location of load on the
P p(kg / cm 2 ) pavement.
= K=
V 0.125cm • Three typical locations are considered
K=
p
kg / cm3 critical. They are Interior loading
0.125 (a) Edge loading
As per IRC, the modulus of sub-grade (b) Corner loading
reaction corresponding to 75 cm plate
used for testing is ½ of that using 30 cm
plate.
K 75cm = 0.5K 30cm
Note : K values also depends on the
size of the plate used.
1.18pa 7.5.3 EQUIVALENT RADIUS OF
∆= RESISTING SECTION
Es
p
∆= • Only a small area of the pavement is
K resisting a bending movement of a plate
p 1.18pa due to loading.
=
K Es • Westergaard gave a relation for radius
K.a = constant of resisting section in cm by
K 75 × 75 = K 30 × 30 b ( cm )= b=
30
K 75 = K 30  1.6a 2 + h 2 − 0.675h a < 1.724h
75 b=
K 75 = 0.4K 30  a otherwise
a = radius of wheel load distribution in
However IRC recommends K75 = 0.5K30
cm.
Normally for rigid pavement design test
h = slab thickness in cm
is done using 75 cm plate size.
7.5.4 WESTERGARD STRESS EQUATION
7.5.1 RELATIVE STIFFNESS OF SLAB TO
FOR LOADING
SUBGRADE
• Westergaard assumed winkler
⦁ Relative stiffness of slab with respect foundation (spring foundation) and the
to subgrade is represented by radius of slab was assumed to be homogenous &
relative stiffness and it is given by isotropic.
1 • The stresses for internal edge and
 Eh 3  4 corner loadings are as given below.
l ( cm ) =   0.316P  
( )
12 1 − μ 2 K  = σinternal 
l
4 log10   + 1.069 
b
2
h  
[σinternalis the tensile stress at slab bottom]
0.572P  l 
=σ edge  4 log10   + 0.359 
b
2
h  
[σedge is the tensile stress at slab bottom]
3P   a 2  
0.6
FORMULA FOR WARPING STRESSES
σ= 1 −   
corner
h 2   1   Eαt  Cx + μCy 
  σinternal =  
2  1− μ2 
[ σ corner is the tensile stress at top of slab]
 CxEαt CyEαt 
P =Wheel load in kg σ edge = max  , 
H = thickness of slab in cm.  2 2 
l = Radius of relative stiffness in cm. Eαt a
σ corner =
b= Radius of resisting section in cm. 3 (1 − μ ) l
E = modulus of elasticity of concrete = 3
7.6 TEMPERATURE STRESSES × 105 kg/cm2
α =thermal expansion co-efficient of
• Temperature stresses are developed in concrete.
the cement concrete pavement due to t = temperature differential between
variation in the slab temperature and top and bottom of concrete slab.
resistance against deformation Cx and Cy are co-efficient that depend
provided by the weight of slab and
L Ly
friction between slab & ground. The upon x , respectively.
stresses are caused by l l
(a) Daily variation resulting in l = radius of relative sriffness.
temperature gradient across the μ = possion’s ratio is taken as 0.15
thickness of slab. a = radius of contact
(b) Seasonal variation resulting in These stresses are tensile stresses
overall change in slab temperature.
• Daily variation will leads to warping of 7.7 FRICTIONAL STRESSLESS
the slab. (temperature deferential
between the top & bottom of the slab • Frictional stresses are developed due to
causes curling i.e. warping stress in the seasonal variation of temperature and
pavement). in this case there is no temperature
Day Time : Slab tries to expand at top gradient across the thickness.
but weight tries to resist it hence • If the slab tries to contract due to
compression develops at top temperature fall, as in winter, the slab
tries to move inward hence a frictional
stress is developed as show below.
Night Time : Slab tries to contract top

 L 
but is restrained by weight hence  B × 2 × h  γ conc f = B × h × σ
tension develops at top.
f.γ L
σ = conc
2
Note: As slab is trying to contract from • Various types of joints provided in the
both side hence half of the length of slab cement concrete pavement are:
has been taken. (a) Expansion joint
• During summer compression develops (b) Contraction joint
in the slab (c) Construction joint
Critical Combination of Stresses (a) Expansion Joint

• Out of various wheel stresses. • The purpose is to allow the expansion
1. Corner stress is maximum as there is of pavement due to rise in temperature
discontinuity in both direction with respect to construction
2. Interior stress is minimum temperature. To design the joint, we
3. Edge stress is in intermediate range. find out the joint spacing for a given
• Temperature stress is critical at the joint thickness of 2.5 cm max as
edge and interior and it is minimum at specified by IRC.
corner. • The maximum spacing between
Note : At the corner resistance due to expansion joint is 140 cm.
weight is minimum, hence warping • At the expansion joint, dowell are
stress is minimum. provided which develops bending,
• In combination of wheel load and bearing and sharing stresses and help in
temperature, edge region is most load transfer.
critical, hence designing is done using • The fillers provided at the expansion
edge region stress and however joint are assumed to be compresses by
checking is done for corner region. 50% of its thickness during expansion
• hence, the gap of the joint should be
Certain Combinations twice the expansion in concrete.
1. Summer and Mid-day
σ load edge + σ warpin edge − σ friction ….(α)
2. Winter Mid-day
σ load edge + σ warpin edge + σ friction ….(β)
3. Mid Night Filler has, the original thickness of “δ”.
The critical combination of stress is for But due to expansion of slab, it gets
corner region and critical combination compressed to max of “δ/2”.
is δ
given by LαVT =
2
σ load edge + σ warpin corner ….(γ) δ
L=
2αVT
Note: Generally frictional stresses are L = maximum spacing between
assumed to be constant along length, but in expansion joint
reality it is not constant. It is zero at ends, δ = gap of expansion joint
and max at centre of slab. Hence in α = co-efficient of thermal expansion
midnight combination we have not taken ∆T = Rise in temperature
the effect of seasonal variation.
• 2nd combination becomes less than the (b) Contraction Joint
1st combination. • It is provided to control crack due to
shrinkage & moisture variation.
VARIOUS TYPES OF JOINTS PROVIDED • To regulate the crack i.e. to ensure that
IN THE CEMANT CONCRETE crack forms at predetermined location,
slab is weekend at certain intervals.
These locations are called contraction σst = permissible tensile stress in steel.
joint. Ast = area of steel in complete width of
slab.
f = Coefficient of friction
Spacing of Contraction Joint

• During initial curing period shrinkage
occurs in the concrete and if this
shrinkage is resisted tensile stress 7.8 DOWEL BAR (DESIGN)
develops in the concrete slab.
• Fall of temperature will also develop
the tensile stress in the concrete slab.
• (a) When no reinforcement has been
provided in the concrete slab; length of
contraction joint is calculated as
follows,
 L • Dowel bars act as load transfer devices
fx  γ conc A  across transverse joint and they keep
= σ =  2  fLγ conc
A 2 the two slab at the same height.
2σ • They are mild steel round bars bonded
L= on one side and free on the other side.
fγ conc
• Normally 25 mm to 40 mm diameter
and 400 and 500 mm length are
provided.
• Stresses in the dowel bar is given by
Bradbury analysis.
• Load transfer capacity of single dowel
σ = permissible tensile in concrete. bar is given by
f = Coefficient of friction between
concrete & base 1. In shear
L = Spacing between contraction joint π 2
γconc = unit wt. of concrete = Ps d × σs
4
• When reinforcement is not provided, Where
the maximum spacing between Ps = Load transfer capacity of dowel bar
contraction joint is taken as 4.5m.
Note: f =1.5; γconc = 24 KN/m3; If σ in shear.
d = Dia. of bowel bar
value is not given, it is taken as 0.8
σs = Permissible Shearing Stress in
kg/cm2
Steel.
(b) When reinforcement is provided in
2. In Bending
the slab it is assumed that all tension is
taken by reinforcing steel. 2 × d3 × σb
Pb =
L L + 8.8δ
σst A st = B × × h × γ conc .f Where
2
2σst A st d= Dia. of dowel base (cm)
L= σb = Permissible bending stress in
Bhγ conc .f
dowel bar (kg/cm2)
Pb =Load transfer capacity of dowel in
bending (in kg) Step 5:
δ = gap of joint (cm) The capacity factor of a dowel bar is
L = Embedded length of dowel bar (cm). assumed to be 1, just below the wheel and
3. In Bearing it is assumed to be zero at a distance of 1.8 l
σ br L2 d from the wheel.
Pbearing = l = radius of relative stiffness.
12.5 ( L + 1.5δ )
Where
Pbearing =Load transfer capacities in
bearing (kg)
L= Embedded length of dowel bar (cm)
d = Dia. of bar (cm)
δ = Gap of joint (cm)
σbr = Permissible bearing stress.
7.8.1 STEPS IN THE DESIGN OF DOWEL Load capacity

BAR
= 1+
(1.8l − δ ) + (1.8l − 2δ ) + (1.8l − 3δ ) + ..
1.8l 1.8l 1.8l
Step 1: [So long as the numerator is +ve]
Embedded length of the dowel bar is • The spacing ( δ ) should be chosen such
decided by equating strength in bending that the load capacity is greater than
and bearing. At this stage we assume the the load capacity factor.
joint width (δ) and dowel diameter (ϕ). Actual length of dowel bar would be L +
σ b (L + 1.5δ) δ
L = 5d
σ br (L + 8.8δ)
Find L by assuming dia. of bar, (d) and joint DESIGN OF PAVEMENT
width, (δ).
7.1 METHOD OF PEVEMENT DESIGN
Step 2:
Find the load transfer capacity Ps, Pb, Pb Various approach for flexible pavement
design may be classified in a three broad
Step 3: groups.
• Load transfer capacity of the dowel bar
(d) Empirical Methods:
system is assumed to be 40% of the
wheel load. • These are based on physical
properties and strength parameter
• The distance on either side of the load
of soil subgrade.
position upto which the group of dowel
bars are effective in load transfer is • The group index method, CBR
taken as 1.8l. method Stabilometer method and
l = radius of relative stiffness. Mc-lead method etc. are empirical
methods.
Step 4: (e) Semi Empirical or semi theoretical
The load capacity factor required is method: These methods are based on
calculate as, stress strain function and experience.
E.g., Triaxial test method.
1.4P 0.4P 0.4P 
max  , ,  (f) Theoretical Method: These are based
 Ps Pb Pbr  on mathematical computation for e.g.,
Where, P = wheel load
Burmister method is based on elastic • In the exam a table would be given.
two layer theory. From the table thickness corresponding
to GI value can be calculated
7.2 GROUP INDEX METHOD Note : In actual practices we have curves
available for total combined thickness and
• Group index value is an arbitrary index thickness of surface and base course only
assigned to the soil types in numerical corresponding to traffic and GI value.
equations based on the percent fines, Hence from total thickness, thickness of
liquid limit and plasticity index. sub-base is obtained by deducting, the
• The G.I. value of soils vary in the range thickness of (Surface + Base course) from
of 0 to 20. Total thickness.
• The higher the G.I. value weaker the soil
subgrade hence greater thickness of Limitation
pavement required. 1. G.I. Method does not consider quality of
G.I.=(0.2 a + 0.005 ac+ 0.01 bd) …..(i) material used from pavement.
Where, 2. Thickness is suggested same for poor
a = p – 35 ≯40 (expressed as whole no good quality material.
between 0 – 40)
b = p – 15≯ 40 (expressed as whole no 7.3 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO
between 0 – 40) METHOD
c = wL – 40≯20 (expressed as whole no • CBR method of flexible pavement
between 0 – 20) design is based on strength parameter
d = Ip – 10≯20 (expressed as whole no of subgrade soil and subsequent
between 0 – 40) material.
p = percentage finer (percentage of soils • In order to design a pavement by CBR
passing from 0.075 mm sieve) method, first the soaked CBR value of
wL = Liquid limit the soil subgrade is evaluated and the
IP = plasticity index = (wL – wP) appropriate design curve is chosen by
• To design the pavement thickness by taking the design wheel load as given in
this method, first the G.I value of the figure or by taking the anticipated
soil is found. The anticipated traffic is traffic into consideration.
estimated and is designated as light. • The total thickness of pavement needed
Medium or heavy. to cover the subgrade of the known CBR
Traffic volume No. of vehicle value is obtained.
(commercial per day • In case there is a material superior than
vehicle) (Anticipated the soil sub-grade, such that it may be
Traffic) used as sub base course then the
Light Less than 50 thickness of construction over his
Medium 50 to 300 material could be obtained from the
Heavy Over 300 design chart knowing the CBR value of
the sub-base.
• Based on the anticipated traffic and Thickness of sub-base is the total
group index value, thickness of thickness minus the thickness over the
pavement layer is calculated. The sub-base.
thickness of sub-base depends only on Based on CBR value of any material,
group index value. However the over which a flexible pavement is
thickness of surface and base course required, thickness of pavement over
combined depends on both the traffic as this is given by
well as GI value.
1
than permissible value, an average of
 1.75 1  2
six samples should be considered.
=t P − 
 CBR pπ 
1
Permissible CBR (%)
1.75P P  2 variations
=t  − 
 CBR pπ  3% Up to 10%
1
5% 10 to 30%
1.75P A  2
10% 30 to 605
=t  − ………………..(i)
 CBR π 
5. The top 50 cm of subgrade should be
Note: This formula is applicable only when compacted at least up to 95 to 100% of
the CBR value of the subgrade soil is less proctor density
than 12%. 6. Following formula may be used in case
Here, estimating future heavy vehicles in view
t = pavement thickness, cm of growth rate for design.
P= wheel load, kg A = P (1 + r)n+10
CBR = California Bearing ratio, percent Where,
p = tyre pressure, kg/cm2. A = number of heavy vehicles/day for
A = area of contact, cm2. design (weight > 3 tonnes).
[if radius of contact area is r, A = πr2] P = No. of heavy vehicles per day at last
count.
r = annual rate of increase of vehicles
n = No. of years between the last count
and the year of completion of
construction.
P should be seven days’ average and, r
can be taken as 7.5% for roads in rural
areas.
7. The design thickness is considered
applicable for single axle loads upto
8200 kg and tandem axle loads up to
14500 kg. For higher axle loads, the
IRC RECOMMENDATIONS [AS PER IRC thickness values should be further
37:1970] increases.
8. When sub base course materials
1. CBR test should be performed on contain substantial proportion of
remoulded soils in the laboratory, inset aggregates of size above 20 mm, the
test are not recommended for design CBR value of materials contain would
purpose. not be valid for the design of
2. The soil should be compacted at OMC to subsequent layer above them.
proctor density. Limitations
3. Test sample should be soaked in water The CBR method gives the total thickness
for 4 days period before testing. requirement of the pavement above a
However in dry zone (< 50 cm rainfall) subgrade and this thickness requirement of
it is not necessary to soak. the pavement above a subgrade and this
4. At least 3 samples should be tested on thickness value would remain same
each type of soil at the same density and irrespective of the quality of materials used
moisture content, if variation is more in component layers. Thus the component
of materials should be judiciously chosenthickness of pavement, Tp is calculated
for durability and economy. from the relation:
  
1
2
7.4 TRIAXIAL METHOD  3PXY    E  3
= TP    − a 
2 s
 ……….(ii)
  2πE s    E P 
• The pavement thickness Ts consisting of
material with modulus Es is given by the • The relation between pavement layers
equation of thickness t1 and t2 of elastic modulus
2
E1 and E2 is given by:
 3PXY  1
= Ts   − a ……………..(i)
2
t1  E 2  3
 2πE s V  = 
t 2  E1 
P = Wheel load in Kg; 7.4.1 MC LEOD METHOD
∆ = design deflection (0.25 cm)
A = radius of contact area (cm) • From the plate load tests an empirical
X = traffic coefficient design equation was recommended:
Y = Saturation coefficient T = K log10 P/S
Es = Modulus of elasticity in Kg/cm2 T=required thickness of gravel base, cm
The recommended values of coefficients P = gross wheel load, kg
X and Y based on ADT of design traffic S = total subgrade support, kg (for the
and rainfall are given below: same contact area, deflection and
number of repetitions of load P)
Traffic coefficient (X) ADT (number)
K = base course constant.
1/2 40 – 400
2/3 401 – 8 00 • It is found that the base course constant
5/6 801 – 1200 K depends on the loaded area.
1 1201 – 1800 • The subgraded support S for the design
7/6 1801 – 2700 of highway pavement is calculated from
8/6 2701 – 4000
9/6 4001 – 6000
the support measured or calculated for
10/6 6001 – 9000 30 cm diameter plate at 0.5 cm
11/6 9000 – 13,500 deflection and ten repetitions.
12/6 13501 – 20,000
Rainfall coefficient Average annual 7.4.2 BURMISTER’S (LAYERED SYSTEM)
(Y) rainfall, cm METHOD
0.5 38 – 50
0.6 51 – 64 Assumption:
0.7 65 – 76 1. Materials is each layers are isotropic,
0.8 77 – 90 homogenous and Elastic.
0.9 91 – 100
2. Pavement forms a stiffer layer having
1.0 101 – 127
higher value of E than that of subgrade.
• If pavement and subgrade are
considered as a two layer system a
stiffness factor has to be introduced to
take into account the different values a 3. The surface layer is infinite in
modulus of elasticity of the two layers. horizontal directions but finite in
• The pavement thickness is then vertical direction length and width of
modified using the stiffness factor equal infinite, height is finite.
to (Es/Ep)1/3 where Es and Ep are values 4. Layers are in constant contact.
of modulus of elasticity of the subgrade • Donald M. Burmister developed the
and pavement, respectively. Thus the layered system analysis. The flexible
pavement sections are composed of • Modulus of subgrade reaction is found
layers and the elastic modulus of the out using plate loud test (plague
top layer is the highest. This method is bearing test).
based on Modulus of Elasticity of
different layers:
As per Layered System
EB > ESB > ES
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of upper
layers should be higher as compared to
that of lowered layer.
• Modulus of subgrade reaction is
calculated corresponding to the
settlement of 1.25 mm
P p(kg / cm 2 )
= K=
V 0.125cm
p
K= kg / cm3
0.125
As per IRC, the modulus of sub-grade
reaction corresponding to 75 cm plate
used for testing is ½ of that using 30 cm
plate.
K 75cm = 0.5K 30cm
• It is observed from this figure that the
vertical stress on the subgrade is Note : K values also depends on the size of
reduced from 70 to 30 percent by the plate used.
introducing a pavement layer of ∆=
1.18pa
thickness equal to the radius of the load Es
or h = a, having elastic modulus 10 p
times higher than the elastic modulus of ∆=
K
subgrade soil, i.e., for Ep/Es=10. p 1.18pa
• The Burmister’s approach therefore =
K Es
utilizes the reinforcing action of the
pavement layer. K.a = constant
• The deflection factor F2 is introduced in K 75 × 75 = K 30 × 30
two layered system which is dependent 30
on Ep/Es and h/a. K 75 = K 30
75
7.5 DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENT K 75 = 0.4K 30
However IRC recommends K 75 = 0.5K 30
• The rigid pavement is constructed using
Normally for rigid pavement design test is
cement concrete and the load carrying
done using 75 cm plate size.
capacity in this case is primarily due to
rigidly in the slab.
7.5.1 RELATIVE STIFFNESS OF SLAB TO
• Rigidity is due to high modulus of SUBGRADE
elasticity of concrete.
• Cement concrete pavement is rested on
• Relative stiffness of slab with respect to
soil foundation which can be treated as
subgrade is represented by radius of
a spring having constant K. This K is
relative stiffness and it is given by
called modulus of subgrade reaction.
1
• Westergaard assumed winkler
 Eh 3  4
foundation (spring foundation) and the
l ( cm ) =  
( )
12 1 − μ 2 K  slab was assumed to be homogenous &
isotropic.
E = Modulus of elasticity of cement • The stresses for internal edge and
concrete in kg/cm2(3 × 105 kg/cm2). corner loadings are as given below.
μ = poission ratio of concrete is taken as
0.316P  l 
0.15 = σinternal  4 log10   + 1.069 
b
2
h = slab thickness in cm h  
K = modulus of subgrade reaction [σinternalis the tensile stress at slab bottom]
0.572P  l 
7.5.2 CRITICAL LOAD POSITION =σ edge  4 log10   + 0.359 
b
2
h  
• Intensity of maximum stress in the slab [σedge is the tensile stress at slab
depends on the location of load on the bottom]
pavement. 3P   a 2  
0.6
• Three typical locations are considered σ= 1 −   

h 2   1  
corner
critical. They are :  
(c) Interior loading [σcorner is the tensile stress at top of
(d) Edge loading slab]
(e) Corner loading P =Wheel load in kg
H = thickness of slab in cm.
l = Radius of relative stiffness in cm.
b= Radius of resisting section in cm.
7.6 TEMPERATURE STRESSES
• Temperature stresses are developed in

the cement concrete pavement due to
variation in the slab temperature and
7.5.3 EQUIVALENT RADIUS OF resistance against deformation
RESISTING SECTION provided by the weight of slab and
friction between slab & ground. The
• Only a small area of the pavement is stresses are caused by
resisting a bending movement of a plate (c) Daily variation resulting in
due to loading. temperature gradient across the
• Westergaard gave a relation for radius thickness of slab.
of resisting section in cm by (d) Seasonal variation resulting in
b ( cm )= b= overall change in slab temperature.
• Daily variation will leads to warping of
 1.6a 2 + h 2 − 0.675h a < 1.724h
b= the slab. (temperature deferential
 a otherwise between the top & bottom of the slab
a = radius of wheel load distribution in cm. causes curling i.e. warping stress in the
h = slab thickness in cm pavement).
Day Time : Slab tries to expand at top
7.5.4 WESTERGARD STRESS EQUATION but weight tries to resist it hence
FOR LOADING compression develops at top
 L 
 B × 2 × h  γ conc f = B × h × σ
Night Time : Slab tries to contract top
but is restrained by weight hence f.γ L
σ = conc
tension develops at top. 2
Note: As slab is trying to contract from
both side hence half of the length of slab
has been taken. During summer
compression develops in the slab
Critical Combination of Stresses

FORMULA FOR WARPING STRESSES 1. Out of various wheel stresses.
Eαt  Cx + μCy  2. Corner stress is maximum as there is
σinternal =   discontinuity in both direction
2  1− μ2 
3. Interior stress is minimum
 CxEαt CyEαt  4. Edge stress is in intermediate range.
σ edge = max  , 
 2 2  5. Temperature stress is critical at the
Eαt a edge and interior and it is minimum at
σ corner = corner.
3 (1 − μ ) l Note: At the corner resistance due to
E = modulus of elasticity of concrete = 3 × weight is minimum, hence warping stress is
105 kg/cm2 minimum.
α =thermal expansion co-efficient of In combination of wheel load and
concrete. temperature, edge region is most critical,
t = temperature differential between top hence designing is done using edge region
and bottom of concrete slab. stress and however checking is done for
Cx and Cy are co-efficient that depend upon corner region.
Lx Ly
, respectively.
l l Certain Combinations
l = radius of relative sriffness. 1. Summer and Mid-day
μ = possion’s ratio is taken as 0.15 σ load edge + σ warpin edge − σ friction ….(α)
a = radius of contact 2. Winter Mid-day
These stresses are tensile stresses σ load edge + σ warpin edge + σ friction ….(β)
3. Mid Night
7.7 FRICTIONAL STRESSLESS
The critical combination of stress is for
corner region and critical combination
• Frictional stresses are developed due to is
seasonal variation of temperature and given by
in this case there is no temperature
σ load edge + σ warpin corner ….(γ)
gradient across the thickness.
• If the slab tries to contract due to Note: Generally frictional stresses are
temperature fall, as in winter, the slab assumed to be constant along length, but in
tries to move inward hence a frictional reality it is not constant. It is zero at ends,
stress is developed as show below. and max at centre of slab. Hence in midnight
combination we have not taken the effect of
seasonal variation. (b) Contraction Joint
• 2nd combination becomes less than the • It is provided to control crack due to
1st combination. shrinkage & moisture variation.
• To regulate the crack i.e. to ensure that
VARIOUS TYPES OF JOINTS PROVIDED crack forms at predetermined location,
IN THE CEMANT CONCRETE slab is weekend at certain intervals.
• Various types of joints provided in the These locations are called contraction
cement concrete pavement are: joint.
a)Expansion joint
b)Contraction joint
c)Construction joint
(a) Expansion Joint

• The purpose is to allow the expansion
of pavement due to rise in temperature Spacing of Contraction Joint
with respect to construction • During initial curing period shrinkage
temperature. To design the joint, we occurs in the concrete and if this
find out the joint spacing for a given shrinkage is resisted tensile stress
joint thickness of 2.5 cm max as develops in the concrete slab.
specified by IRC. • Fall of temperature will also develop
• The maximum spacing between the tensile stress in the concrete slab.
expansion joint is 140 cm. • (a) When no reinforcement has been
• At the expansion joint, dowell are provided in the concrete slab; length of
provided which develops bending, contraction joint is calculated as follows,
bearing and sharing stresses and help in  L
fx  γ conc A 
load transfer.  2  fLγ conc
= σ =
• The fillers provided at the expansion A 2
joint are assumed to be compresses by 2σ
50% of its thickness during expansion L=
fγ conc
hence, the gap of the joint should be
twice the expansion in concrete.
σ = permissible tensile in concrete.

f = Coefficient of friction between
Filler has, the original thickness of “δ”. concrete & base
But due to expansion of slab, it gets L = Spacing between contraction joint
compressed to max of “δ/2”. γconc = unit wt. of concrete
δ • When reinforcement is not provided,
LαVT =
2 the maximum spacing between
δ contraction joint is taken as 4.5m.
L=
2αVT Note: f =1.5; γconc = 24 KN/m3; If σ
L = maximum spacing between value is not given, it is taken as 0.8
expansion joint kg/cm2
δ = gap of expansion joint (b) When reinforcement is provided in
α = co-efficient of thermal expansion the slab it is assumed that all tension is
∆T = Rise in temperature taken by reinforcing steel.
L σ b = Permissible bending stress in
σst A st = B × × h × γ conc .f
2 dowel bar (kg/cm2)
2σst A st Pb =Load transfer capacity of dowel
L=
Bhγ conc .f in bending (in kg)
σst = permissible tensile stress in steel. δ = gap of joint (cm)
Ast = area of steel in complete width of L = Embedded length of dowel bar
slab. (cm).
f = Coefficient of friction 3. In Bearing
σ br L2 d
Pbearing =
12.5 ( L + 1.5δ )
Where
Pbearing =Load transfer capacities in
bearing (kg)
7.8 DOWEL BAR (DESIGN) L= Embedded length of dowel bar
(cm)
d = Dia. of bar (cm)
δ = Gap of joint (cm)
σbr = Permissible bearing stress.
7.8.1 STEPS IN THE DESIGN OF DOWEL
• Dowel bars act as load transfer devices BAR
across transverse joint and they keep
the two slab at the same height. Step 1:
Embedded length of the dowel bar is
• They are mild steel round bars bonded
on one side and free on the other side. decided by equating strength in bending
and bearing. At this stage we assume the
• Normally 25 mm to 40 mm diameter
joint width (δ) and dowel diameter (ϕ).
and 400 and 500 mm length are
provided. σ b (L + 1.5δ)
L = 5d
• Stresses in the dowel bar is given by σ br (L + 8.8δ)
Bradbury analysis. Find L by assuming dia. of bar, (d) and joint
• Load transfer capacity of single dowel width, (δ).
bar is given by
1. In shear Step 2:
π 2 Find the load transfer capacity Ps, Pb, Pbr
=Ps d × σs
4 Step 3:
Where • Load transfer capacity of the dowel bar
Ps = Load transfer capacity of dowel system is assumed to be 40% of the
bar in shear. wheel load.
d = Dia. of bowel bar • The distance on either side of the load
σs = Permissible Shearing Stress in position upto which the group of dowel
Steel. bars are effective in load transfer is
2. In Bending taken as 1.8l.
l = radius of relative stiffness.
2 × d3 × σb
Pb =
L + 8.8δ Step 4:
Where The load capacity factor required is
d= Dia. of dowel base (cm) calculate as,
1.4P 0.4P 0.4P 
max  , , 
 Ps Pb Pbr 
Where, P = wheel load
Step 5:
The capacity factor of a dowel bar is
assumed to be 1, just below the wheel and
it is assumed to be zero at a distance of 1.8 l
from the wheel
l = radius of relative stiffness.
Load capacity
= 1+
(1.8l − δ ) + (1.8l − 2δ ) + (1.8l − 3δ ) + ..
1.8l 1.8l 1.8l
[So long as the numerator is +ve]
• The spacing ( δ ) should be chosen such
that the load capacity is greater than
the load capacity factor.
Actual length of dowel bar would be L +
δ
GATE QUESTIONS
Topics Page No
1. HIGHWAY GEOMATRIC DESIGN & PLANNING 11
2. TRAFFIC ENGINEERING 11
3. HIGHWAY MATERIALS 11
4. PAVEMENT DESIGN 11
5. HIGHWAY MAINTAINANCE 11
1 HIGHWAY GEOMATRIC DESIGN & PLANNING
Q.1 Width of carriage way for a single Q.6 A car is moving at a speed of 72
lane is recommended to be kmph on a road having 2% upward
a) 7.5 m b) 7.0 m gradient. If the reaction time of the
c) 3.75 m d) 5.5 m driver is 1.5 seconds, assuming that
[GATE-2000] f = 0.15, calculate the distance
moved by the vehicle before the car
Q.2 Stopping sight distance is the stops finally
minimum distance available on a a) 24 m b) 150m
highway which is the c) 1056 m d) 324 m
a) distance of sufficient length to stop the [GATE-2002]
vehicle without collision.
b) distance visible to a driver Q.7 The start and grid pattern of road
during night driving. network as adopted in
c) height of the object above the road a) Nagpur road plan
surface. b) Lucknow road plan
d) distance equal to the height of the c) Bombay plan
driver’s eye above the road surface. d) Delhi road plan
[GATE-2000] [GATE-2004]
Q.3 The ruling minimum radius of Q.8 The co-efficient of friction in the
horizontal highway curve of a longitudinal direction of a highway
national highway in plain terrain for is estimated as 0.396. The braking
a ruling design speed of 100 distance for a car moving at a speed
km/hour with e = 0.07 and f = 0.15 of 65km/hr is
is close to a) 87 m b) 45 m
a) 250 m b) 360 m c) 42 m d) 40 m
c) 36 m d) 300 m [GATE-2004]
[GATE-2000]
Q.9 For a road with camber of 3% and
Q.4 Design rate of super elevation for the design speed of 80 km/hr, the
horizontal highway curve of radius minimum radius of the curve
450 m for a mixed traffic condition, beyond which NO super elevation is
having a speed of 125 km/hour is needed is
a) 1.0 b) 0.05 a) 1680 m b) 948 m
c) 0.07 d) 0.154 c) 406 m d) 280 m
[GATE-2000] [GATE-2004]
Q.10 A road is having a horizontal curve
Q.5 The design value of lateral friction of 400 m radius on which a super
coefficient on highway is elevation of 0.07 is provided. The
a) 1.5 b) 0.50 coefficient at lateral friction
c) 0.35 d) 0.15 mobilized on the curve when a
[GATE-2001] vehicle is travelling at 100 kmph is
a) 0.007 b) 0.13
c) 0.15 d) 0.4 required, if the pavement is rotated
[GATE-2005] about inner edge is
Q.11 The length of summit curve on a two a) 81.4 b) 85.0
lane two way highway depends upon c) 91.5 d) 110.2
a) allowable rate of change of [GATE-2006]
centrifugal acceleration
b) coefficient of lateral friction Q.15 While designing a hill road with a
c) required stopping sight distance running gradient of 6%, if a sharp
d) required overtalking sight horizontal curve of 50 m radius is
distance encountered, the compensated
[GATE-2005] gradient at the curve as per the
Indian Roads Congress specification
Q.12 Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana should be
(PMGSY), launched in the year 2000, a) 4.5% b) 4.75%
aims to provide rural connectivity c) 5.0% d) 5.25%
with all weather roads. It is [GATE-2007]
proposed to connect the habitations
n pain areas of population more Q.16 The design speed on a road is 60
than 500 persons by the year kmph. Assuming the driver reaction
a) 2005 b) 2007 time of 2.5 second and coefficient of
c) 2010 d) 2012 frication of pavement surface as 0.35,
[GATE-2005] the required stopped distance for two
way traffic on a signal land road is
Q.13 A vehicle moving at 60 kmph on an a) 82.1m b) 102.4m
ascending gradient of a highway has c) 164.2m d) 186.4m
to come to stop position to avoid [GATE-2007]
collision with a stationary object.
The ratio of lag to brake distance is Statement for linked Question 17
6:5. Considering total reaction time A horizontal circular curve with a centre
of the driver as 2.5 seconds and the line radius of 200 m is provided on a 2 -
coefficient of longitudinal friction as lane, 2-way SH section. The width of the 2-
0.36, the value of ascending gradient lane road is 7.0 m. Design speed for this
(%) is section is 80 Km per hour. The brake
a) 3.3 b) 4.8 reaction time is 2.4 s, and the coefficients of
c) 5.3 d) 6.8 friction on longitudinal and lateral directions
[GATE-2006] are 0.355 and 0.15, respectively.
Q.14 At a horizontal curve portion of a 4 Q.17 The safe stopping sign distance on
lane undivided carriageway, a the section is
transition curve is to be introduced a) 221 m b) 195 m
to attain required superelevation. c) 125 m d) 65 m
The design speed 60 kmph and [GATE-2008]
radius of the curve is 245 m. Assume
length of wheel base of a longest Q.18 The value of lateral friction or side
vehicle as 6 m, super elevation rate friction used in the design of
as 5% and rate of introduction of horizontal curves per India Roads
this super elevation as 1 in 150. The Congress guidelines is
length of the transition curve (m) a) 0.40 b) 0.35
c) 0.24 d) 0.15
[GATE-2009]
Q.19 A crest vertical curve joins two a) Ι is true. ΙΙ is false

gradients of +3% and -2% for a b) Ι is true. ΙΙ is true, and II is the
design speed of 80 km/h and the correct reason for Ι
corresponding stopping sight c) Ι is true. ΙΙ is true, and II is NOT
distance of 120 m. The height of the correct reason for Ι
driver’s eye and the object above the d) Ι is false, ΙΙ is true
road surface are 1.20 m and 0.15 m [GATE-2010]
respectively. The curve length (which
is less than stopping sight distance) Q.22 If v is the initial speed of a vehicle, g
to be provided is is acceleration due to gravity, G is
a) 120 m b) 152 m the upward longitudinal slop of the
c) 163 m d) 240 m road and f is the coefficient of rolling
[GATE-2009] friction during braking, the braking
distance(measured horizontally) for
Q.20 The design speed for a lane road is the vehicle to stop is
80 Kmph, when base of 6.6 m is a) v2/g(G+f) b) v2/2g(G+f)
negotiation a horizontal curve on vg
c) d) vf/(G+f)
that road, the off taking is measured (G + f r )
as 0.096 m. The required widening
[GATE-2011]
of carriageway of the two lane road
on the curve is approximately
Q.23 The following data are related to a
a) 0.55m b) 0.65m
horizontal curved portion for a two-
c) 0.75m d) 0.85m
lane highway: length of curve = 200
[GATE-2010]
m, radius of curve = 300 m and wide
of pavement = 7.5 m. In order to
Q21 Consider the following statement in
provide a stopping sight distance
the context of geometric design of
(SSD) of 80 m, the setback distance
roads.
(in m) required from the centre line
Ι . A simple parabolic curve is an of the inner lane of the pavement is
acceptable shape for summit
a)2.67m b) 4.55m
curves.
c)7.10m d) 7.96m
ΙΙ . Comfort to passengers is an
[GATE-2012]
importance consideration in the
design of summit curves.
The correct option evaluation the
above statements and their
relationship is
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(c) (a) (b) (d) (d) (b) (a) (c) (b) (b) (d) (b) (b) (d)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
(a) (c) (c) (d) (c) (c) (a) (c) (b)
EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (c)
Single lane road width is 3.75m. = 0.278 ×72 × 1.5 +
(0.278 × 72) 2
Q.2 (a)  2 
Stopping sight distance is the 19.62  0.15 + 
distance ahead of driver to avoid  100 
collision. = 30 + 120 = 150m
Q.3 (b)
Design speed,
ϑ = 100 ×0.28 = 28 m/s
Radius of curve , R = ? Q.7 (a)
ϑ2
e+f= Q.8 (c)
gR f = 0.396
( 28) Breaking distance
2
0.07 + 0.15 = ϑ2
9.8× R Sb =
R = 363 m ; 360 m 2gf
(65 × 5 /18) 2
=
2 × 9.81× 0.396
Q.4 (d) Sb = 41.95m ; 42m
Radius of curve, R = 450m
Design speed = 125 kmph = 34.7
m/s Q.9 (b)
C = 3% 9 = 80×5/18 = 22.22mps
( 0.75× ϑ )
2
e= Camber acts like super elevation

gR 2
e + f = (0.759)
( 0.75 × 34.7 )
2
gR
e= = 0.154 use f = 0
9.81× 450
0.03 = ( 0.75 × 22.22 )
2
Q.5 (d) 9.81× R

As per 1RC coefficient of lateral R = 948 m
friction is 0.15.
Q.10 (b)
Q.6 (b) e+f=
(v ) 2
ϑ2 gR
SSD = ϑt +
 N  ( 0.278 ×100 )
2
2g  f +  0.07 + f =
 100  9.81× 400
f = 0.13
Q.11 (d)
Length of summit curve depends Grade compensation = 30 + R
upon: R
a) SSD for single lane two way = 30 + 50 = 1.6%
highway 50
b) OSD for two lane two way (OR)
highway 75 75
= = 1.5%
7 R 50
Use minimum, i.e = 1.5%
Q.12 (b) Hence compensated gradient = 6 –
PMGSY is completed in the year of 1.5 = 4.5 %
2007
Q.16 (c)
Q.13 (b)
ϑ2
Slag 6 SSD = ϑt +
= 2 gt
Sbr 5
(60) 2
ϑt 6 = 0.278 ×60 ×2.5 +
= 254 × 0.35
 N  5
ϑ 2 / 2g  f +  =82.1m
 100 
t 6 But the traffic is two way, therefore
= the shopping distance
  N  5 =282.1=164.2m
2 g  f + 
  100  
2.5 6 Q.17 (c)
=
  N  5 ϑ2
2 × 9.81 0.36 +  SSD = ϑt +
  100   2gf
N = 4.8% (0.278 × 80) 2
= 0.278 × 80 × 2.4 +
2 × 9.81× 0.355
Q.14 (d) SSD, S = 125m
width of road, w=3.5×4=14m
nl 2 V Q.18 (d)
Extra widening We = + Coefficient of lateral friction as per
2 R 9.5 R
IRC is 0.15.
4 × 36 60
= +
2 × 245 9.5 245 Q.19 (c)
We = 0.697 Deflective angle = N = (+ 3) - (-2)
W + We = 14 + 0.697 = 14.697 = 5%
Pavement is rotated about inner Stopping sight distance, S=120 m
edge Assume L > S
ls= (w + We)e.N NS2
L=
( )
 5 
 (150 )
2
= (14.697)  2H + 2h
 100 
= 110.2 m
( 0.05)(120 )
2
=
( ( 2 ×1.2 ) + ( 2 × 0.15) )
2
Q.15 (a)
Given R = 50 m = 163 m
Ruling gradient = 6%
Q.20 (c)
l2
Wm =
2R
6.62
0.096 =
2R
R = 226 m
Extra widening for carriage way
nl 2 V
W=e +
2R 9.5 R
2 × 6.62 V
We = + =0.75m
2 × 226 9.5 226
Q.21 (a)
Statement I is true
Statement II is False: as comfort of
passenger is not a design criteria.
vg
Q.22
(G + f r )
Q.23 (b)
7.5
=
d = 1.875m
4
s 180
α
= × = 1.875m
(R − d) π
80 180
= = × 15.38
( 300 − 1.875) π
Given L>S
α
m=R-(R-d)cos  
2
=300 – (300 – .875)cos(15.38/2)
= 4.55 m
Set back from centre line of inner
lane of the pavement is = 4.55 –
1.875 = 2.67 m
2 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Q.1 The speed and delay studies on a coefficient of longitudinal friction of

defined section of high way are the pavement is 0.4. The capacity of
conducted by this road in terms of ‘vehicles’ per
a) radar gun hour per lane’ is
b) traffic counters a) 1440 b) 750
c) moving car method c) 710 d) 680
d) enoscope [GATE-2005]
[GATE-2003]
Q.6 Name the traffic survey data which
Q.2 A traffic stream in a particular is plotted by means of “desire lines
direction of two lane road is moving a) accident
with a constant speed of 50 kmph, b) classified volume
with an average headway of 2.52 c) origin and destination
seconds. The longitudinal distance d) speed and delay
between two consecutive vehicle is [GATE-2006]
a) 30 m b) 35 m Q. 7 For designing a 2-phase fixed type
c) 38 m d) 42 signal at an intersection having
[GATE-2003] north-south and east-west road
where only straight ahead traffic as
Q.3 The road geometrics in India are permitted. The following data is
designed by available. The time lost per cycle is
a) 98th highest hourly traffic volume 12 seconds. The cycle length
b) 85th highest hourly traffic volume (seconds) as per Webster’s
c) 50th highest hourly traffic volume approach is
d) 30th highest hourly traffic volume Parameter design hour saturation
[GATE-2004] flow (PCU/hr) flow(PCU/hr)
North 1000 2500
South 700 2500
Q.4 A transport company operates a
East 900 3000
scheduled daily truck service West 550 3000
between city P and city Q. One-way a) 67 b) 77
journey time between these two c) 87 d) 91
cities is 85 hours. A minimum [GATE-2006]
layover time of 5 hours is to be
provided this service? Q.8 If a two-lane national highway and a
a) 4 b) 6 two-lane state highway intersect at
c) 7 d) 8 right angles, the number of potential
[GATE-2005] conflicts points at the intersection,
assuming that both the roads are
Q.5 A single lane unidirectional highway two-way is
has a design speed of 65 kmph. The a) 11 b) 17
perception-brake-reaction time of c) 24 d) 32
drivers is 2.5 seconds and the [GATE-2007]
average length of vehicle is 5 m. The
Q.9 In signal design as per Indian Roads the waving section are 1000 and
Congress specifications, if the sum 2000 PCU per hour respectively. The
of the ratio of normal flows to nearest rounded capacity of the
saturation flow of two directional roundabout (in PCU per hour ) is
traffic flow is 0.50 and the total lost a) 3300 b) 3700
time per cycle is 10 seconds. The c) 4500 d) 5200
optimum cycle length in seconds is ? [GATE-2008]
a) 100 b) 80
c) 60 d) 40 Q.13 On a specific highway, the speed
[GATE-2007] density relationship follows the
Greenberg’s model
Q.10 The capacities of “One-way 1.5 m  V = Vf log e ( K j / K )  where Vf and
wide sidewalk (persons per hour)”  
and “One wa y 2-lane urban road K j are free flow speed and jam
(PCU per hour, with no frontage density respectively. When the
access, no standing vehicles and highway is operating at capacity, the
very little cross traffic)” are density obtained as per this model
respectively. a) eK j b) K j
a)1200 and 1400 b) 1800 and 2000
c) K j / 2 d) K j / e
c)1200 and 1500 d)2000 and 1200
[GATE-2008] [GATE-2009]
Q.11 A linear relationship is observed Q.14 A three-phase traffic signal at an

between speed and density on a intersection is designed for flows
certain section of a highway. The shown in the figure below. There are
free flow speed is observed to be 80 six groups of flows identified by the
km per hour and the jam density is numbers 1 through 6. Among
estimated as 100 vehicles per km these 1, 3, 4 and 6 are through flows
length. Based on the above and 2 and 5 are right turning. Which
relationship, the maximum flow phasing scheme is not feasible?
expected on this sections and the
speed at the maximum flow will
respectively be
a) 8000 vehicles per hour and 80
km per hour
b) 8000 vehicles per hour and 25
km per hour
c) 2000 vehicles per hour and 80 Combination choice P Q R S
km per hour Phase I 1, 4 1, 2, 1, 4
d) 2000 vehicles per hour and 40 Phase II 2, 5 4, 5 1, 3 2, 6
km per hour Phase III 3, 6 3, 6 4, 6 3, 5
[GATE-2008] a) P b) Q
c) R d) S
Q.12 A roundabout is provided with an [GATE-2009]
average entry wide of 8.4 m, width Q.15 Design parameters for a signalized
of waving section as 14 m, and intersection are shown in the figure
length of waving section between below. The green time calculated for
channelizing islands as 35 m. The major and minor roads are 34 and
crossing traffic and total traffic on 18 s, respectively. The critical land
volume on the major road changes
440 vehicles per hour per lane and Q.18 A two-lane urban road with one-
the critical lane volume on the way traffic has a maximum capacity
minor road remains unchanged. The of 1800 vehicle/hour. Under the jam
green time will condition, the average length
a) increase for the major road and occupied by the vehicles is 5.0 m.
remain same for the minor road. The speed versus density
b) increase for the major road and relationship is linear. For a traffic
decrease for the minor road. volume of 1000 vehicles/hour,
c) decrease for both the roads. the density (in vehicles/km) is
d) remain unchanged for both the a) 5 b) 58
roads. c) 67 d) 75
[GATE-2012]
Q.19 Two major roads with two lanes

each are crossing in an urban area
to form an un-controlled
intersection. The number of
conflicts points when both roads are
[GATE-2009] one way is “X” and when both roads
are two-way is “Y”. The ratio of X to
Q.16 The jam density is given as k and the Y is
free flow speed is given as u. The a) 0.25 b) 0.33
maximum flow for the linear traffic c) 0.50 d) 0.75
speed-density model is given by [GATE-2012]
which of the following option?
a) 1/4 ku b) 1/3 ku Q.20 For two major roads with divided
c) 3/5 ku d) 2/3 ku carriageway crossing at right angle,
[GATE-2011] a full clover leaf interchange with
four indirect ramps are provided.
Q.17 The cumulative arrival and Following statements are made on
departure curve of one cycle of an turning movements of vehicle to all
approach length of a signalized directions from both roads. Identify
intersection is shown in the the correct statement.
adjoining figure. The cycle time is 50 a) Merging from left is possible, but
s and the effective red time is 30 s diverging to left is not possible.
and the effective green time is 20 s. b) Both merging from left and
What the average delay? diverging to left are possible.
c) Merging from left is not possible,
but diverging to left is possible.
d) Neither merging from left nor
diverging to left is possible.
[GATE-2013]
Q.21 It was observed that 150 vehicles

crossed a particular location of a
a) 15 s b) 25 s highway in a introduction of 30
c) 25 s d) 45 s minutes. Assuming that vehicle
[GATE-2011] arrival follows a negative
exponential distribution, find out
the number of time head ways
greater than 5 seconds in the above
observation _______.
[GATE-2013]
Q.22) Two cars P and Q are moving in
opposite direction on a racing
track,for 2 hours.The expression
relating distance travelled and
time for both vechicles are,
P:D=60T Q:D=60T*T
Within first hour maximum space
headway will be;
a) 15 km at 30 min
b) 15 km at 15 min
c) 30 km at 30 min
d) 30km at 15 min
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(d) (b) (d) (d) (c) (c) (b) (c) (d) (a) (d) (b) (d) (c)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
(a) (a) (a) (d) (a) (a) * a
EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (d)
Spot speeds are based on Enoscope. Now capacity of road
1000V
C=
Q.2 (b) S
Space head way = V × t S = SSD + l = 86.72 + 5 = 91.72 m
 5
=  50 ×  ( 2.52 ) = 35 m.
 8 1000 × 65
=C = 710Veh/hr/lane
91.72
Q.3 (d)
As per IRC design of road Q.6 (c)
geometrics is based on 30th highest Desire lines are used in 0-D studies
hourly traffic volume
Q.7 (b)
Q.4 (d) =y y NS + yBW
q q 1000 900
= NS + BW = + = 0.7
Layover time 5 hours S NS S BW 2500 3000
Total Journey time for one round Where y = ratio of normal flow to
trip = (85 + 5 + 85) hours saturated flow in NS & EW
85 + 5 + 85 directions
No of vehicles = = 7.3 ≈ 8 1.5 L + 5
24 Cycle length, C0 =
1− y
Q.5 (c) Where L = Lost time per cycle
ϑ2 = 12sec
S= ϑt + 1.5 ×12 + 5
2 gf = = 77 sec
1 − 0.7
(0.278 × 65) 4
= 0.278 × 65 × 2.5 +
2 × 9.81× 0.4 Q.8 (c)
= 86.72 m No. of points of conflicts are = 24
remains same for minor road.
Q.9 (d)
Given ratio of saturated flor to Q.16 (a)
normal Given maximum traffic density,
Flow, y = 0.5 Km =k
Lost time per cycle, L = 10sec Maximum speed, Vm = V
So, optimum cycle time Given linear relation
1.5 L + 5 k v kv
=C0 = 40sec So,=qm = .
1− y 2 2 4
Q.10 (a) Q.17 (a)

As per IRC The capacities of “One- Average delay at red signal is
way 1.5m wide sidewalk (persons ( 0 + 30 ) = 15sec
per hours)” and “One-way 2-lane 2
urban road are respectively are
1200pcu/hr and 1400pcu/hr Q.18 (d)
q m = 1800veh / hr
Q.11 (d)
1000 1000
maximum speed Vm = 80 kmph =
K m = = 200veh / hr
Maximum density, Km = 100 Veh/km S 5
Maximum flow, K m Vm
qm
100 80 2 2
qm = × = 2000Veh / hr q m × 4 1800 × 4
2 2 =Vm = = 36KM / hr
Speed at maximum flow = 200 200
80
= 40kmph From graph below
2
Q.12 (b)
Practical Capacity of Rotary road
way:
280W {1 + ( e / W )}{1 − ( p / 3)}
Qp =
{1 + (W / L )} Km Km − K
=
Vm Vm − V
28014 {1 + ( 8.4 /14 )}{1 − ( 0.5 / 3)}
Qp = 200 200 − K
{1 + (14 / 4 )} 36
=
36 − V
= 3700pcu/hour/lane K = 5.55V → (1)
Now for normal condition
Q.13 (d) q = KV
1000 = k.v → (2)
Q.14 (c) From (1) V = K/5.55 Substitute in (2)
In R 2, 5 combination is possible 1, 3  k 
and 4, 6 are not possible 1000 = k  
 5.55 
Q.15 (a) K = 75 Veh/hr
Critical lane volume on major road
is increased to 440 veh/hr/lane Q.19 (a)
those for green time should be No of points of contra flexure when
increased for major road and it both roads one way = x
No of points of conflicts when both
roads two way = y
x 6
= = 0.25
y 24
Q.20 (a)
In a full clover leaf interchanges
only possible movement is diverging
to the left and merging from left.
Merging and diverging to the right
are completely prohibited.
Q.21 Traffic Volume,

q = 150 veh/30min
= 300 veh/hour
Time head way
5
(Ht) = 5 sec = hrs
60 × 60
Probability of number of time head
ways greater than 5 sec. In the
above observation is
= 150e-(qHt)
 5 
− 300× 
= 150e  60×60 
= 99 vehicles
Q.22 A
3 HIGHWAY MATERIALS
Q.1 Bituminous materials are commonly suitability in road construction. List-

use in highway construction II gives a laboratory tests which are
because of their good conducted to determine these
a) tensile and compression properties. Match List-I with List-II
properties and select the correct answer from
b) binding and water proofing the codes given below the lists:
properties. List – I List – II
c) shear strength and tensile A. Hardness 1.Water adsorption
properties. B. Porosity 2. Impact test
d) bond and tensile properties. C. Toughness 3. Soundness test
[GATE-2000] D. Durability 4. Abrasion test
Codes:
Q.2 The standard plate size in plate size A B C D
in a plate bearing test for finding a) 1 2 3 4
modulus of subgrade reaction (k) b) 4 1 2 3
value is c) 3 4 1 2
a) 100 cm diameter d) 2 3 4 1
b) 50 cm diameter [GATE-2003]
c) 75 cm diameter
d) 25 cm diameter Q.6 In the Marshall method of mix
[GATE-2000] design, the course aggregates, fine
aggregates, filler material and
Q.3 The minimum value of CBR(%) bitumen , having respective specific
required for granular sub-base as gravities of 2.62, 2.72, 2.70 and 1.02
per Ministry of surface Transport are mixed in the ratio of 55, 34.6, 4.8
(MOST) specification is and 5.6 percent, respectively. The
a) 5 b) 10 theoretical specific gravity of the
c) 15 d) 20 mix would be
[GATE-2001] a) 2.36 b) 2.40
c) 2.44 d) 2.50
Q.4 Bitumen is derived from [GATE-2003]
a) destructive distillation of coal tar
b) destructive distillation of Q.7 A Marshall specimen is prepared for
petroleum bituminous material with a bitumen
c) fractional distillation of content of 5 % by weight of total
petroleum mix. The theoretical and the
d) naturally occurring ores measured unit weights of the mix
[GATE-2002] are 2.442 g/cc and 2.345 g/cc
respectively. The bitumen has a
Q.5 List-I below gives a list of physical specific gravity of 1.02. The present
properties of aggregates which voids in mineral aggregate filled
should be determined to judge their with bitumen (VFB) are
a) 34.55 b) 39.9
c) 73.55 d) 74.3 a)
Ductility test
[GATE-2004] b)
Penetration test
c)
Softening point test
Q.8 Bituminous concrete is a mix d)
Viscosity test
comprising of [GATE-2007]
a) fine aggregate and filler and Q.12 Match the following tests on
bitumen aggregate and its properties
b) fine aggregate and bitumen TEST PROPERTY
c) coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, P. Crushing test 1. Hardness
filler and bitumen Q. Los Angles 2. Weathering
d) coarse aggregate, filler and abrasion test
bitumen R. Soundness test 3. Shape
[GATE-2005] S. Angularity test 4. Strength
Codes:
Q.9 List-I contains some properties of A B C D
bitumen. List-II gives a list of a) 2 1 4 3
laboratory tests conducted on b) 4 2 3 1
bitumen to determine the properties c) 3 2 1 4
Match the properties with d) 4 1 2 3
corresponding test and select the [GATE-2007]
correct answer using the codes
given below the lists: Q.13 A combined values of flakiness and
List – I elongation index is to be determined
A)Resistance of flow for a sample of aggregates. The
B)Ability to deform under load sequence in which the two tests are
C)Safety conducted is
List – II a) elongation index test followed by
1) Ductility test flakiness index test on the whole
2) Penetration test sample
3) Flash and fire point test b) flakiness index test followed by
Codes: elongation index test on the
A B C whole sample
a) 2 1 3 c) flakiness index test followed by
b) 2 3 1 elongation index test on the non-
c) 1 2 3 flaky aggregates.
d) 3 1 2 d) elongation index test followed by
[GATE-2005] flakiness index test on the non-
elongated aggregates.
Q.10 If aggregate size of 50-40 mm is to [GATE-2008]
be tested for finding out the portion
of elongated aggregates using length Q.14 The specific gravity of paving
gauge, the slot length of the gauge bitumen as per IS:73 – 1992 lies
should be between
a) 81 mm b) 45 mm a) 1.10 & 1.06 b) 1.06 & 1.02
c) 53 mm d) 90 mm c) 1.02 & 0.97 d) 0.97 & 0.92
[GATE-2006] [GATE-2008]
Q.11 The consistency and flow resistance
of bitumen can be determined from
the following
Q.15 Aggregate impact value indicates
which one of the following property
of aggregates?
a) Durability b) Toughness
c) Hardness d) Strength
[GATE-2010]
Q.16 In Marshall’s testing of bituminous a) Both I and II are true

mixes, as the bitumen content b) I is false and II is true
increases the flow value c) Both are false
a) remains constant d) I true and II false
b) decrease first and then increase [GATE-2012]
c) increase monotonically
d) increase first and then decrease Q.18 A pavement designer has arrived at
[GATE-2011] a design traffic of 100 million
standard axles for a newly
Q.17 Two bitumen samples X and Y have developing national highway as per
softening points 45’C and 60’C, res. IRC : 37 guidelines using the
Consider the following following data: design life = 15 year,
I. Viscosity of X will be greater commercial vehicle=4500 vehicles/
than that of Y at the same day, annual traffic growth rate =
temperature. 8%. The vehicle damage factor used
II. Penetration value of X is lesser in the calculation was
than that of Y under standard a) 1.53 b) 2.24
conditions. c) 3.66 d) 4.14
[GATE-2012]
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(b) (c) (a) (c) (b) (c) (c) (c) (a) (a) (d) * (c) (c)
15 16 17 18
(b) (c) (c) (b)
EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (b) 11.38

= ×100= 73.55%
Bitumen possess good binding and 15.64
water proofing property. Q.8 (c)
In bituminous concrete mix coarse
Q.2 (c) aggregate, fine aggregate, filler
Standard plate size plate bearing material like fly ash and bitumen
test is 75 cm as per IRC standards. will be available.
Q.3 (a) Q.9 (a)

Min value of CBR of sub – base soil is
5% as per MOST standards. Q.10 (a)
Slot length of gauge
Q.4 (c) = 1.8 (average size)
Bitumen is obtained from factional  50+40 
distillation of crude oil. =1.8   =81mm
 2 
Q.5 (b)
Q.11 (d)
Q.6 (c) Consistency is a measure of
Theoretical specific gravity viscosity of bitumen
100
Gt = Q.12 Crushing test – strength
55 34.6 4.8 5.6
+ + + Los Angles abrasions test –
2.62 2.72 2.70 1.02 Hardness
=2.44 Soundness test – Weathering
Angularity test – shape
Q.7 (c)
Gm=2.345 Q.13 (c)
Gt=2.442 Flakiness index test is done followed
Percentage air voids by elongation test on non flaky
Gt − Gm material.
=Va ×100
Gm
Q.14 (c)
Va = 4.62% AS per IRC, Specific gravity of b
Wb
Vb =G m × itumen is between 1.02 and 0.97.
Gb
5% Q.15 (b)
=2.345× Aggregate impact test is used to
1.02
determine toughness of road
= 11.38%
aggregates
VMA=11.38+4.62 =15.64%
Vb
VFB= ×100 Q.16 (c)
VMA
Q.17 (c)
Q.18 (b)
365 (1 + r ) − 1 ADF
n
N=  
r
365 (1 + 0.08 ) − 1 4500 × F
n
100 ×106 =  
0.08
Vehicle Damage factor, F = 2.24
Rigid pavement Design
4 PAVEMENT DESIGN
Q.1 In a concrete pavement c) 160.0 d) 185.4

A) temperature stress is tensile at [GATE-2003]
bottom during day time Q.5 Temperature stresses in concrete
B) load stress is compressive at pavements may cause the slab to
bottom crack. If slab cools uniformly then
a) Both the statement (A) and the crack will develop at the which
(B) are correct of the following locations of the
b) Statement (A) is correct and slab?
(B) is wrong a) At centre
c) Statement (B) is correct and b) Near edges
(A) is wrong c) At corners
d) Both the statement (A) and d) Near edges and at corners
(B) are incorrect [GATE-2003]
[GATE-2002]
Q.6 The data given below pertain to
Q.2 Dowel bars in concrete pavement the design pavement:
are placed Initial traffic = 1213 cvpd
a) along the direction of traffic Traffic growth rate = 8% per
b) perpendicular to the direction annum
of traffic Design life = 12 years
c) along 45°C to the direction of Vehicle damage factor = 2.5
traffic Distribution factor = 1.0
d) can be placed along any The design traffic in terms of
direction million standard axles (msa) to be
[GATE-2002] coerced would be
a) 0.06 msa b) 8.40 msa
Q.3 The average daily traffic on a c) 21.00 msa d) 32.26 msa
stretch of road is 300 commercial [GATE-2004]
vehicle per lane per day. Design
traffic repetitions for 10 years Q.7 The following observations were
when vehicle damage factor is 2.5 made of an Axle-load survey on a
and traffic growth rate is 7 %, is road:
a) 3.8 msa b) 23.5 msa Axle load (kN) Repetition per day
c) 45.4 msa d) 16 msa 35-45 800
[GATE-2002] 75-85 400
The standard axle-load is 80 KN.
Q.4 A plate load test conducted with a Equivalent daily number of
75 cm diameter plate on soil sub repetitions for the standard axle-
grade yielded a deflection of 2.5 load are
mm under a stress of 800 N/cm2. a) 450 b) 480
The modules of elasticity of the sub c) 800 d) 1200
grade sol in kN/cm2 [GATE-2005]
a) 141.6 b) 154.6
Q.8 For a 25 cm thick cement concrete Q.10 In case of governing equation for
pavement, analysis of stresses calculating wheel load stress using
gives the following value : Westergaard’s approach, the
Wheel load stress due to edge following statement s are made.
loading : 30 kg/cm2 Ι . Load stresses are inversely
Wheel load stress due to corner proportion to wheel load
loading : 32 kg/cm2 ΙΙ . Modulus of subgrade reaction
Warping stress at corner region is useful for load stress
during winter : 7 kg/cm2 calculation
Warping edge at corner region a) Both statements are TRUE
during summer : 8 kg/cm2 b) Ι is TRUE and ΙΙ is FALSE
Warping stress at edge region c) Both statements are FALSE
during winter : 6 kg/cm2 d) Ι is FALSE and ΙΙ is TRUE
Frictional stress during summer : [GATE-2006]
5 kg/cm2
Frictional stress during winter : 4 Q.11 The following data pertains to the
kg/cm2 number of commercial vehicles per
The most critical stress value for day for the design of a flexible
this pavement is pavement for a national highway
a) 40kg/cm2 b) 42kg/cm2 as per IRC: 37-1984
c) 39kg/cm2 d) 41kg/cm2
[GATE-2005]
Q.9 Using IRC: 37-1984 “Guidelines for

the design of flexible pavements”
and the following data, choose the
total thickness of the pavement.
No of commercial vehicles when Assuming a traffic growth factor of
construction is completed = 7.5% per annum for both the types
723veh/day of vehicles, the cumulative number
Annual growth rate of the traffic = of standard axle load repetition (in
5.0% million) for a design life of ten year
Design life of the pavement = is
10year a) 44.6 b) 57.8
Vehicle damage of the subgrade c) 62.4 d) 78.7
soil = 5% [GATE-2007]
Data of 5% CBR value
Q.12 The width of the expansion joint is
No. of Total 20 mm is a cement concrete
Standard thickness, pavement. The laying temperature
Axles, msa mm is 20°C and the maximum slab
20 620 temperature is summer is 60°C.
25 640 The coefficient of thermal expansion
30 670 of concrete is 10 × 10-6
40 700 mm/mm/0C and the joint filler
a) 620 mm b) 640 mm compresses up to 50% of the
c) 670 mm d) 700 mm thickness. The spacing between
[GATE-2006] expansion joints should be
a) 20m b) 25m
c) 30m d) 40m
Q.13 It is proposed to which and a) P-2, Q-3 b) P-1, Q-3

strengthen an existing 2-lane NH c) P-3, Q-1 d) P-2, Q-2
section as a division highway. The [GATE-2009]
existing traffic in one direction is
2500 commercial vehicle (CV) per Q.16 Consider the following statement
day. The construction will take 1 in the context of cement concrete
year. The design is CBR of soil sub pavements
grade is found to be 5 percent. Ι . Warping stresses in cement
Given: traffic growth rate for CV = concrete pavements are caused
8 percent, vehicle damage factor = by the seasonal variation in
3.5 (standard axles per CV), design temperature
life 10 year and traffic distribution ΙΙ . Tie bars are generally provided
factor = 0.75. The cumulative across transverse joints of
standard axles (msa) computed cement concrete pavements
are The correct option evaluating
a) 35 b) 37 the above statements is/are
c) 65 d) 70 a) Ι true and ΙΙ false
[GATE-2008] b) Ι false and ΙΙ true
c) Ι true and ΙΙ true
Q.14 During a CBD test, the load d) Ι false and ΙΙ false
sustained by a remoulded soil [GATE-2010]
specimen at 5.0 mm penetration is
50 Kg. The CBR value of the soil Q.17 Select the strength parameter of
will be Concrete used in design of plain
a) 10.0% b) 5.0% jointed cement concrete pavement
c) 3.6% d) 2.4% from the following choices:
[GATE-2009] a) Tensile strength
b) Compressive strength
Q.15 Which of the following stress c) Flexural strength
combinations are appropriate in d) Shear strength
identifying the critical condition [GATE-2013]
for the design of concrete
pavements
Type of Stress Location
P. Load 1. Corner
Q. Temperature 2. Edge
3. Interior
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(b) (a) (a) (a) (b) (c) (d) (b) (c) (d) (b) (b) (b) (d)
15 16 17
(d) (d) (c)
EXPLANATIONS
Q. 1 (b) Axle Avg. Eq. Repi/day

Temperature stress during day time load load factor
(KN) (KN)
is compressive load stress
35 -45 40 Jan-16 800
is tensile at bottom.
75 -85 80 1 400
Q. 2 (a)
Dowel bars are provided along the No of repetitions for standard axle
direction of traffic, across expansion load = 800 + 400 = 1200
joint.
Q. 8 (b)
Q. 3 (a) i) summer mid-day
365 (1+r ) -1 A.D.F
n (SR)e = 32 + 8 + 5
N=   = 35kg/m2 (SL)e + (Sw)e - Sf
r = 32 + 8 – 5
365 (1 + 0.07 ) − 1 × 300 ×1× 2.5 = 35 kg/cm2
10
=   ii) winter (mid-day)

0.07 a) at edge
= 3782253 = 3.78 × 106c.s.a (SR )e = (SL )e + (SW )e − Sf
= 3.8 m.s.a
= 30 + 7
Q. 4 (a) = 37 kg/cm2
b) (SR)c =(SL)c+(Sw)c
1.18Pa 1.18(800) ( 75 / 2 )
=
E soil = = 30+7=37 kg/cm2
δ 0.25 Use maximum of the above case
= 141.6 kN/cm2 = 42 kg/cm2
Q. 5 (b) Q. 9 (c)
Due to temperature edge location
365 (1+r ) -1 A.D.F
n
cracks first.  
N=
r
Q. 6 (c)
365 (1 + 0.05 ) − 1 2723 × 2.4 ×1
10
 
365 (1 + r ) − 1 A.D.F =
n
N ( csa ) =   0.05
r = 30 × 10 c.s.a
6
365 (1 + 0.08 ) − 1 1213 × 2.5 ×1 = 30 msa

12
=   From table thickness of pavement

0.08 for a traffic of 30 msa is = 670mm
= 21 × 106C.S.a
= 21m.s.a Q. 10 (d)
I = False
Q. 7 (d) Load stress is directly proportional
Equivalency factor to wheel load
4
 axle load  II = True
=
 standard-load  Modulus of sub grade reaction is
Standard axle load = 80 kN useful for load stress
Statement 2: is also false tie bars are
Q. 11 (b) provided along longitudinal joints
r = 0.075
A1 = 2000 cv/day
A2 = 200 cv/day Q. 17 (c)
F1 = 5 F2=6 Design of rigid pavement is only
N = N1 + N2 based on flexural stresses.
365 (1 + 0.075 ) − 1
10
  2000 × 5 + 200 × 6
[ ]
0.075
= 57.8 × 106c.s.a = 57.8 m.s.a
Q. 12 (b)
difference in temperature
= 60-20 = 40°C
δ 20
δ1 = = = 10mm
2 1
δ1 = lαt
10 = l (10×10-6)(40)
l = 25m
Q. 13 (b)
Anticipated traffic after 1 year
A = P(1 + r)n
= 2500 (1 + 0.05)1
= 2700 cv/day
So,
365 (1 + 0.08 ) − 1 2700 × 3.5 × 0.7
10
N=  
0.08
= 37.47 msa
≈ 37 msa
Q. 14 (d)
P5 50
(CBR)5 = = ×100
standardP5 2055
= 2.43%
Q. 15 (d)
Load stress is maximum at edge.
Temperature stress is also
maximum of edge
Q.16 (d)
Statement 1: is false warping
stresses are due to daily variation of
temperature not based on seasonal
variation of temperature.
5 HIGHWAY MAINTAINANCE
Q.1 In highway pavements emulsions

are mainly used in Q.2 Road roughness is measured using
a) surface dressing a) Benkelman beam
b) patching and maintenance b) Bump indicator
c) bitumen macadam c) Dynamic cone penetrometer
d) asphaltic concrete d) Falling weight deflectomete
[GATE-2012]
ANSWER KEY:
1 2
(b) (b)
Q.1 (b)
Emulsions are used in bituminous
road constructions, especially in
maintenance and patch repair
works. The main advantages of
emulsion is that it can be used in
wet weather even when it is
raining.
Q. 2 (b)
Road roughness is indicated by
roughometer or bump indicator.
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
Q.1 The length of national highways as Q.5 Nagpur road plan has recommended
per 3rd 20 year (Lucknow) road the use of road pattern type of
plan is given by
a) area of the country/75 a) star and pattern type of
b) area of the country/50 b) star and block pattern
c) area of the country/40 c) star and grid pattern
d) area of the country/25 d) star and hexagonal pattern
Q.2 In 1927, Jayakar committee was set Q.6 Select the correct statement.
up to examine and report on road a) Nagpur road plan formulae take
development in india, based on into account the towns with very
which certain institutions were large population
subsequently set up. Which of the b) Nagpur road plan has a target
following were the direct outcome road length of 32 km per 100
of Jayakar committee square km
recommendations. c) Second 20 year plan has
1. Indian Road Congress provided 1600 km of
2. Central Road Fund expressways out of the proposed
3. CRRI National highway
4. National Highway Act d) Second 20 year plan allowed
a) 1, 2 and 3 b) 2, 3 and 4 deduction length of railway track
c) 1, 3 and 4 d) all the above in the area while calculating the
length of roads
Q.3 Consider:
1. Creation of Central Road Fund Q.7 The shape of the camber, best suited
2. National Highway Act for cement concrete pavements, is
3. Formation of Indian Road a) Straight line
Congress b) Parabolic
4. Creation of Highway Research c) Elliptical
Board d) Combination of straight and
The correct chronological order of parabolic
these events is
a) 4, 3, 2, 1 b) 2, 1, 3, 4 Q.8 For water bound macadam roads in
c) 1, 3, 2, 4 d) 2, 3, 1, 4 localities of heavy rainfall, the
recommended Value of camber is
Q.4 The semiofficial body set up for a) 1 in 30 b) 1 in 33
controlling and standardization of c) 1 in 48 d) 1 in 60
roads and bridges in India is
a) Highway research Q.9 When the path travelled along the
b) National Highways Act Committee road surface is more than the
c) Central Road Fund circumferential Movement of the
d) Indian Road congress wheels due to rotation, then it
results in
a) slipping b) skidding ( 0.75V )
2
V2
c) turning d) revolving c) d)
127R 127R
Q.10 Coefficient of friction is less when
Q.16 The attainment of super elevation by
the pavement surface is
rotation of pavement about the inner edge
a) rough
the pavement
b) dry
a) is preferable in steep terrain
c) smooth and dry
b) results in balancing the earthwork
d) smooth and wet
c) avoids the drainage problem in
flat terrain
Q.11 Compared to a level surface, on a
d) does not change the vertical
descending gradient the stopping
alignment of road
sight distance is
a) less Q.17 The mechanical extra widening
b) more required for 10.5 m wide pavement
c) same on a horizontal curve of radius R
d) dependent on the speed metre is given by
l2 2l 2
Q.12 The desirable length of overtaking a) b)
zone as per IRC recommendation is 2R 2R
2
equal to l 3l 2
c) d)
a) overtaking sight distance R 2R
b) two times the overtaking sight
distance Q.18 The maximum design gradient for
c) three times the overtaking sight vertical profile of a road is
distance a) ruling gradient
d) five times the overtaking sight b) limiting gradient
distance c) exceptional gradient
d) minimum gradient
Q.13 If the stopping distance is 60 metres,
then the minimum stopping sight Q.19 The maximum width of a vehicle as
distance for two lane, two way recommended by IRC is
traffic is a) 1.85 m b) 2.44 m
a) 30 m b) 60 m c) 3.81 m d) 4.72 m
c) 120 m d) 180 m
Q.20 Transition curve is provided in
Q.14 The ruling design speed on a horizontal alignment
National Highway in plain terrain as a) to increase the radius of
per IRC recommendation is curvature
a) 60 kmph b) 80 kmph b) to facilitate the application of
c) 100 kmph d) 120 kmph super elevation
c) to counteract the centrifugal
Q.15 The equilibrium super elevation required to force developed
counteract the centrifugal force fully is d) to prevent vehicles from
given by skidding late rally
V2 V2 Q.21 The off-tracking of a vehicle having
a) b)
27.5R 75R a wheel base of 6.0 m and
negotiating a curved path of mean
radius 25 m is
a) 0.82 m b) 0.72 m Q.28 The relationship between the
c) 0.65 m d) 1.44 m length (L) and radius (r) of an ideal
transition curve is given by
Q.22 The important factor considered in a) L ∝ r b) L ∝ r2
the design of submit curves on c) L ∝ (1/r) d) L ∝ (1/ r2)
highways is
a) comfort to passenger Q.29 Width of carriage way for a single
b) sight distance lane is recommended to be
c) super elevation a) 7.5 m b) 7.0 m
d) import factor c) 3.75 m d) 5.5 m
Q.23 The ideal form of curve for the Q.30 Stopping sight distance is the
submit curve is minimum distance available on a
a) spiral b) parabola highway which is the
c) circle d) lemniscates a) distance of sufficient length to
stop the vehicle without collision
Q.24 Transition curves are provided on b) distance visible to a driver
the approach to horizontal curves during night driving
in order to c) height of the object above the
a) increase jerk to allowable levels road surface
b) minimize the length of the d) distance equal to the height of
horizontal curve the driver’s eye above the road
c) simplified the laying-out and surface
construction of the horizontal
curve Q.31 The design value of lateral friction
d) reduce jerk to allowable levels coefficient on highway is
a) 1.5 b) 0.50
Q.25 On sag (or valley) curves the c) 0.35 d) 0.15
available sight distance is
determined based on Q.32 Camber on highway pavement is
a) design speed provided to take care of
b) height of obstacle a) centrifugal force b) drainage
c) height of driver eye c) sight distance d) off-tracking
d) nighttimes driving conditions
Q.33 In the limiting case of overturning
while traversing a simple circular
Q.26 The reaction time for calculation of
curve by a vehicle, pressure is
stopping distance may be assumed
a) outer wheels will be zero
as
b) outer wheels will be maximum
a) 5 secs b) 2.5 secs
c) outer and inner wheels will be
c) 0.5 secs d) 10.0 secs
same
d) inner wheels will be maximum
Q.27 If an ascending gradient of 1 in 50
meets another ascending gradient Q.34 The land width required across the
of 1 in 30 then the derivation angle is alignment of road is
a) 1/50 b) 1/75 a) land between building lines
c) 1/30 d) 8/150 b) right of way
c) land between control lines
d) roadway
Q.35 Road alignment is influenced by c) 4.5% d) 3.75%
a) traffic requirements
b) stability of hill slopes Q.41 If N is the algebraic difference of
c) number of cross drainage works grades, S is the headlight sight
d) all of the above distance in metres, then the
transmission length of valley curve
Q.36 Parabolic camber is preferred for (following standard codes) should
a) slow moving vehicle roughly be equal to
b) steel tyred vehicle NS2 NS2
c) fast moving vehicle a) b)
6 9.6
d) all the above 2
NS NS2
c) d)
Q.37 Stopping sight distance on a 4 10
national highway at a descending
gradient of 2% is Q.42 The design speed of a highway is 80
a) 121 m b) 132 m km per hour. Assuming other data
c) 143 m d) 154 m as per IRC recommendations, which
one of the following is the
Q.38 Which one of the following pairs is approximate adopted lag distance ?
correctly matched ? (Notations a) 55.5 m b) 66.7 m
have their usual meaning) c) 61.2 m d) 44.5 m
a) To avoid both skidding
p b Q.43 Consider the following steps
..... ≤ ≤f involved in the design of super
w 2h
elevation in practice as
b) Allowable maximum super-
recommended by IRC:
...0.15 elevation in plain region
1. Calculation of the allowable
c) Allowable coefficient of .....07
speed for maximum ‘e’ and
lateral friction
design value of ‘f’
d) Attainment of super elevation
2. Calculation of the super elevation
nl2 for 75% of the design speed
.....
2R 3. Calculation of the value of ‘e’
and recheck
Q.39 A road camber given in the 4. Calculation of the value of ‘f’ and
following figure : recheck
The correct sequence of these steps is
a) 1-2-3-4 b) 3-4-1-2
c) 2-3-4-1 d) 4-3-2-1
Q.44 In highway geometric design,

For designing this camber the cumulative speed distribution is
equation to be used is drawn and the design is checked at
a) y = x2/60 b) y = x2/120 which and the design in checked at
c) y = x2/210 d) y = x2/225 which percentile ?
a) 85th percentile
Q.40 The compensated gradient provided b) 95th percentile
at the curve of radius 60 m with a c) 100th percentile
ruling gradient of 6 percent is: d) 98th percentile
a) 5.25% b) 4.75%
Q.45 Which one of the following is taken 1. Type of Terrain
into consideration while determining 2. Cost of construction
overtaking sight distance in a two 3. Rainfall in the area
lane highway 4. Speed of vehicles
a) distance covered during While considering for ruling
reaction time gradient fixation, the factors
b) distance covered during considered more important than the
overtaking operation rest are
c) reaction distance plus a) 3 and 4 b) 1 and 3
overtaking distance c) 2 and 3 d) 1 and 4
d) distance covered during reaction
time plus distance covered during Q.49 For the load an inner and outer
overtaking operation plus the wheels to be equal for a vehicle
distance covered by the moving at a speed of 50 kmph about
opposing traffic. a horizontal circular curve of radius
100 m will be
Q.46 Match List-I (Type of road) with a) 25/127 b) 25/225
List-II (recommended camber) and c) 25/125 d) 25/277
select the correct answer by using
the codes given below the lists: Q.50 The absolute minimum radius for a
List-I horizontal curve designed for speed
A. Water bound macadam of 100 kmph given the permissible
B. Bituminous concrete values of super elevation 0.08 and
C. Earth road coefficient of friction 0.12 Will be
D. Rigid pavement a) 394 m b) 295 m
List-II c) 364 m d) 225 m
1. 1 in 72
2. 1 in 60 Q.51 Roads provided to give access to
3. 1 in 48 properties along an important
4. 1 in 25 highway with controlled access as
Codes: express way of freeway are.
A B C D a) drive ways b) access roads
a) 1 4 3 2 c) parking lanes d) frontage roads
b) 4 3 2 1
c) 2 3 1 4 Q.52 Which one of the following is
d) 3 2 4 1 associated with “limiting gradient”
on highways
Q.47 The rate of change of radial a) Requirement of maximum
acceleration as per IRC tractive effort for a short distance
recommendation for computing b) Requirement of minimum tractive
length of transition curve for a effort on the whole gradient
vehicle with design speed V kmph is c) Efficient drainage conditions
given by d) Alignment design in general
85 65
a) m / sec 2 b) m / sec 2
70 + V 70 + V Q.53 Select the correct statement.
80 72 a) Traffic volume should always be
c) m / sec 2 d) m / sec 2 more than traffic capacity
70 + V 70 + V
b) Traffic capacity should always be
Q.48 Consider the following factors more than traffic volume
c) Spot speed is the average speed c) 1143 vph d) 572 vph
of a vehicle at a specified section
d) 85th percentile speed is more Q.60 During measurement in spot speed
than 98th percentile speed study, a total of 1000 vehicles were
obtained as 40 kmph and 10 kmph
Q.54 Which of the following is indicated respectively. The number of vehicles
by a warning sign ? moving between speeds of 10 kmph
a) level crossing and 40 kmph would be:
b) no parking a) 350 b) 500
c) end of speed limit c) 600 d) 700
d)overtaking prohibited
Q.61 The lost time due to starting delay
Q.55 The entrance and exist curves of a on a traffic signal is notes to be 3s,
rotary have the actual green time is 25s and
a) equal radii and equal widths of yellow time is 3s. How much is the
pavement effective green time?
b) equal radii but pavement width a) 31s b) 28s
is more at entrance than at exist c) 25s d) 22s
curve
c) equal pavement widths but Q.62 In speed and delay study, if the
radius is more at entrance curve average journey time on a stretch of
than at exist curve road length of 3.5 km is 7.55
d) different radii and different minutes and the average stopped
width of pavement delay is 1.8 minutes, the average
running speed will be, nearly
Q.56 Maximum number of vehicles can be a) 36.5 kmph b) 37.5 kmph
parked with c) 38.5 kmph d) 39.5 kmph
a) parallel parking
b) 300angle parking Q.63 If L is the length of vehicle in meters,
c) 450angle parking C is the clear distance between two
d) 900angle parking consecutive vehicle (stopping sight
distance), V is the speed of vehicles
Q.57 Desire lines are drawn based on in km/hour; then the maximum
a) sot speed studies number (N) of vehicles/hour is
b) traffic volume studies equal to
c) accident studies 1000V C+L
a) N = b) N =
d) origin and destination studies C+L 1000V
1000V 1000V
Q.58 The PCU (passenger car unit) value c) N = d) N =
C−L L+V
for car on an urban road is
a) 0.5 b) 1.0
Q.64 When the speed of the traffic flow
c) 3.0 d) 4.0
becomes zero, then
a) traffic density attains its
Q.59 Traffic flow equation for a section of
maximum value whereas traffic
road is u = 80 – 0.7 K where ‘u’ is the
volume becomes zero
speed in Kmph and ‘K’ is the density
b) traffic density and traffic volume
in vpkm (vehicle per km). The
both attain respective maximum
maximum expected flow is
values
a) 4572 vph b) 2286 vph
c) traffic density and traffic volume A. Valley curve
both becomes zero B. Submit curve
d) traffic density becomes zero C. Horizontal Highway Transition
whereas traffic volume attains its Curve
maximum value. List-II (Shape Suitable)
1. Spiral
Q.65 If the normal flows on two approach 2. Cubic parabola
roads at an intersection are 3. Simple parabola
respectively 500 pcu per hr on each Codes:
road and the total lost time per A B C
signal cycle is 16 s, then the optimum a) 3 2 1
cycle time by Webster’s method is b) 1 3 2
a) 72.5 s b) 58 s c) 2 3 1
c) 48 s d) 19.3 s d) 1 2 3
Q.66 When two roads with two-lane, two- Q.71 Traffic volume is equal to
way traffic, cross at an uncontrolled a) traffic density × traffic speed
intersection, the total number of traffic density
potential major conflict points b)
traffic speed
would be traffic speed
a) 32 b) 24 c)
c) 16 d) 4 traffic density
d) None of the above
Q.67 An Enoscope is used for measuring
a) Running speed Q.72 With increase in speed of the traffic
b) Time mean speed stream, the maximum capacity of the
c) Spot speed lane
d) Overall speed a) increase
b) decrease
Q.68 The traffic conflicts that may occur c) first increase and then decreases
in a rotary intersections are after reaching a maximum value
a) merging and diverting at optimum speed
b) crossing and merging d) first decreases and then
c) crossing and diverting increases after reaching a
d) crossing, merging and diverting minimum value at optimum speed
Q.69 In which of the following traffic Q.73 In the design of highway expansion
signal system are the cycle length and contraction joints should
and cycle division are automatically respectively be provided at
varied ? a) 50 m and 32 m b) 50 m and 10 m
a) Simultaneous system c) 25 m and 10 m d) 25 m and 32 m
b) Alternate system
c) Simple progressive system Q.74 The most efficient traffic signal
d) Flexible progressive system system is
a) simultaneous system
Q.70 Match List-I with List-II and select b) alternate system
the correct answer using the codes c) flexible progressive system
given below the lists: d) simple progressive system
List-I (Type of curve)
Q.75 A traffic rotary is justified where Q.81 The maximum spacing of contraction
a) number of intersecting roads is joints in rigid pavements is
between 4 and 7 a) 2.5 m b) 3.5 m
b) space is limited and costly c) 4.5 m d) 5.5 m
c) when traffic volume is less than
500 vehicles per hour Q.82 The maximum thickness of
d) when traffic volume is more than expansion joint in rigid pavements is
5000 vehicles per hour a) zero b) 25 mm
c) 50 mm d) 100 mm
Q.76 When a number of roads are
meeting at a point and only one of Q.83 The most suitable equipment for
the roads is important, then the compacting clayey solid is a
suitable shape of rotary is a) smooth wheeled roller
a) circular b) tangent b) pneumatic tyred roller
c) elliptical d) turbine c) sheep foot roller
d) vibrator
Q.77 Assuming a longitudinal coefficient
of friction to be 0.4, the resulting Q.84 The position of base course in a
retardation of a vehicle being flexible pavement is
brought to a stop is, nearly a) over the sub-base
a) 0.98 m/s2 b) 1.95 m/s2 b) below the sub-base
c) 2.90 m/s 2 d) 3.93 m/s2 c) over the sub-grade but below the
sub-base
Q.78 The cumulative speed distribution d) over the wearing course when
curve is usually adopted for renewal of surface is needed.
geometric design of highway. The
percentile speed adopted for Q.85 The modulus of sub-grate reaction is
geometric design is evaluated from
a) 85th percentile speed a) plate bearing test b) CBR test
b) 90th percentile speed c) direct shear test d) tri-axial test
c) 98th percentile speed
d) 99.9th percentile speed Q.86 The width of expansion joint gap is
2.5 cm in a cement concrete
Q.79 Which of the following traffic studies pavement. The spacing between
is required for deciding the speed expansion joint for a maximum rise
limit for traffic in temperature of 250 C is (assuming
a) spot speed coefficient of thermal expansion of
b) speed and delay concrete as 10×10-6 per 0C)
c) origin and destination a) 5 m b) 50 m
d) classified traffic volume c) 100 m d) 25 m
Q.80 Critical load position in a rigid Q.87 In cement concrete pavements, tie
pavement design is taken as bars are provided:
a) interior loading a) near the top of slab across
b) edge loading expansion joints
c) corner loading b) near the bottom of slab across
d) interior, edge and corner loading concentration joints
c) at mid depth of slab across
longitudinal joints
d) near the bottom of slab across 4. In warping joints
longitudinal joints Which of the statements given above
is/are correct ?
Q.88 The sub-grate soil properties of a a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 4 only
sample are as follows: c) 1 only d) 2 only
Soil portion passing 0.075 mm
sieve = 50% Q.93 If the radius of wheel load
Liquid limit = 40% distribution is 30 cm and slab
Plasticity index = 20% thickness is 15 cm, then the
The group index of the soil is equivalent radius of resisting section
a) zero b) 4 is
c) 6.5 d) 8
a) ( 1.6 × (30) + 15 − 0.675 ×15)
2 2
b) ( 1.6 × ( 30 ) + 15 + 0.675 ×15 )

Q.89 Consider the following factors: 2 2
1. Magnitude of load
2. Thickness of cement concrete slab c) 30 cm
3. Temperature distribution in the d) None of the above
slab
4. Modulus of sub-grade reaction Q.94 The critical combination of stresses
Which of these should be taken into for corner region in cement concrete
reckoning to determine the wheel roads is
load stress at critical location in a a) load stress + warping stress –
cement concrete pavement ? frictional stress
a) 1, 2 and 3 b) 1 and 3 b) load stress + warping stress +
c) 3 and 4 d) 1, 2 and 4 frictional stress
c) load stress + warping stress
Q.90 If the pressure carried by a CBR d) load stress + frictional stress
specimen at 2.5 mm penetration is
3.5 N/m2, the CBR of the soil is Q.95 Consider the following pairs
a) 10% b) 35% 1. Rigid pavements - Temperature
c) 50% d) 70% 2. Flexible pavement - Provision of
joints
Q.91 Consider the following statements: 3. CBR chart - Thickness of rigid
The failure of sub-grade of a flexible pavements
pavement is mainly attributed to 4. Burmister analysis - Two layer
1. inadequate stability classic theory
2. loss or binding action Which of these pairs are correctly
3. loss or base course materials matched ?
4. excessive stress concentration a) 1 and 4 b) 1, 3 and 4
Which of the statements are correct ? c) 2 and 3 d) 3 and 4
a) 1 and 2 b) 1 and 4
c) 2 and 4 d) 2 and 3 Q.96 The stresses acting in a cement
concrete pavements are Load Stress
Q.92 Consider the statements: (LS), Wrapping Stress (WS) and
In the design of modern concrete Frictional Stress (FS). The critical
pavements, tie bars are used: combination of stresses at interior
1. As load transfer devices and edge regions of the pavement
2. In expansion joints slab during mid-day winter season
3. In concentration joints is
a) LS + WS + FS b) LS + WS - FS
c) LS – WS + FS d) WS – LS +FS
Q.99 If the load, wrapping and frictional
Q.97 In the design wheel load (p) in kgs, stresses in a cement concrete slab
slab thickness (h) (cms) radius of are 210 N/mm2 , 290 N/mm2 and 10
resisting thickness (b) (cms), radius N/mm2 respectively, the critical
of relative stiffness (l) in cms and if combination of stresses during
St, Se and SC are critical stress on a summer mid-day is
rigid pavement at interior, edge and a) 290 N/mm2 b) 390 N/mm2
corner loading’s respectively, then c) 490 N/mm 2 d) 590 N/mm2
a) Si >Se >Sc b) Sc> Se > Si
c) Se > Si >Sc d)Can’t be said.
Q.98 Consider the following statements:

1. Group index (GI) values of soils
vary in the range of soils vary in
the range of 0 to 20.
2. Higher the Gl value stronger is
the soil sub-grade.
3. Gl method of pavement design is
a semi-empirical method.
Which of these statements is/are
correct ?
a) 1 only b) 2 only
c) 1, 2 and 3 d) 1 and 2
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(b) (a) (c) (d) (c) (c) (a) (b) (b) (d) (b) (c) (b) (c)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
(d) (c) (d) (a) (b) (b) (b) (b) (c) (d) (c) (b) (b) (c)
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
(c) (a) (d) (b) (b) (b) (b) (c) (b) (a) (c) (b) (a) (a)
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56
(c) (d) (d) (d) (c) (d) (a) (a) (d) (a) (c) (c) (a) (a)
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
(a) (a) (c) (b) (c) (a) (a) (a) (b) (b) (c) (a) (d) (c)
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84
(a) (c) (b) (c) (a) (b) (d) (c) (a) (d) (c) (c) (c) (a)
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
(a) (a) (c) (c) (d) (c) (b) (b) D (c) (a) (a) (c) (a)
99
(c)
EXPLANATIONS
Q. 1 i) Length of National Highways (NH) more than the circumferential

= Area of the country/50 movements of the wheels due to
ii) Length of State Highways (SH) their rotation. Slip occurs when a
= Area of the state/25 wheel revolves more than the
= 62.5 × number of towns in the corresponding longitudinal
state – area of the state/50 movement along the roads.
iii) Length of the major District
Roads (MDR) Q. 10 The coefficient of friction reduces
= Area of the state/12.5 considerably when the pavement
= 90 × number of towns in the surface is smooth or wet. The
state coefficient or friction also decreases
iv) Total length of all categories of slightly with increase in
roads in a district i.e. temperature, tyre pressure and load.
NH + SH + MDR + ODR + VR But on wet pavements new tyres
= Area of District × 0.82 with good treads give higher friction
factors than worn out tyres.
Q. 2 (a)
Q. 11 When there is a descending gradient
Q. 3 (c) the components of gravity is
subtracted from the braking distance
Q. 4 (d) and hence the stopping sight
distance is more.
Q. 5 (c)
Q. 12 The minimum length of overtaking
Q. 6 (c) zone should be three times the safe
overtaking distance i.e., 3(d1 + d2)
Q. 7 The camber is given a parabolic, for one-way roads and 3(d1 + d2 +
elliptic or straight line shape in the d3) for two-way roads. It is desirable
cross-section. Parabolic or elliptic that the length of overtaking zone is
shape is given so that the profile is kept five times the overtaking Sight
flat at the middle and steeper distance.
towards the edges, which is
preferred by fast moving vehicles. Q. 13 The minimum stopping sight
When very flat cross slope is distance should be equal to the
provided as in cement concrete stopping distance in one-way traffic
pavements, straight line shape of lanes and also in two-way traffic
camber may be provided. roads when there are two or more
traffic lanes.
Q. 8 (b)
Q. 14 (c)
Q. 9 Skid occurs when vehicles slide
without revolving i.e., when the path Q. 15 As we know,
travelled along the road surface is
V2 Q. 22 When a fast moving vehicle travels
e+f = along a submit curve, the centrifugal
gR
force will act upwards, against
e = rate of superelevation
gravity and hence a part of the
f = lateral friction coefficient = 0.15
pressure on the tyres and spring of
V = speed of vehicle, m/s
the vehicle suspensions in relieved.
R = radius or horizontal curve, m
So there is no problem of discomfort
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8
to passengers on submit curves,
m/s2
particularly because the deviation
If speed of vehicle is represented as
angles on roads are quite small. The
V kmph then
only problem is designing submit
(0.278V) 2 V2 curves is to provide adequate
=
e+f =
9.8R 127R sight distance or the absolute
If f = 0, the equilibrium super minimum sight distance should
elevation required to counteract the invariably be provided at all
centrifugal force fully will be given sections of the road system and
by so also on submit curves.
V2
e= Q. 23 Circular submit curve is ideal as the
127R
sight distance available throughout
Q. 16 The method of rotating about inner the length of circular curve is
edge is preferable in flat terrain in constant.
high rain fall area, when the road is
not taken on embarkment, in order Q. 24 (b)
to avoid the drainage problem.
Q. 25 (b)
nl2
Q. 17 Mechanical widening = Q. 26 (c)
2R
Where, n = no. of lanes
1 1 1
For 10.5 m wide pavement Q. 27 = −
n=3 N 50 30
3l2 30 − 50
∴ Wm = =
2R 50 × 30
1
Q. 18 Ruling gradient is the maximum ⇒ N=
75
gradient within, which the designer
attempts to design the vertical Q. 28 (a)
profile of a road.
Q. 29 (d)
Q. 19 (b)
Q. 30 (b)
Q. 20 (b)
Q. 31 (b)
Q. 21 Off-tracking l2
= =
62
2 × 25
2R
Q. 32 (b)
= 0.72 m
Q. 33 If the pavement is kept horizontal
across the alignment, the pressure
on the outer wheels will be higher v2
SSD= vt +
due to the centrifugal force acting 2g(f − 0.01n)
outwards and hence the reaction RB 22.222
at the outer wheel would be higher. SSD= (22.22 × 2.5) +
2g(0.35 − 0.02)
When the limiting equilibrium
= 131.75m ≈ 132m
condition for overturning occurs the
pressure at the inner wheels
becomes equal to zero and pressure Q.38 Centrifugal ratio
at the inner wheels becomes equal P V2
=
to zero and pressure at outer wheels W gR
will be maximum. Case-1:
P b
Q. 34 Right of way is the area of land For overturning >
W 2h
acquired for the road, along its P
alignment. The width of this To avoid skidding f ≥
W
acquired land is known as land
Thus for overturning without
width and it depends on the
skidding
importance of the road and possible
P b
future development. f≥ >
W 2h
Q. 35 Factors which govern the alignment Case-2:For skidding f> P
W
of road are
1. Obligatory points: These are P  b 
To avoid overturning ≤ 
points either the load alignment W  2h 
has to pass or not have to pass For skidding without overturning
2. Traffic : The new road to be  b 
aligned should keep in view the f < 
desired lines, traffic flow  2h 
patterns and future trends. Allowable maximum superelevation
3. Geometric Design in plane region – 0.07 or 7%
4. Economy Allowable coefficient of lateral
5. Stability of hill-drainage and friction – 0.15
geometric standard of hill roads Mechanical widening of pavement
nl2
−
Q. 36 The camber is given a parabolic 2R
elliptic or straight line shape is given

so that the profile is flat at the Q. 39 (a)
middle and steeper towards the
edges, which is preferred by fast 30 + R
Q. 40 Percent grade compensation
moving vehicles as they have to R
frequently cross the crown line 75
Subject to maximum of
during overtaking operation on a R
two lane highway. In other words for R ≥ 45 m
30 + R
Q. 37 Design speed on national highway, Grade compensation
R
V = 80 km/hr For R ≤ 45 m
75
Grade compensation
R
For R = 60 m 100 ×100
0.08 + 0.12 =
Grade compensation
75
= 1.25% 127 × R
R ⇒ R = 394 m
Compensated gradient = Ruling
gradient – grade compensation Q.51 (d)
= 6 – 1.25
= 4.75% Q.52 (a)
Q. 41 The head light sight distance should Q.53 Traffic capacity is the ability of a
be at last to SSD. If the vehicles are road to accommodate traffic volume.
overtaking then length curve should It is expressed as the maximum
be: number of vehicle in a lane or a road
NS2 that can pass a given point in a unit
L= time, usually an hour.
8H
Where height of head light = 0.75 m
Q.54 (c)
NS2
L=
6 Q.55 Vehicles leaving the rotary would
accelerate to the speed of the
Q.42 Lag distance = 0.278 Vt radiating roads and hence the exist
Reaction time t = 2.5 sec curves should be of larger radii than
Lag distance = 55.5 m entry curves. Hence the payment
width at entrance curve will be
Q.43 2-3-4-1 higher than at exit curves as the
The step given is an alternative of radius of the former is less than the
step given in 4. latter.
Q.44 85th percentile speed is upper limit Q.56 Angle parking or parallel parking
of speed for regulation and 15th may be allowed in the kerb parking.
percentile speed is lower limit of Angle parking may be at angle 30,
speed for regulation. The 98th 60 or 90 degrees. Angle parking
percentile speed is the design speed. accommodates more vehicles per
unit length of kerb and maximum
Q.45 (c) vehicles that can be parked is with
an angle of 90 degree.
Q.46 (d)
Q.57 Desire lines are plotted which is a
Q.47 (a) graphical representation prepared
in all most all O and D surveys. Desire
Q.49 For pressure on inner and outer lines are straight lines connecting
wheels to be equal the origin points with destinations.
V2 50×50 The width of such desire lines is
F = 0, e = =
127R 127×100 drawn proportional to the number
50 25 of trips in both directions.
= =
254 127
Q.58 The PCU may be considered as a
measure of the relative space
V2
Q.50 e= requirement of a vehicle class
127R compared to that of a passenger car
under a specified set of roadway, Q. 64 At zero speed density is maximum
traffic and other conditions. If the and volume is zero
addition of one vehicle of a
particular class in the traffic stream Q. 65 Optimum cycle time,
produces the same effect as that due 1.5L+5
C0 =
to the addition of one passenger car, 1-Y
then that vehicle class is considered L = Total lost time per cycle = 16 sec
equivalent to the passenger car with Y = y1 + y2
a PCU value equal to 1.0 500 300
y1 = and y2 =
1600 1600
Q.59 Traffic flow equation:
U = 80 – 0.7k
500+300
Since flow q = u ⋅ k = 80 k – 0.7 k2 ∴ Y= =0.5
dq 1000
For maximum flow =0 1.5×16+5
dk C0 = =58S
For an equation u = a – b k 1-0.5
a 2 (80) 2
q max = = ≈ 2286vph Q. 66 Point of potential conflicts depend
4b 4×0.7 on the number of lanes on
intersecting lanes. For two way
Q. 60 Percentile speed gives cumulative traffic on T-intersection the conflict
percentage of vehicle travelling at or point are 18 only.
below that speed.
Between 85 percentile speed, 70% Q.67 (c)
of vehicles will be travelling. So 700
vehicles have speed between 10 Q.68 (a)
kmph and 40 kmph.
The difference between 85 Q.69 Flexible progressive system (most
percentile speed and 15 percentile efficient method of signaling)
speed and gives quality of flow.
Q. 70 (c)
Q. 61 Effective green time = Actual green
time+ yellow time - lost time Q. 71 (a)
= 25 + 3 – 3
= 25 second Q. 72 (c)
Q. 62 Average running time = Average Q. 73 (b)
journey Time – Average stopped
delay Q. 74 (c)
=7.55 – 1.8 = 5.75 minutes
3.5 × 60 Q. 75 (a)
Average running speed =
5.75
= 36.5 kmph Q. 76 (b)
Q.63 Maximum number of vehicles per Q. 77 Retardation rate = fg =>

hour =0.4 × 9.81 =3.924 m/s2
1000V
=
C+L Q. 78 (c)
Q. 79 (a) a = P – 35 = 15 < 40
b = P – 15 = 35 < 40
Q. 80 (d) c = LL -40 = 0
d = PI – 10 = 10
Q. 81 Contraction joints are spaced closer G.I = 0.2 ×15 + 0 + 0.01× 35 ×10
then expansion joints. As per IRC =+
3 3.5 =6.5
Specification, the maximum spacing
of contraction joints in unreinforced Q. 89 To determine wheel load stress at
CC slabs is 4.5 m and in reinforced critical location
slabs of thickness 20 cm is 14 m. -Magnitude of load (P)
- Thickness of slab (h)
Q. 82 Expansion joints are provided to -Radius of wheel load distribution
allow for expansion of the slabs due (a),
to rise in slab temperature. The radius of relative stiffness (/) and
approximate gap width for this type radius of resisting selection (b) are
of joints is from 20 to 25 mm. needed. ‘a’, ‘b’, and ‘l depend upon
modulus of sub-grade reaction.
Q. 83 (c)
Q. 90 The pressure 3.5 N/mm2 = 35
Q. 84 (a) kg/cm2
35
Q. 85 (a) So CBR ×100=50%
70
Q. 86 δ1 =
2.5
=1.25 Q. 91 Two basic reasons for failure of sub-
2 grade are:
t2 – t1 = 250C i) Inadequate stability
Coefficient of thermal expansion ii) Excessive stress application.
C= 10 ×10−6 per0C
Spacing of expansion joint, Q. 92 Tie bars are used across
δ1 longitudinal joints (warping joints).
L=
100C(t 2 -t1 ) They are not used a load
transferring devices. Tie bars are
1.25
= = 5 meter thus designed to with stand tensile
100 ×10 ×10−6 × 25 force in tie bar being equal to the
force required to overcome frictional
Q. 87 Tie bar are not the load transferring force between the bottom of the
devices. These are provided to adjoining pavement slab and the soil
ensure the adjustment slabs remain sub-grade. Dowel bars are provided
firmly tied together. These are at expansion and contraction joints
provided in the transverse direction and they act as load transferring
across longitudinal joints. (warping devices.
joint) at mid depth
Q. 93 Because the radius of wheel load
Q. 88 Group index distribution is more than 1.724
GI = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01 bd times slab thickness, hence radius of
Soil portion passing 0.075 mm resisting section is equal to the
sieve radius of wheel load distribution
P = 50%
LL = 40% PI = 20% Q. 94 (c)
Q. 95 (a)
Q. 96 (a)
Q. 97 (c)
Q. 98 Higher the GI value weaker is the

soil sub-grade GI method is an
empirical method.
Q. 99 Critical combination of stresses :
i) During summer mid-day at
bottom of slab
(Load stress + warping stress –
friction stress),
at edge region = 210 + 290 – 10
= 490 N/mm2
ii) During winter mid-day at
bottom of slab
(Load stress + warping stress +
friction stress),
at edge region = 210 + 290 + 10
= 510 N/mm2
iii) At top of slab during midnights
(Load stress + warping stress),
at corner region.
SURVEYING
1 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
1.1 INTRODUCTION • A horizontal plane is normal to the

direction of gravity (as defined by a
• Surveying may be defined as the plumb bob at that point).
method of making measurements of the
relative of the relative positions of, • However, such a plane will infact be
natural & man – made features n earth’s tangential to the earth’s surface at
surface and the presentation of this that point.
information either graphically or Thus, if a large area is considered, the
numerically. discrepancy will become apparent
• The commonest methods of between the area of the horizontal
presentation are by means of a Plan or plane and the actual curved area of the
Map. earth’s surface.
• Both Plans and Maps are the graphical
representations of the features on a
horizontal plane.
• Plan is a large scale representation
whereas Map is a small scale
representation.
• Height information can be added either
as spot heights, which are individual
heights of points, or as contours which
give a less detailed but better visual
representation of the area.
1.2 PLANE & GEODETIC SURVEYING
• Surveying is divided primarily into

Geodetic surveying & Plane • In the above figure if actual area is ABC,
surveying. the projected area will become A’B’C’.
• In Geodetic surveying, large areas of Note: That Arc AC will be projected as
earth’s surface are involved and the Chord A’C’ represented by dotted line. If
curvature of earth is taken into Arc AB = 18.5 km then Chord A’B’ will
account. be 1.52 cm shorter than Arc AB.
• In Plane surveying, relatively small • Length AB, BC & CA in Geodetic
areas are under consideration, and it is surveying are determined using
assumed that the earth’s surface is flat. spherical trigonometry, whereas
• In Plane surveying, measurements lengths A’B’, B’C’ & C’A’ are determined
plotted will represent the projection on in plane surveying using plane
the horizontal plane of the actual field trigonometry.
measurements. • For Survey up to 195.5 km2 in area, this
discrepancy is not serious and therefore
For example, AB is plotted as AB’ plane surveying will be adequate.
However precautions are required Typical scales are as follows :
when connecting such survey to control • Building work
points established and co – ordinate by • Site plans, Civil engineering works :
geodetic surveys. • Town surveys, Highway surveys :
• Plane surveys are done for engineering
projects such as factories, bridges, 3. Cadastral Survey
dams, location & construction of canals, These are undertaken to produce plans
highways, railways etc. of property boundaries for legal
• Geodetic surveying is done for fixing purposes. These are also known as
widely spaced control point, which public land survey. Scales are 1 : 1000
may afterwards be used necessary to 1 : 5000.
control points for fixing minor control
points for plane survey. 4. Hydrographic Survey
• Geodetic survey is carried out by • These surveys are conducted on or near
Department of National Survey of India. the water body, such as lakes, rivers,
Note: Control points are points of bays, harbours. Marine surveys are
known co – ordinates. It is used as a special type of hydrographic surveys,
reference for taking other covers a broader area near sea for
measurements during surveying. offshore structures, navigations, tides,
etc.
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING • The hydrographic survey consists of
BASED ON PURPOSE locating shore lines, water flow
estimation, and determination of the
Based on the purpose the surveys can be shape of area under the water surface,
classified as under. determination of channel depth,
location of locks, sand bars, buoys, etc.
1. Topographical Survey
It is a survey conducted to obtain data 5. Astronomic Survey
and to make a map indicating • These surveys are conducted for
inequalities of land surface by determinations of latitudes, azimuths,
measuring elevations and locating the local time, etc. at various places on the
natural and artificial features of the earth by observing heavenly bodies (the
earth, e.g. rivers, woods, hills, etc. There sun or stars).
scales ranges from 1 : 25000 to 1 :
1000000. 6. Geological Survey
• These surveys are conducted to obtain
2. Engineering Survey information about different strata of the
• These are survey work required before, earth’s surface for the purpose
during and after any engineering works. geological studies. Geological maps are
• Before any work is started, large-scale prepared depicting the details of the
topographical maps or plans are strata.
required as a basis for design.
• It is especially used for the design and 1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEY
construction of new routes, e.g. roads BASED ON INSTRUMENTS USED
and railways.
• It is also used to calculate the areas and Based on the instruments used, the surveys
volumes of land and data for setting out can be classified as under :
curves for route alignment.
1. Chain Surveying
It is the simplest type of surveying in • In triangulation survey, the lines form a
which only linear measurements are system of triangles. The base line is
taken either with a chain or a tape. measured accurately and the lengths of
Note: Angular measurements are not all other lines are computed from the
taken in chain surveying. measured angles.
• Triangulation is used for establishing
2. Compass Surveying control points over extensive areas.
In compass surveying, horizontal angles Note: Theodolite surveys are quite
are measured with the help of a accurate.
magnetic compass, in addition to these
linear measurements taken with chain 6. Tachometric Surveys
or tape. • In this type of survey a special type of
• Although a magnetic compass is not a theodolite called as Tachometer is used,
precise angle- measuring instrument, which is fitted with a stadia diaphragm
hence the compass survey is not very having two horizontal cross hairs in
accurate. However, it is more accurate addition t the central horizontal hair.
than a chain survey. • In tachometric surveying, horizontal
angles, horizontal distances and vertical
3. Leveling
distances (elevation) are measured
In this type of survey a leveling
with tachometer.
instrument is used for determination of
• Although tachometric surveys are not
relative elevations (levels) of various
very accurate in plane areas, but these
points in the vertical plane.
are extremely convenient and gives
4. Plane Table Surveys better result than the theodolite
In this type of survey, a map (or plan) is surveys in rough terrain.
prepared in the field while viewing the
terrain after determining the directions 7. Photogrammetric Surveys
of various lines and measuring the • Photogrammetry is the science of taking
linear distances with a chain or a tape. measurements with the help of
• The accuracy of the plane table survey photographs.
is low. Its main advantage is that • Photogrammetry surveys are generally
measurements and plotting are done used for Topographic mapping of large
simultaneously in the field. areas.
• These are extremely useful for
5. Theodolite Surveys obtaining Topographical details of areas
• It’s this type of survey horizontal and which are difficult to access.
vertical angles are measured with the • Photographs are generally taken from
help of theodolite. A theodolite is a very an aeroplane. However, for certain
precise instrument used for measuring areas where suitable sites exist,
horizontal and vertical angles. photographs can be taken from ground-
The theodolite surveys can be based cameras.
broadly classified into two types: 8. EDM Surveys
(i) Traverse survey
• Trilateration is a type of triangulation in
(ii) Triangulation survey
which all the three sides of each triangle
• In traverse survey, the various stations are measured accurately with the help
form a polygon. The horizontal angles EDM instruments.
are measured with the help of a
• Then angles are computed indirectly
theodolite, whereas the linear
form the known sides of the triangles.
measurements are made with a tape.
• Hence all the sides and angles are
determined.
1.5 PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING

There are two basic principles of surveying.
1. Work from whole to part.
2. Locate a point by at least two
measurements.
1. Work from Whole to Part

• The main idea of working from whole to
part is to localize the errors and prevent
their accumulation.
• The survey area is covered with the
simplest possible frame-work of high- 1.6 SCALE OF A MAP
quality measurements. If the rest of the
• Scale of a map or plane represents the
survey work is carried out within this
ratio of a line on the map (or plan) to
area, the possible accumulation of error
the length of the same line on ground.
can be contained.
• A scale may be represented
• If we work from part to whole, the
numerically by Engineer’s scale or
errors accumulate and expand to a
Representative Fraction.
greater magnitude in the process of
expansion of survey. • The Engineer’s scale is represented by
a statement, e.g. 1 cm = 40 m.
2. Locate a Point by at Least Two • When a scale is represented as a
Measurements fraction, it is called as Representative
• Two control points A & B (any two Fraction.
important features) are selected in the Engineer’s scale 1 cm = 40 m
area and the distance between them is 1
Representative Fraction (R.F) =
measured accurately. Line AB is called 4000
baseline. Note:
1
scale is larger scale than
• If A and B be the two control points, 1000
whose positions are already known on 1
the plan, the position of C can be plotted scale
10000
by any of the following methods. • Scale can also be graphically
represented by drawing a line on map
and marking the ground distance
directly on it.
• The graphical scales have the

advantages over the numerical scales
that the distances on the maps can be
determined by actual scaling even when be correct. For example, if a plan has been
the map has shrunk. In the case of drawn to a scale of 1 : 200, and the length is
shrinking of map, the graphical scale measured with a scale of R.F. of 1 : 250,
also changes with the map, and, (1 250)
Hence, correct length = ×250
therefore, the ratio is unaffected. (1 200)
Correct length =
RF of the wrong scale
× measured length
RF of the correct length
As the area is the product of two distances,
hence
• If x mm on map = 100m on ground, then Correct area =
length of line AB will be 400m.
2
 RF of the wrong scale 
• If now the map shrinks such that 100m  RF of the correct length  × measured area
 
is represented by y mm on map, then
again the distance A’B’ measured on
Example 1
map, with the help of scale on map, will
A surveyor measured the distance between
be 400 m.
two points marked on the plan drawn to a
This is the advantage of graphical scale
scale of 1 cm = 1 m (R.F. = 1:100) and found
y
• Shrunk scale = it to be 50 m. Later he detected that he used
100×1000 a wrong scale of 1 cm = 50 m (RF = 1:50)
x for the measurement. Determine the
• Original scale =
100×1000 correct length. What would be the correct
Shrunk length y Shrunk scale area if the measured area is 60 m2?
• = = Solution
Original length x Original scale
Correct length =
• The ratio of shrunk length to the actual RF of the wrong scale
is known as Shrinkage Ratio (SR), or × measured length
RF of the correct length
Shrinkage Factor (SF)
Thus, 1/ 50
= × 50
= 100m
Shrinkage ratio (SR) or (SF) = 1/100
2
Shrunk length
= =
Shrunk scale Shrunk RF  1/ 50 
Correct area =   × 60 =240m 2
Original length Original scale Original RF 1/100 
Correct distance on map in terms of
original scale = 1.8 USE OF VERNIERS IN SCALES
measured distance on map
SF • A vernier is a device for measuring
Correct area on map in terms of original accurately the fractional part of the
scale smallest division on a graduated scale
measured area on map using planimeter i.e. , main scale. Thus the readings are
= taken closer than the smallest reading
(SF )
2
on the graduated scale.

• The vernier consists of a small scale,
1.7 ERROR DUE TO WRONG MEASURING called vernier scale, which moves along
SCALE the graduated scale called the main
scale.
If a wrong measuring scale is used to
measure the length of a already drawn line
on the plan, the measured length will not
• The vernier scale has an index mark
(arrow) which represents the zero of
the vernier scale.
• The divisions of the vernier are made
either slightly shorter or slightly longer
than that of the main scale.
• The least count of the vernier is equal to
the difference in length of one division
of the main scale and one division of the
vernier scale.
1. Direct Vernier
The direct vernier has divisions which
are slightly shorter than those of
themain scale. Let us assume that n In the above fig(b), reading is taken as
divisions on the vernier scale are equal follows.
in length to = 5.3 (i.e. Reading on main scale before
(n – 1) divisions on the main scale. Thus index mark) + 5 × least count
nv = (n-1)s 0.1
= 5.3 m + 5 × = 5.35 m
or v=
( n-1) s 10
n 2. Retrograde Vernier
where v = length of one division on the A retrograde vernier has divisions
vernier, which are slightly longer than those of
and s = length of one division on the the main scale. If n divisions of the
main scale. vernier scale are equal to (n+1)
The least count (L.C) is, therefore, given divisions on the main scale,
by nv = (n+1)s
L.C. = s – v ( n+1) s
or L.C.=s-
( n-1) s or v=
n
n Therefore, least count (L.C.) = v – s
or L.C.=
s
=
( n+1) s-s
n n
s
or L.C.=
• The least count (L.C) of the vernier is n
thus equal to the value of the smallest • As in the case of a direct vernier, the
division on the main scale (s) divided by least count is equal to the smallest
the total number (n) of divisions on the division on the main scale (s) divided by
vernier. the number (n) of divisions on the
vernier.
• It may be noted that the readings in the
case of a retrograde varnier increase in
a direction opposite to that of the main
scale, whereas in the case of a direct
vernier both increase in the same
direction.
2 DIRECTION & DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
2.1 INTRODUCTION Disadvantages of Cloth or Linen Tape

are:
• Surveying is often referred to as chain 1. It is affected by moisture and gets
surveying (or tape and offset shrunk.
surveying), if the principal item of 2. Its length gets changed by stretching.
equipment traditionally used is a 3. It is likely to twist and does not remain
measuring chain tape. straight in strong winds.
• Now a days, as a result of
improvements in manufacturing 2. Metallic Tape
techniques and a consequential
reduction in purchase price, the chain • This is a linen tape with brass or copper
has been replaced by the more accurate wires into it longitudinally to reduce
steel band. stretching. The wires are not visible
• Chain surveying is used for areas of because it is varnished. These are
small extent on open ground having few available in lengths of 20 – 30 m.
simple details. It is not suitable for large • It is an accurate measurement device
areas having many details. and is commonly used for measuring
• In surveying, the term detail means a offsets.
natural or man-made feature at or near • As it is reinforced with brass or copper
the ground surface. It consists of wires, all the defects of linen tapes are
overcome.
1. Hard details such as buildings, roads,
walls; 3. Steel Tape
2. Soft details; such as a vegetations, trees,
river; • It is more accurate than metallic tapes.
3. Overhead details, such as power and They are made up of steel or stainless
telephone lines steel strips. These are available in
4. Underground details, such as water lengths of 1 – 50 m and width of 6 – 10
mains, sewers. mm.
• At the end of the tape a brass ring is
2.2 TAPES attached, the outer end of which is zero
point of the tape.
Tapes are available in a variety of • Steel tapes cannot be used in ground
materials, lengths and weights. The with vegetation and weeds.
different types of tapes used in
general are discussed as below. 4. Invar Tape
1. Cloth or Linen Tape These are made up of an alloy of nickel

(36%) and steel (64%). These tapes have
These are closely woven linen or synthetic very low coefficient of thermal expansion
material and are varnished to resist the (0.122×10-6/°C). These are available in
moisture, and are available in lengths of 10 lengths of 30, 50 and 100 m and width of 6
– 30 m and widths of 12 – 15 mm. mm.
2.3.3 RANGING RODS
Advantages of Invar Tape

1. Highly precise.
2. It is less affected by temperature
changes in comparison to the other
tape.
Disadvantages of Invar Tape

1. It is soft hence deforms easily.
2. It requires much attention in handling,
hence not used for ordinary works. • The process of locating a number of
points on a long survey line is called
2.3 ACCESSORIES FOR CHAINING Ranging or Ranging out.
• Ranging rods are used to locate
2.3.1 PEGS intermediate points such that these
points lie on the straight line joining the
These are used to mark definite points on end stations. Ranging is must before
the ground either temporarily or semi- starting the measurement of a line
permanently. The exact point from or to, whose length is more than a chain
which the measurements are to be taken, length such that the measurement is
or over which an instrument is to be set, made along a straight line.
are often marked on the peg using nails. • Ranging Rods are 30 mm in diameter
and 2 or 3 m long. These are painted
2.3.2 ARROW with alternate bands of either red and
white or black and white of 200 mm
lengths such that at sometimes the rod
can also used for the rough
measurement of short lengths.
2.3.4 OFFSET RODS
When measuring the length of a long line,

the tape has to be laid down a number of
times and the positions of the ends are
marked with arrows.
As the arrows are placed in the ground • These are similar to ranging rods except
after every chain length, the number of at the top, a stout open ring recessed
arrows held by the follower indicates the hook is provided, as shown in figure
number of chains that have been measured. above.
It provides a check over the length of line • It is also provided with two short
as entered in the field notes. narrow vertical slots at right angles to
each other, passing through the centre
of the section, at about eye level.
• It is mainly used to align the offset line
and measure the short offsets. With the
help of hook provided at the top of rod,
the chain can be pulled or pushed Let A and B be two end stations and
through the hedges or other c, d, e, f etc. be the intermediate
obstructions, if required. points to be established.
2.4 RANGING OR RANGING OUT 2.4.2 INDIRECT RANGING (REPEATED

ALIGNMENT)
• For the measurement of the length of a
survey line, the chain or tape is • When the end stations are not
stretched along the line joining the end intervisible due to rising ground
stations. between them, or due to long distance
• If the distance between the end stations between the ends, then indirect ranging
is less than the length of chain (or tape), is done, to layout a straight line
then the chain can be stretched directly between inaccessible points or points
without establishing the intermediate across a mountain.
points. • If the given points are inaccessible or
• However, if the distance between the are separated by an elevation making it
end stations is greater than the chain impossible for one to be visible from
length. Before starting any the other, the following procedure is
measurements, it becomes necessary to adopted.
establish intermediate points, which
should be in line with the end stations.
• This will ensure that the straight
distance is measured between the end
stations.
• The process of establishing the
intermediate points on a straight line is
known as Ranging or Ranging out in
surveying. Basically there are 3 2.5 ERRORS IN CHAINING
methods of Ranging out:
• Errors and mistake in chaining may
1. Direct Ranging arise from any one or more of the
2. Indirect Ranging following sources such as erroneous
3. Random line method length of chain, bad ranging of
intermediate points, poor straightening
2.4.1 DIRECT RANGING of tape, careless in holding and marking
of points, variation of temperature,
When ranging rods are placed on variation of pull, displacement of
intermediate points along the chain line by arrows, miscounting of chain lengths,
direct observation from either of the end misreading of tape, erroneous booking
stations, the process is known as direct and many more.
ranging.
Errors in chaining are classified as
follows:
1. Compensating errors (Random error) • If l is the nominal length of chain & l is
the true length, and L is the length
2. Cumulative errors (Systematic error) reported to be measured then
• Correct length = (Actual length of chain)
2.5.1COMPENSATING ERRORS (RANDOM × (no. of times the chain was used to
ERROR) measure the length) of line
 L' 
• These are the errors which are liable to Correct length (L) = l'  
 l 
occur in both the directions and tend to
⇒correct length= (actual length of chain)
compensate.
 Length reported to be measured 
• Compensating errors (Random error) × 
are proportional to the square root of  Normal length of chain 
the length of the line. Hence, correction for standardization
(Ca)= True length – measured length
2.5.2 CUMULATIVE ERRORS (SYSTEMATIC = L – L’
ERROR) L'(l') l'-l
= -L'= ×L'
l l
• These are the errors which are liable to
l'-l
occur in the same direction and tend to Ca = ×L'
accumulate. l
• Hence these errors thus considerably where,
increase or decrease the actual l’ = True length of chain
measurements. l = Nominal length of chain
• The cumulative errors are proportional L’ = measured distance
to the length of the line and may be Ca = Correction for standardization
positive or negative. Note: The following formula may also
be used
2.6 ERROR & CORRECTIONS
2
 l' 
True area =   × measured area,
l
1. Error = Measured distance – Correct 3
distance l'
True volume =   × measured
2. Correct distance = Measured distance + l
Correction volume
This implies that Correction = - Error
2. Correction for slope ( Cg )
2.6.1 TYPES OF CORRECTIONS If L is the slope distance & D is then
equivalent horizontal distance then
The following two corrections are generally correction Cg = D − L
applied to the measurements done with (a)when angle of slope ‘θ’ is measure
chain. =Cg L cos θ=
− L L(cos θ − 1)
1. Correction for standardization
Cg =
−L(1 − cos θ)
2. Correction for slope
For accurate measurements with a steel
tape or a chain, more elaborate corrections
are applied as discussed later.
1. Correction for Standardization (b) When difference of elevation (h)

measured
Cg = L2 − h 2 − L
 1

 h 
2 2
Cg = L 1 − 2  − 1

 L  
 
 1 h 2 h 4  
C g = L  1 − 2
− 4  − 1 [Neglecting − L(1 − cos θ )
Cg =
 2 L 8L  
where, L = measured distance.
smaller term higher power]
− Lh 2 − h 2 −h 2 Note: That correction for standardization
=
Cg = C g =
2L2 2L 2L & correction for slope is same in the tape as
Note: was in the chain.
• Slope correction is always negative
• If higher power is not neglected the 3. Correction for pull (Tension) [ C p ]
h4 • If the pull applied to the tape during
correction increases by 3
8L measurement is more than the standard
pull at which the tape was standardized,
2.7 TAPE CORRECTION then length of tape increases. Hence the
distance measured becomes less than
In precise taping, the following corrections the actual.
should be applied to the measured The pull correction C p is given as:
distances. P − Ps
1. Correction for Standardization Cp =
AE
L
2. Correction for Slope Where, C p = Correction for pull
3. Correction for Pull
4. Correction for Temperature Ps= standard pull
5. Correction for Sag. P = pull applied during measurement
6. Correction for Misalignment. A = area of cross – section of the tape
7. Correction for Means Sea Level (M.S.L)
E = modulus of elasticity of tape
1. Correction for standardization = 2.1×105 N / mm 2 for steel tape
• Correction for standardization is = 1.54 ×105 N / mm 2 for invar tape
applied when actual length of tape is L = measured length
different from the standard length
(nominal length) • Correction for pull is positive, if the
 l '− l  applied pulls more than standard and
We know that = Ca  × L' negative, if the applied pull is less than
 l  the standard pull.
Where,
4. Correction for Temperature
l’ = True length of tape
l = Nominal length of tape • The length of tape change due to
L’ = measured distance changes in the temperature while
Ca = correction for standardization taking the measurements. The
temperature correction Ct which,
2. Correction for slope (Cg)
therefore, needs to be made is given by:
Ct =α(Tm − T0 )L
where Note: If the tape is standardized in
Ct = Correction for temperature catenary, but used flat in field, the sag
Tm = mean temperature during correction is (+) ve.
measurement
T0 = temperature of standardization 6. Correction for Misalignment ( Cm )
α = coefficient of thermal expansion of
material • If the survey line is not accurately
= 3.5 ×10−6 / o C for steel tape ranged out, the error due to
= 1.22 ×10−7 / o C for invar tape misalignment occurs. The measured
L = measured length distance (ABC) will always be greater
than the correct (Actual) distance (AC)
• Correction for temperature is positive, and hence the error is positive and the
if the temperature during measurement correction is negative.
is more than the standard temperature,
and negative, if the temperature during
measurement is less than the standard
temperature at which the tape was
standardized. Correction
(Cm) = - [ AB(1 − cos α) + BC(1 − cos β) ]
5. Correction for Sag • If A & C are not intervisible, the
included angle γ can be measured
• If the highest accuracy is required, accurately with a theodolite. The
rather than laying the tape along correction is given as below
ground, it can be suspended between = Cm (AB) 2 + (BC) 2 − 2(AB)(BC) cos γ − (AB + BC)
tripod heads, i.e. hung in catenary, and a
correction for the sag in the tape is
applied if the tape has been • If angles are not measured, but the
standardized on the flat. distance BB is measured, then
=
C  (AB) 2 − (BB ) 2 + (BC) 2 − (BB ) 2  − (AB + AC)
m
 1 1

On solving the above equation we get.

 (BB1 ) 2 (BB1 ) 2 
Cm = − +
 2AB 2BC 
For determination of correction, the
sagged curve is assumed to be a 7. Reduction of length to mean Sea
parabola Level
− w 2 l3
Sag correction Cs = • The measured lengths at different
24p 2
altitudes are sometimes reduced to a
Where,
common level, generally Mean Sea Level
w = weight of tape per unit length in
(M.S.L.). We know that the earth is
N/m
spheroidal in shape, the measured
l = length of tape suspended between
distance at any altitude h above the
supports in ‘m’
mean sea level would be greater than
p = applied pull in ‘N’
the equivalent length at mean sea level.
• That sag correction in this case is (-) ve.
2.8.1 UNITS OF ANGLE MEASUREMENT
a) Sexagesimalsystem :
1 Circumference=360° (degree)
1 degree = 60 minute
1 minute = 60 second
b) Centesimal system :
• Let the shape of the earth is a sphere of 1 circumference = 400g
radius R and consider a distance AB 1 Grad = 100c (centigrade)
measured as L at an altitude of h above 1centigrade= 100cc (centicenting grads)
the mean sea level. c) Hours system:
Let the equivalent length CD be equal to
1 circumference = 24h
Le .
1h = 60m
Now L = ( R + h )θ …….. (i)
1m = 60 s
And Le = R θ …….. (ii) Where
R is the radius of the earth and θ is the 2.8.2 MERIDIAN
angle subtended at the centre
between points AB. Fixed direction on the surface of earth with
From equation (i) and (ii), reference to which, bearing of survey line
=θ
L
= e
L are expressed.
R+h R i) True Meridian: Line which passes
or through North and south poles and
 R  point of observation.
Le = L   ii) Magnetic Meridian: Line which passes
R+h
through magnetic north & magnetic
Therefore, Mean sea level correction,
south as well as the point of observation.
C=h Le − L iii) Grid Meridian
 R  iv) Arbitrary Meridian.
= L.  −L
R+h
Lh 2.8.3 TRUE AND MAGNETIC NORTH
Ch = −
R+h
AS R>>>h (R = 6370 km, h = few meter), The surface of earth intersected by its axis
therefore we can write that yield two points namely North
geographical pole & South geographical
Lh pole. This geographical pole is called true
Ch = −
R north/south.
Magnetic south & north is determined by
The correction is negative. Equivalent indication of free supported and properly
length, Le= L + Ch balanced magnetic needle.
2.8 MEASUREMENTS OF DIRECTION 2.8.4 BEARINGS & ANGLES

COMPASS SURVEYING
The direction of survey line can be
Compass surveying: The branch of established
surveying in which direction of survey lines a) W.r.t each other: angle between two
are determined by compass, is called lines
compass surveying. b) W.r.t. a meridian: Bearing of a line
- True Bearing: Bearing w.r.t. true NφW = 360° - R.B. 270° - 360°
meridian
- Magnetic bearing: Bearing w.r.t.
magnetic meridian
- Arbitrary Bearing: Bearing w.r.t. to
arbitrary meridian
2.8.5 DESIGNATION OF BEARINGS
There are two common systems of notation

of bearing. 2.8.6 FORE AND BACK – BEARINGS
1. Whole circle bearing method (W.C.B): Every line is defined by two bearings,
Also knows as azimuthally system. whether expressed in w.c.b. or in Q.B.
Bearing of line is measured health system. The bearing of line in the progress
magnetic north in clockwise direction. of line/survey is fore bearing. While the
Value of angle varies 0° to 360°. bearing in opposite direction of progress of
Eg. WCB of OA, OB, OC, OD is θ1 , θ 2 , θ3 , θ 4 survey is called back or reverse bearing.
respectively. When expressed in WCB, both bearings
differ by 180°.
2. Quadrant bearing system: In this

system, bearing of line is measured
from true north or south, depending on
position of line (Angle measurement
may be clockwise or anticlockwise) In the figure,
Also known as quadrantal bearing α is fore-bearing of line AB,
system. Q.B. bearing value varies while β is the back bearing of AB.
from0°-90°. Relation between α and β
α – β = ± 180°
Conversion of back bearing into fore
bearing or vice – versa (WCB)
= fore bearing ± 180°
Back bearing

+ ve sign if fore bearing is less than 180°
− ve sign is F.B. > 180°.

For θ. B. System
Q.B of line OA,OB,OC,OD are replace N by S, S by N, E by W and W by E,
designated as Nα°E, Sβ°E, Sγ°W, 
NS°W, respectively,  Without any change in numerical value.
Conversion of Bearing from one
system to another 2.9 COMPASS TRAVERSE
R.B. Rule of W.C.B. W.C.B.
Quadrant between In compass traverse, a magnetic compass is
NαE = R.B. 0° - 90° used to determine the angles of traverse.
SBE = 180° - R.B. 90° - 180° The sides of the traverse (called traverse
SθW = 180° + R.B. 180° - 270°
lines) are measured with a chain or a tape. suspended, balanced magnetic needle
(or a magnetic bar) at that point. This
2.10 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES magnetic needle should not be affected
by magnetic forces other than that of
The direction of a line is defined by the the earth for determining the correct
horizontal angle which the line makes with direction of the magnetic meridian.
a reference line. The fixed line of reference • The freely suspended magnetic needle
is called a meridian. There are 4 types of comes to rest in a position parallel to
meridians used in surveying. the line passing through the magnetic
north and south poles, and therefore it
1. True meridian indicates the direction of the magnetic
2. Magnetic meridian at that place.
3. Grid meridian • The magnetic poles are not fixed in
4. Arbitary meridian position on the earth. They change their
positions continually due to some
1. True Meridian unknown reasons.
• Hence, magnetic meridian at a point is
• The true meridian passing through a not fixed it varies with time.
point on the surface is the line in which
a plane passing through a given point 3. Grid Meridian
and geographical north and south poles,
intersects the surface of the earth. • For survey of a country, the true
• It represents the true north – south meridian passing through the central
direction at the place. place is sometimes taken as a reference
• True meridian at a point can be meridian for the whole country. Such a
determined by astronomical reference meridian is known as grid
observations to the sun or stars. meridian. The meridians of all other
• The true meridians through various places in that state are assumed to be
stations are not parallel, but converage parallel to the grid meridian.
at the poles. However for small surveys, • A line parallel to the grid meridian and
they are assumed to be parallel to each passing through the point indicates the
other. directions of the grid north and south.
• True meridian at a point is fixed. Like this rectangular grids are plotted
on the map.
4. Arbitrary Meridian
• Arbitrary meridian is the meridian

which is taken in any convenient,
arbitrary direction. Any reference line
may be taken as arbitrary meridian. But
usually it is taken in the direction from
a traverse station to a well-defined,
permanent point such as a church spire,
the chimney, etc. Sometimes, even the
2. Magnetic Meridian first traverse line is also taken as an
arbitrary meridian.
• Magnetic meridian at a point is the • The arbitrary meridian is used for
direction indicated by a freely determine the relative directions of
various lines in a small traverse. bearing.
2.11 TYPES OF BEARINGS 3. Grid Bearing

The grid bearing of a line is the
Bearing of a line is the horizontal angle horizontal angle which the line makes
which it makes with a reference line with the grid meridian, of the state.
(meridian). Depending upon the meridian,
there are 4 types of bearings. 4. Arbitrary Bearing
The arbitrary bearing of a line is the
1. True Bearing horizontal angle which the line makes
• The true bearing of a line is the with the arbitrary meridian.
horizontal angle between the true 2.12 DESIGNATION OF BEARINGS
meridian and the line. As the true
bearing of a line does not The bearing of a line is designated in the
change with time can be re-established following systems.
even after hundreds of years, hence it is 1. Whole Circle Bearing System
a general practice to use the true 2. Quadrantal Bearing System
bearings for all important surveys.
1. Whole circle bearing (W.C.B) System
• The whole circle bearing (W.C.B) of a

line is the horizontal angle between the
line and the north end of the reference
meridian in the clockwise direction. The
direction of the line is indicated by an
• The true bearing of a line is also called arrow. The reference meridian is
as Azimuth. generally represented as a vertical line
• In plane surveying, the true bearing is with its north end towards the top of
measured from the true north in the the paper.
clockwise direction. • The whole circle bearing of a line may
• The true bearing of a line can be vary from 0° to 360°.
determined by astronomical • In fig, the whole circle bearings of the
observations. line OA, OB, OC and OD are 45°, 150°,
240° and 330° respectively.
2. Magnetic Bearing • The whole circle bearings is also called
• Magnetic bearing of line is the azimuth, and is represented by A.
horizontal angle which the line makes • The whole circle bearing is measured
with the magnetic north as shown in the with a prismatic compass.
fig(b).
• As the magnetic meridian changes
slowly with time, the magnetic bearing
of a line also changes with time. Hence
the magnetic bearings are used for
small, less important surveys.
• The magnetic bearings are determined
with the help of a prismatic compass as
a whole circle bearing and with a
surveyor’s compass as a quadrantal
2. Quadrantal Bearing (Q.B.) System
• The quadrantal bearing (Q.B.) of a line

is the actual angle which the line makes
with the meridian.
• Thus the quadrantal bearing is
measured from the north point or the
south point, whichever is closer
therefore the quadrantal bearing of a
line cannot be greater than 90°.
• The letters N, E, S and W are used to
represent north, east, south and west,
respectively. While writing the
quadrantal bearing of a line following
rules are used.
(i) First the letter N or S
• When a line points towards north, east,
(ii) Then the angle of the bearing.
south or west, it is written as ‘due
(iii) Lastly the letter E or W.
north’ , ‘due east’ , ‘due south’ , or ‘due
For example, the quadrantal bearings of
west’. Thus
the lines OA, OB, OC and OD as shown in
N 0° = Due North
the above figure will be.
N 90° E = S 90° E = S 90° E = Due East
Line OA, N 45° E
N 90° W = S 90° W = Due West
Line OB, S 30° E
S 0° = Due South
Line OC, S 60° W
Line OD, N 30° W
2.14 FORE BEARING AND BACK BEARING
• The quadrantal bearing of a line is
measured with a surveyor’s compass. The bearing of the line in the direction of
the progress of survey is called the fore
bearing (F.B). The bearing of line in the
opposite direction of the progress of survey
is called Back Bearing (B.B). To avoid
confusion, the arrows are marked to
indicate the direction of the progress of
survey.
2.13 REDUCED BEARING

• When the whole circle bearing of a line
exceeds 90°, it must be reduced to the Line Fore Bearing Black Bearing
AB α β
corresponding angle less than 90°. This
BA β α
angle is called as Reduced Bearing.
• Conversion of whole circle bearing to Note: That fore bearing & back bearing of a
Quadrant Bearing. line have a difference of 180°.
Case W.C.B. between R.B. Quadrant
1 0°-90° W.C.B NE
2 90°-180° 180°-W.C.B. SE 2.15CALCULATION OF INCLUDED
3 180°-270° W.C.B.-180° SW ANGLES FROM BEARINGS
4 270°-360° 360°-W.C.B. NW
If the bearing of adjacent lines are known,
then the included angles may be calculated
as below:
Case І Given Whole Circle Bearing of lines.
In a clockwise close traverse OAB, OA is the

forward line (next line) and BO is the
previous line at station O. Let Whole Circle
Bearing of the line OA = α and W.C.B. of the 2.16 SURVEYOR’S COMPASS
line OB = β. The included angle ∠ AOB = θ
= F.B. of the forward line – B.B. of the • Fig. shows the Cross sectional view of a
previous line surveyor’s compass. It consists of a
=α–β brass or aluminium circular box of
= a negative value about 150 mm diameter.
• The graduated card or scale ring is
Note: If the value is a negative one (as directly fixed to the box, which governs
above) add 360° to get the actual included the size of compass.
angle which will be the exterior included • The graduations are in degree and half
angle. degrees.
Case П Given Q.B. of lines: • All parts of the compass except the
a) When bearings are measured in the magnetic needle are made of non-
same side of the common meridian, θ = metallic materials.
β–α
b) When bearings are measured in the
opposite side of the common meridian,
θ=β+α
c) When bearings are measured in the
same side of the different meridians, θ =
180° - (α + β)
d) When bearings are measured in the
opposite side of the different meridians, 1. Eye vane 2. Object vane
θ = 180° - (α - β) 3. Glass Cover 4. Lifting Pin
5. Bearing 6. Scale Ring
7. Rider 8. Needle
9. Pivot 10. Brass Box
11. Lifting Lever
• When the compass is not in use, the

object vane is folded over the box. It
pressures the lifting pin, and a lifting
lever lifts the needle above the pivot. It pointing towards the north.
prevents unnecessary wear of the pivot.
• The magnetic needle is made up of 2.17 PRISMATIC COMPASS
magnetic steel. The needle of its center
has a conical Jewell bearing which rests The prismatic compass is a magnetic
on a hardened steel point. compass in which there is a prism for
• A small metal rider or a sliding weight taking observations.
is provided on the needle to counteract
the effect of dip. The rider can be slid
along the needle so that the needle lies
in a horizontal plane.
• The size of the compass is defined by
the diameter of the reading edge of the
graduated ring. It generally varies from
50 mm to 200 mm. 1. Box 2. Breaking pin
• The surveyor’s compass is used for 3. Lifting lever 4. Pivot
measurement of quadrantal bearings. 5. Needle 6. Spring
7. Glass cover 8. Prism cap
9. Prism 10. Sun glass
11. Eye vane 12. Lifting pin
13. Object vane 14. Mirror
15. Graduated ring 16. A gate cap
• The prismatic compass is generally

smaller in size than a surveyor’s
compass.
• The prismatic compass consists of a
circular box, about 85 to 100 mm
diameter.
• The magnetic needle used in a prismatic
compass is of broad in shape.
• An aluminium ring graduated in
degrees and hale degrees is directly
attached with the needle.
• It should be noted that since the • The graduations on the aluminium ring
graduated ring turns with the sight increase clockwise from 0° to 360°, with
vanes and not with the compass needle, the zero of the graduations coinciding
the directions E and W on the with the south end of the needle, 90°
graduated ring are reversed from the graduation is at the west, 180°
actual east and west directions. This is graduation at the north and 270°
required so that the reading of the graduation at the east as show below in
north end of the needle gives directly the figure.
the quadrantal bearing. • The prismatic compass is used for the
• The N-mark rotates as the line of sight determination of the whole circle
is rotated, but the north end of the bearings (W.C.B.) of the lines.
needle remains stationary. The N-mark • Readings are taken through a prism
coincides with the north end of the attached to the box.
needle only when the line of sight is
Agonic Line: Line made up of points having
zero declination.
2.19 VARIATION IN DECLINATION
1. Diurnal variation: More at poles, in

summer and during day time.
2. Annual variation
3. Secular variation: Maximum magnitude
of all variations
4. Irregular variation
2.19.1 DETERMINATION OF TRUE

BEARING
True bearing = magnetic bearing ±

declination.
2.19.2 LOCAL ATTRACTION

• When the line of sight exactly towards North end of a freely suspended magnetic
the north, the reading observed is 0°. needle points to magnetic north, if it is
• When it points exactly to the east, the not influenced by any other external forces
reading observed 90°. except the earth’s magnetic field. However,
• It may be noted that in a prismatic some times the needle may be attracted
compass, the sighting of the object and when it is proximity to certain magnetic
the reading of the bearing are done substances.
simultaneously, whereas in a surveyor’s This influence which prevents the needle
compass, first the object is sighted, and from pointing to the magnetic north in a
then reading of the bearing is taken by given locality is called local attraction.
moving around the looking down from
the glass cover. 2.19.3 DETECTION
2.18 MAGNETIC DECLINATION Presence of local attraction may be

detected by observing the F.B and B.B. of a
Magnetic declination at a place is line and finding the difference between
horizontal angle between true meridian two, If F.B. – B.B. ±180 the local attraction
and the magnetic meridian. may be present at one or both the stations.
- If magnetic declination is to eastern
side (i.e. Magnetic meridian is to east of 2.19.4 ELIMINATION OF LOCAL BEARING
true meridian) it is eastern or positive
declination. - First method: Bearing of times are
- If it is to western side, it is negative or calculated on the basis of that line that
western declination. has difference of 180° in its back and
fore bearings.
2.18.1 ISOGNICS LINE - Second method: Based on fact that
through the bearings measured at the
Line drawn through the point of same station may be incorrect but the
declination. These lines follow included angle will be correct as the
irregular paths.
error is equal for all the bearing
measure at a point.
2.19.5 FOR A CLOSED TRAVERSE
π
Sum of interior included angles = (2n − 4)
4
n = no. of sides.
The error obtained is disturbed to all the
included angle uniformly and bearings are
calculated, starting from line where
bearings differ by 180°.
3 THEODOLITE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
• Precise optical theodolite is fitted with
• A theodolite is an important instrument an optical system which is used to read
used for measurement horizontal and both horizontal and vertical angles
vertical angles in surveying. precisely. These theodolites are having
• It can also be used for a number of a micrometer for taking readings and
surveying operations, such as are also called as Microptic Theodolites.
prolonging a line, measuring distances • These theodolites are used for precise
indirectly and leveling. work. Most of these theodolites can
read angles up to 1’’ or less.
3.2 CLASSIFICATION • The size of a theodolite is defined by the
size its lower graduated circle. For
Theodolites can be classified into transit example, a 20 cm theodolite means the
and non-transit theodolites. diameter of the graduated circle of the
lower plate is 20 cm. Generally the size
1. Transit Theodolite of the theodlites varies from 8 to 25 cm.
A theodolite is said to be a transit one when 3.3 MAIN PARTS OF VERNIER THEODOLITE
its telescope can be rotated through 180° in
a vertical plane about its horizontal axis,
thus directing the telescope in exactly
opposite direction.
2. Non-Transit Theodolite
A theodolite is said to be a non-transit one

when its telescope cannot be rotated
through 180° in a vertical plane about its
horizontal axis. Such theodolites are
obsolete nowadays.
Theodolite can also be classified into

two types as follows :
1. Vernier Theodolites
2. Precise Optical Theodolites
• In a vernier theodolites, verniers are 1. Telescope

used in taking the readings. These 2. Trunnion Axis
• theodolites are most commonly used in 3. Vernier Frame
general work. Most of the vernier 4. Verticle circle
theodolites can read angles up to 20’’. 5. Plate level
(i.e. the least count of theodolite is 20’’) 6. Standard
7. Upper Plate 2. Vertical Circle: Circular graduated are
8. Lower plate and to horizontal axis of telescope.
9. Inner Axis Circle & either graduated continuously
10. Outer spindle from of to 360° or divided into four
11. Inner Spindle quadrants.
12. Altitude bubble 3. The index Frame: It is T-shaped frame
13. Levelling screw consisting of vertical leg known as
14. Clip screw 15. Hook clipping arm and a horizontal bar
16. Tribrach known as index arm.
17. Verticle Clamp Screw 4. Standards: Two frames resembling ‘A’
18. Vertical Tangent Screw stand when upper plate to support
19. Trivet horizontal axis are called standards.
20. Tripod 5. Leveling head: Consist of two parallel
21. Tripod Leg triangular plates known as tribrach
22. Target Sight plates, upper tribes has leveling screws
23. Rifle Sight and lower tribachor tool plate has hole
provisioned for plumb bab. Leveling
3.4 ESSENTIALS OF THE TRANSIT head serves following purposes.
THEODOLITES. i. Support main part of the instruments.
ii. Attachment of theodolite to tripad.
Following are some essential parts of a iii. Leveling of the theodolite.
transit theodolite. 6. Plumb bob: It is suspended by a hook.
i. Telescope A is used for centering work.
ii. Vertical Circle 7. Upper and lower plates: The upper
iii. The index frame plate supports the standards and
iv. The plumb-bob carries vernier scales hence also known
v. Standards as vernier plate.
vi. The leveling head Upper plate is attached to the inner
vii. Lower plate and upper-plate axis.Lower plate is attached to outer
spindle. It carries the clamp & tangent
screw which controls the relative
motion of two spindles.
3.5 BASIC DEFINITIONS
The following definitions should be clearly

understood.
3.5.1 CENTERING
It is the process of setting up the

instrument exactly over the station mark. A
plumb bob suspended from a small hook
attached to the underside of the inner
1. Telescope: Telescope is mounted on spindle is used for Precise centering.
the horizontal axis of theodolite. The
telescope may be internal focusing type 3.5.2 HORIZONTAL AXIS
or external focusing type.
It is also called the Trunnion axis or side of the observer and the bubble is up.
transverse axis. It is the axis about which
the telescope can be rotated in a vertical 3.5.9 TELESCOPE NORMAL
plane.
The telescope is said to be normal or direct
3.5.3 VERTICAL AXIS when its vertical circle is to the left hand
It is the axis about which the telescope can side of the observer and the bubble is up.
be rotated in a horizontal plane. It is also
known as azimuth axis. 3.5.10 TELESCOPE INVERTED
The telescope is said to be inverted when
3.5.4 LINE OF SIGHT its vertical circle is to the right hand side of
It is the imaginary line passing through the the observer and the bubble is down.
intersection of the cross-hairs of the
diaphragm and the optical centre of the 3.5.11 TRANSIT
objective. It is also known as line of
collimation. It is also called as plunging or reversing.
When line of sight comes in horizontal This is the operation of revolving the
plane it is called as line of collimation. telescope by 180° in a vertical plane about
its horizontal axis, thus making it point
3.55 AXIS OF LEVEL TUBE exactly in the opposite direction.
3.5.12 SWINGING OF THE TELESCOPE

• It is a line tangential to the longitudinal
curve of the level tube at its centre.
• Revolving the telescope in the
• Axis of plate level is horizontal when
horizontal plane, about its vertical axis
bubble is centered.
is called swinging of telescope or simply
3.5.6 FACE RIGHT swing. A right swing means clockwise
rotation of the telescope, whereas a left
When the vertical circle of a theodolite is swing means anticlockwise rotation of
on the right hand side of the observer, the the telescope.
position is called face right and the • By taking the mean of the left swing and
observation made is called face right the right swing observations, the effects
observation. of error due to friction or backlash in
the moving parts is eliminated.
3.5.7 FACE LEFT
3.5.13 CHANGING FACE
When the vertical circle of a theodolite is • It is the operation of bringing the
on the left hand side of the observer, the telescope from the face left condition to
position is called face left and the the face right condition and vice versa.
observation made is called face left • The face is changed by plunging the
observation. telescope and swinging it by 180°.
Note: By taking the man of both of the face The errors that are eliminated by
readings, the collimation error is eliminated. changing face are as below:
1. Error due to line of collimation not
3.5.8 TELESCOPE NORMAL being perpendicular to the
The telescope is said to be normal or direct horizontal axis.
when its vertical circle is to the left hand 2. Error due to horizontal axis not
being perpendicular to the vertical
axis.
3. Error due to line of collimation not pushed into the ground by applying
being parallel to the axis of the a force parallel to the legs.
altitude level. • Take out the instrument from the
box. Lift the instrument from the
3.5.14 DOUBLE SIGHTING
base (and not from the telescope)
and screw it tightly on the tripod
It is the process of measurement of a
head after removing the cap
horizontal angle or a vertical angle twice;
provided on the tripod head. Adjust
once with the telescope in the normal
the height of the tripod so that the
condition and once with the telescope in
telescope is at the eye level up
the inverted condition.
surveyor.
• For centering purposes, suspend a
3.5.15 LINING IN
plumb bob from the hook beneath
the inner spindle.
It is the process of establishing
intermediate points with the help of a
2. Centering
theodolite on a given straight line whose
• Centering is done to place the
ends are intervisible.
vertical axis exactly over the station
mark.
3.5.16 BALANCING IN
• Approximately centering is done
It is the process establishing intermediate with the help of the tripod legs.
points with the help of a theodolite on a • The tripod legs are moved radially
given straight line whose ends are not or circumferentially for centering.
intervisible. • As the legs are moved radially, the
plumb bob shifts in the direction of
3.6 TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF A the movement of the leg without
THEODOLITE seriously affecting the leveling of the
instrument.
• Temporary adjustments are the • When the legs are moved sideways
adjustments which are required to be or circumferentially, the plumb does
made at each setting of the instrument not shift much but the leveling is
before taking observations. affected.
The following five temporary • Approximately leveling is checked
adjustments are required. with reference to a small circular
1. Setting up bubble provided on the tribrach.
2. Centering • The exact centering is done by
3. Leveling means of the shifting head or the
4. Focusing the eyepiece centering device. Shifting head is
5. Focusing the objective loosened and the upper plate of the
shifting head is slided over the
1. Setting up lower one until the plumb bob is
• For setting up the instrument, place exactly over the station mark.
the tripod over the required station. Tighten the screw-clamping ring
• The legs of the tripod should be after the exact centering.
spread such that they make an angle
of about 60° with the horizontal.
The shoes of the legs should be
are four leveling screw but these are not
common.
The leveling procedure will depend upon
the number of levels provided on the
upper plate.
3.7MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL
ANGLES
• When there is windy condition in
the field, the plumb bob may start Horizontal angles with help of theodolite
swinging. In that case centering is are none generally measured by two
done using optical plummet. methods.
1. Repetition method
2. Reiteration method
1. Repetition Method: Used to measure a

horizontal angle to a finer degree of
accuracy than that of the least count of
vernier.
- Angle is measured two or more
times without setting the vernier to
zero.
- The angle is found out by dividing
the final vernier reading by the
3. Leveling number of observation.
• Accurate leveling of the theodolite is
done with the help of leveling 2. Reiteration Method: This method is
screws or foot screws with also known as direction method or
reference to the plate levels. method of series.
- This method is suitable for the
• The leveling is done to make the
measurement of the angles of a
vertical axis of the instrument truly
group having common vertex point.
vertical or to make horizontal plate
- All the angles are measured
truly horizontal.
successively and horizon is
• The basic approach is to make axis
closed.(It provides the check as
of the plate bubble horizontal. This
closed horizon should given the
happens when the plate bubble is in
reading of 360° on vernier).
centre.
3.7.1 MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL
ANGLE
Vertical angle it the angle which the

inclined line of sight to an object makes
with the horizontal.
- Vertical angle is measured by meaning the
telescope in vertical circle.
Note: Normally there are three level
screw. However, in some theodolite there 3.7.2 SOURCES OF ERROR IN
THEODOLITE WORK
Error (s) may arise due to many reasons
which can be categorized into following
subheads:
1. Instrumental Error
a. Maladjustment of plate level
b. Line of sight not perpendicular to
trunnion axis
c. Horizontal axis not perpendicular to
vertical circle/axis.
d. Eccentricity of inner and outer axes.
e. Axis of attitude level not parallel to line
of sight.
f. Faculty circle graduation.
g. Eccentric vernier.
2. Personal Error
a. Inaccurate centering.
b. Slip
c. Inaccurate leveling.
d. Inaccurate bisection of target.
e. Displacement of target.
f. Parallax
g. Mistakes in setting & reading verniers.
3. Error due to natural reasons
4 TRAVERSING
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A traverse is a series of connected lines

whose length and direction are measured
in field. The field work in a theodolite
traverse consists of
i) reconnaissance,
ii) selection and marking of stations,
iii) measurement of traverse lines, Traverses are classified as
iv) angular measurements and a) Closed traverse
v) picking up the details. b) Opened traverse
• A theodolite traverse is commonly used [Already discussed in chapter of compass
for providing a horizontal control surveying]
system to determine the relative
positions of the various points on the 4.2 METHOD OF TRAVERSING
surface of the earth.
a) Linear measurement
• Earlier when sophisticated distance
b) Angular measurement
measurement instruments were not
Linear measurements can be done by
available, we relied on triangulation. [A
i) Taping or chaining
method where one base line was
ii) Tachometric method
measured and all angles are measured
iii)Electronic Distance Measurement
to find out lengths of other lines]
Instrument (EDMI)
• However with the advent of Electronic
Distance Measurement Instruments • Linear measurement equipment chosen
[EDMI], traversing is fast replacing should be such that degree of accuracy
triangulation. in this is of the same order as that of the
angle measurement instrument.
• In the other words if very precise
equipment is used for angular
measurement, we must use equally
precise equipment for distance
measurement.
• If compass with least count of 30’ is
used then the linear measurement
equipment used must have error of the
order of
δl 1
tan(30=') = i.e. 1 in 115
l 115'
δl • The magnetic bearings of all other lines
Note: tan(δθ ) = , or for small angles,
l are determined indirectly from the
δl magnetic bearing of the first line and
δθ = is a relationship which can be the included angles. .
l
• However the magnetic bearing of the
used to determine the consistent precision first line has the accuracy of the
in angular & linear measurement For compass, the difference of bearings of
example if angular measurements are made the two adjacent lines has the accuracy
with an error of 20’’; the relative accuracy of the theodolite.
of the linear measurements is given by • The method is more accurate than the
δl loose needle method, and is generally
= tan = 20 '' 20 ''
l preferred in the field.
20 π 1
= × radian =
60 × 60 180 10300 3. Method of included angle
Hence distance should be measured with
a precision of 1 in 10000. • Traversing by the method of included
angles is the most commonly used
4.3 ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS method. In this method, magnetic
bearing of any of the one line (generally,
The following methods are generally used the initial line) is measured in the field.
for measurement of angles in a theodolite All the included angles are also
traverse. measured.
1. Lose needle method of bearings • Bearing of all the other lines are
2. Fast needle method of bearings determined from the bearing of the
3. Method of included angles initial line and the included angles. This
4. Method of direct angles method is more accurate than the fast
5. Method of deflection angles needle method.
• An included angle is one of the two
1. Loose needle Method angles formed at a station by the two
traverse lines meeting there.
• In loose needle method, the direction of • The angles measured clockwise are the
the magnetic meridian is established at interior angles if the traverse is run
each traverse station and the direction counterclockwise.
of the line is measured with reference • The angles are the exterior angles when
to the magnetic meridian. In other the traverse is run clockwise from the
words, the magnetic bearing of each starting station P.
line is measured at each station. Note: All angles are measured
• A theodolite fitted with a magnetic clockwise. This is done because in
compass is used for measuring the theodolite the graduations increases in
magnetic bearings of the traverse line. clockwise direction.
• The loose needle method is also known
as the free needle method.
2. Fast Needle Method
• In fast needle method, the magnetic

meridian is established only at the
starting station and the magnetic
bearing of the first line is measured.
4. Method of Direct Angles • Independent co-ordinates of a points
This method is similar to the method of w.rt. a common origin are called
included angle. However, in this independent co-ordinate
method, direct angles or the angles to • Independent co-ordinate of point 1 =
the right are measured. The method is y1 & x
generally used in an open traverse.
• Independent co-ordinate of point 2 =
y2 & x2
Note:
x2= x1 + D1
5. Method of Deflection Angles y=
2 y1 − L1
• The method of deflection angles is x3 = x1 + D1 + D2
mainly used for the open traverse y3 = y1 − L1 + L2
conducted for the survey of roads,
⇒ Total latitude of any point (say point no.
railways, canals, pipelines, sewers, etc.
3) = Total latitude of starting point +
where the traverse lines make small
algebraic sum of the all latitude of all
deflection angles.
lines up to that point 3
• Deflection angles are the angles which a
Total departure of any point (say point
line makes with the prolongation of the
o. = 3) = Total departure of starting
receding line.
point + algebraic sum of the departure
of all lines upto that point 3.
4.5 ERROR OF CLOSURE
• If the traverse has an error of closure, it

4.4 CONSECUTIVE & INDEPENDENT CO- will not close when plotted on the
ORDINATE paper. In other words, the end point A’
of the closed traverse ABCDE will not
coincide with the starting point A as
shown in the figure (a). The distance
AA’ by which A’ falls short of to coincide
with A is equal to the error of closure.
Error of closure is also called as closing
error.
The x and y components of the closing
4.4.1 CONSECUTIVE CO-ORDINATES error can be computed as
ex = ∑ D
• Co-ordinates of end point of a line w.r.t. ey = ∑ L
its initial point are called consecutive
co-ordinate or dependent co-ordinates In the case of a link traverse, the x and y
of the end point of the line. components of the closing error can
be determined as
• Consecutive co-ordinate of end point 2
e= X '− X
of line 1 – 2 will be −L1 & D1 x
ey= Y '− Y
4.4.2 INDEPENDENT CO-ORDINATES where X’ and Y’ are compound
coordinates of final control point, X and
Y are the corresponding known
coordinates.
The direction of the closing error AA’ is
given as
e
tan θ = x
ey
The signs of ex and ey will define the
quadrant in which the closing error lies.
e=
y (y '− y)
e=
x (X '− X)
4.6 Relative Error of Closure
Relative error of closure =

Error of closure e 1
= =
Perimeter of traverse p (p e)
Generally relative error of closure is

1
expressed as . Relative error of
( p e)
ex ⊕ closure is also called relative accuracy or
tan θ = = =+
ey ⊕ degree of accuracy.
∴ Closing error lies in 1st quadrant
4.7 ADJUSTMENT OF TRAVERSE
• If the error of closure is within the

permissible limits, the traverse should
be adjusted. The purpose of adjustment
of the traverse is to reduce the error of
closure to zero. Hence the error is
Thus closing error is the co-ordinate of distributed among various sides of the
compute point A’ with respect to the traverse such that the traverse
starting point A. geometrically closes.
Sign of correction Cx & Cy will be • There are various methods of adjusting
opposite to ex & ey the traverse. The following methods are
⇒ Cx = −ex used for adjustment of traverse
C y = −e y
1. Arbitrary method
Here we can observe that correction 2. Bowditch’s rule
lies in 3rd quadrant 3. Graphical method
Note: Closing error and correction will 4. Transit rule
always lie in the diagonally opposite 5. Axis method
quadrant.
1. Arbitrary Method
4.5.1 FOR LINK TRAVERSE
• In this method, linear misclosure is
distributed arbitrary according to the
discretion of the surveyor based on the
field conditions. The surveyor may
decide to make larger correction to one
or two sides of the traverse where The transit rule is used to balance a
difficulties were experienced during the traverse in which the angular
measurements. measurements are more precise than
the linear measurements.
2. Bowditch’s rule
5. Axis method
• Bowditch’s Rule, is also called as • In the axis method, the corrections are
compass rule, is generally used for applied only to lengths. This method is
adjusting the traverse in which the used to balance a traverse in which the
angles and distances are measured with angles are measured very precisely
the same precision. whereas the distances are not measured
• Bowditch’s rule is based on the so precisely.
assumption that the errors introduced
in the traverse are accidental (random) 4.7.1 ACCORDING TO THE TRANSIT RULE
in nature.
• The probable error in a traverse line is Error in the latitude of any line
assumed to be directly proportional to = Total error in latitude (ey) ×
the square root of its length ( e ∝ L ) Numerical value of the latitude of the line
according to this rule, Arithmatic sum of all latitudes
• Error in latitude of any line
= Total error in latitude × Correction to the latitude of any line
Length of the line = Total correction in latitude (-ey) ×
Perimeter of the traverse Numerical value of the latitude of the line
• Correction to the latitude of any line = Arithmatic sum of all latitudes
Total correction in latitude × In the transit rule, the angles are changed
Length of the line less but the lengths are changed more.
Perimeter of the traverse
• Similarly correction to the departure of Note: If a line has zero latitude (or
any line departure), there will be no correction to
Length of the line the latitude (or departure). In other words,
=−ex × if a line runs parallel to one of the
Perimeter of the traverse
coordinate axes, adjustment will not alter
• When the traverse is adjusted by
the bearing of that line. However, if a line is
Bowditch’s rule, both the lengths and
inclined to the coordinate axes, adjustment
bearings of the lines get changed.
will affect the bearing.
However, in comparison to the transit
rule the lengths are changed less and
4.8 GALE’S TRAVERSE TABLE
the angles are changed more.
Traverse computations are usually done in
3. Graphical Method
a tabular form, known as Gale’s traverse
table. It provides a systematic method of
Graphical method is based on
recording the computations of the traverse.
Bowditch’s rule. It is generally used for
a compass traverse. Sometimes, it is
also used for a theodolite traverse with
low accuracy.
4. Transit Rule
sheet with the left-hand bottom corner
of the sheet as the origin.
4.9 OMITTED MEASUREMENTS
If some of the measurements which were

required to be taken in the field were not
Gale’s table for the traverse PQRSTP shown taken for some reason, there
above is given below measurements are called omitted
The following steps are involved in measurements.
theodolite traversing and these are
illustrated.
1. In case of theodolite traversing, the

included angles are adjusted to satisfy
the geometrical conditions, i.e. the sum
of the included angles should be equal
to (2N ± 4) × 90o ), where N is the
number of sides of the closed traverse.
• The plus sign is used when the included

angle are exterior angles, and the minus
sign when they are interior angles.
• In case of compass traversing, the
observed bearings are adjusted for local
attraction.
2. With the help of the observed bearing of

a line, e.g. line AB in the whole circle
bearing of all other lines are calculated
and then these bearings are reduced to
the quadrantal system.
3. With the help of the lengths and
computed reduced bearings of the lines,
the consecutive coordinates, i.e.
latitudes and departures are calculated.
4. A check is performed to find out
whether the algebraic sum of latitudes
and the algebraic sum of departures are
zero. If not, the correction is applied
using the transit rule.
In case of a compass traverse, the
correction is applied by Bowditch rule.
5. The independent coordinates are then
worked out from the consecutive
coordinates. The origin is selected such
that the entire traverse lies in the
north-east quadrant. This is done for
the ease of plotting of the traverse on a
5 LEVELING
5.1 INTRODUCTION
• Leveling is the operation required in the

determination or, more strictly, the
comparison of heights of points on the
surface of the earth.
• If a whole series of heights is given
relative to a plane, this plane is called a
datum, and in topographical work the
datum used is the mean level of the sea,
because it makes international
• Thus although point A & B are both at
comparison of heights possible.
mean sea level in the previous figure
• The value for mean sea level (m.s.l.) as due to curvature of level line (curvature
datum is obtained by averaging the of earth), it will be misconstrued that
elevations of high and low tides, at point B is below mean sea level. Thus it
several points, for a long period of time, is clear that, why correction is required
about 19 years. for the effect of curvature.
• The vertical heights of points above or • The difference in the readings on the
below a datum are referred to as levels. vertically held graduated staff where it
• A level line is one that is at a constant is intersected by the horizontal line of
height relative to mean sea level, and sight is a direct measure of the
because it follows the mean surface of difference in height between the two
the earth it must be a curved line. staff stations.
• A horizontal line, is tangential to the • Elevation: It is the vertical distance of
level line at any particular point, the point above or below the datum
because it is perpendicular to the surface. It should be noted that the
direction of gravity at that point. For a vertical distances are measured along
short distances these two lines the direction of gravity.
considered to coincide with each other; • Altitude: It is the vertical distance of
but for long distances a correction for the point above mean sea level.
their divergence becomes necessary. Therefore, if the datum surface is the
mean sea level, the elevation is the
same as the altitude.
5.1.1 VERTICAL LINE
• It is a line from any point on the earth’s

surface to the centre of the earth. It is
commonly considered to be the line
defined by a plumb line.
5.2 BENCH MARKS (B.M.)
• The bench mark is a fixed point of used to make the line of sight
known elevation above the datum. Any horizontal. Then all the vertical
point whose elevation is definitely distances are measured with respect to
known can be used as a bench mark. this horizontal line of sight. These
• The following types of bench marks are vertical distances are used to determine
established and used, depending upon the difference in elevations of various
the permanency and precision. points. The direct leveling. Is also called
as Spirit leveling.
1. G.T.S. Bench Marks
The great trigonometrical survey 5.3.2 TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
(G.T.S.) bench marks are established by
the Survey of India throughout the • This is the method of leveling in which
country. The levels of the G.T.S. bench the difference of elevations is
marks are determined very accurately determined indirectly from the
with respect to the mean sea level at horizontal distance and the vertical
Bombay port. angle. As the trigonometric relations are
used to determine the elevations, the
2. Permanent Bench Marks method is called as trigonometric
The permanent bench marks are leveling.
established at a closer interval between • Trigonometric leveling is generally used
widely spaced G.T.S. bench marks. The when direct leveling becomes difficult.
bench marks are either established by For example, the elevations of
PWD or SOI. inaccessible points, such as peak of
mountain, top of towers, etc. can be
3. Temporary Bench Marks determined from the trigonometric
These are the bench marks established leveling.
temporarily whenever required. These = H D tan θ
are generally the points at which a day’s Where H is the height of the top of
work is closed and from which next tower above the horizontal line of sight,
day’s work is started. D is the horizontal distance and θ is the
inclination of vertical line wrt to the
4. Arbitrary Bench Marks horizontal line.
These are the bench marks whose
elevations are arbitrary assumed for
leveling of a small area.
5.3 DIFFERENT METHODS OF LEVELING
The following methods are used to 5.3.3 BAROMETRIC LEVELING

determine the difference in elevation of
various points. • Barometric leveling is another type of
indirect leveling in which the elevations
5.3.1 DIRECT LEVELING of various points are determined
indirectly from the changes in the
• This is the most common method of atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric
leveling. pressure decreases with an increase in
• In this method, a spirit level fixed to the elevation.
telescope of a leveling instrument is
• Generally, aneroid barometers are used b) Fewer adjustment to be made
for determining the changes in c) Longer life of the adjustments.
atmospheric pressure. These ii) Eye level: The essential difference
barometers are known as Altimeters. between the dumpy level and the eye
The aneroid barometer is not as level is that in the former case the
accurate as the mercury barometer. telescope is fixed to the spindle while in
• Barometer leveling is a quick method of the eye level, the telescope is carried in
leveling. The altimeters are commonly two vertical “eye” supports.
used to determine the altitude of aero The eye level has an advantage over the
planes. dumpy level in the fact that the
adjustments can be tested with greater
5.3.4 HYPSOMETRIC LEVELING rapidity and case
iii) Reversible level : Combines the features
Hypsometric leveling is also a type of of both the dumpy level and the eye
indirect leveling. In this method, the level.
difference of elevations is determined by iv) Tilting level: In this the line of sight and
noting down the temperature at which vertical axis need not be exactly
water starts boiling. As the altitude of the perpendicular to each other. It helps in
place increases, the boiling point of water quick leveling. A tilting level is mainly
decreases. designed for precise leveling work.
5.3.5 COMMONLY USED LEVELING c) Leveling Staff: 3 forms of self-reading
INSTRUMENTS staff
a) Level a) Solid
b) A leveling staff b) Folding
c) Telescopic
a) Level: is to provide a horizontal line of d) Solid Staff: Smallest division is 0.01
sight. It consists of FOUR parts. ft. or 5mm. However some staffs
i) A telescope to provide line of sight. have fine graduations up to 2 mm
ii) A level tube to make the line of sight General length is 10 ft. or 3 m.
horizontal e) Line of sight or line of collimation is a
iii) A leveling head to bring the bubble line is a line which passes through the
in its centre of run optical centers of eye piece and
iv) A tripod to support the instrument. objective.
b) Chief types of levels are f) Parallax: If the image formed by the
a) Dumpy objective is not in the same plane with
b) eye or Y cross-hairs any movement of the eye is
c) Reversible and likely to cause an apparent movement
d) Tilting. of the image with reference to cross
hairs. This is called parallax.
i) Dumpy Level: The name originated g) A telescope consists the following parts
from the fact that formerly this level i) objective
was equipped with an inverting ii) eye piece
eyepiece and hence was shorter than iii) diaphragm
eye level of the same magnifying power.
Advantages: of the dumpy level over the i) Objective
eye level are : It is a compound lens called
a) Simpler construction with fewer achromatic lens. It consists of
movable parts. double convex lens made of crown
glass and a convex concave lens i) Temporary adjustments of a
made of flint glass. With this telescope:
compound lens both spherical and a) Setting up the level
chromatic aberrations are completely b) Leveling up
eliminated c) elimination of parallax
5.3.6 IMPORTANT TERMS IN LEVELING
Height of instruments: is elevation of plane

of sight with reference to the assumed
ii) Eyepiece datum.
1) Ramsden’s eye piece is the most Back sight: Sight taken on known
commonly used. It is composed elevations, to obtain the height of
of plane-convex lenses of equal instruments. (Known as plus sight)
focal length, with a spacing of Fore sight: Taken on unknown elevation.
(2/3) F. (Known as minus sight)
2) Huygen’s eye piece :- Not Turning point: is a point on which both plus
commonly used sight and minus sight are taken.
Intermediate station: intermediate
between two points on which only one
sight (minus sight) is taken to determine
the elevation of the station.
5.3.7 BOOKING OF LEVELS:
a) Height of instrument method
• Height of instrument is calculated at
each set up of the instrument.
• Based on the height of instrument the
RLs of other staff stations can be
iii) Diaphragm Consists of cross hairs. calculated.
In stadia The odolite stadia wires • Generally used for fly leveling, or to
are also included. establish BMs
h) Optical defects of a single lens • Suitable if there are no intermediate
Aberrations: is the deviation of the rays sights
of light. Check : ∑ BS −= ∑ FS lastRL − FirstRL
Spherical aberrations: The rays from a
given point are not all collected exactly b) Rise and fall method :
at one point Chromatic
aberrations: The violet ray is refracted • The difference between levels of
most and the red least this defect is consecutive staff points is calculated
known as chromatic aberrations, due to • Higher staff reading indicates fall and
which blurred and coloured image is lesser indicates rise
formed. • Generally used in contour survey, in
• The elimination of aberrations is small areas or for LS and CS
only one of the requirements in the • Used when a lot no of intermediate
design of a telescope. station readings are required
• The other possible defects in a • Check :
simple lens are coma, astigmatism,
curvature, distortion etc.
∑ BS −=
∑ FS lastRL − FirstRL
= ∑ rise − ∑ fall 5.3.11 RECIPROCAL LEVELING
The true difference in elevation, is equal to
5.3.8 CURVATURE AND REFRACTION the mean of two apparent differences in
elevations, obtained by reciprocal
i) Correction for curvature is negative observations.
Cc =
d2
(-ve) = H (1/ 2) {(h a − h b ) + (H a − H b )} where h a , h b
2R are staff readings at A & B when staff is
d = horizontal dist. Between A and B close to A and H a , H b are corresponding
R = radius of earth, 6370 km
readings at A and B when staff is close to
Cc = 0.07857d 2 meters
E.g. : Readings on
………. where ‘d’ is in km Level @ A B
ii) Refraction: The correction applied is A 2.165 3.810
positive B 0.910 2.355
1 d2 Diff. In level is =
Cr = (+ve) =0.01122 d …… where
2
7 2R (1/ 2) {(3.810 − 2.165) + (2.355 − 0.91)}

‘d’ is in ‘km’ = 1.545m
6 d2 (if h a > h b then B is @ higher level)
iii) Combined correction C = (-ve)
7 2R Reciprocal leveling also known as
C = 0.06735 d meters, …………..where ‘d’
2
longitudinal leveling.
is in ‘km’ The following errors can be eliminated by
C reciprocal leveling
d= C in ‘m’ d in ‘km’ i) error in the line of collimation
0.06735
ii) combined effect of earth’s curvature and
5.3.9 DISTANCE TO THE VISIBLE refraction
HORIZON iii) variation in the average refraction
Total Error :
Combined correction, C = 0.06735 d 2 = e (1/ 2){(h a − h b ) − (H a − H b )}
C Total error included line of collimation
d=
0.06735 error, curvature error and refraction error
C in ‘m’ d in ‘km’ Therefore, e = ecol + ecur − e ref
(both curvature refraction are taken into line or collimation error is same as of
account) curvature error if the line of collimation is
inclined upwards ecol =e-ecur +e ref
5.3.10 DEFERENTIAL LEVELING
It is a direct method in which difference in 5.3.12 SENSITIVITY
elevation of two points determined regard
less of the horizontal positions of points • Angular value of one division of bubble
with reference to each other. This is also tube.
known as “Fly Leveling”. • Generally the linear value of one
Balancing back sights and foresights: if the division is kept as 2 mm.
instrument is placed approximately • More sensitive if the bubble moves by
between two successive staff stations in fly more divisions for a given change in the
leveling the errors due to curvature and angle.
refraction may be eliminated called Sensitiveness can be increased by
balancing of sights
a) Increasing the internal radius of the
tube.
b) Increasing the diameter of the tube.
c) Increasing the length of the bubble.
d) Decreasing the roughness of the walls,
and
e) Decreasing the viscosity of the liquid
5.3.13 HYPSOMETER
Working of hypsometer to find altitude of
stations on the fact that the temperature
at which, water boils varies with the
atmospheric pressure.
Altimeter: Is used to find heights.
6 CONTOURING
6.1 INTRODUCTION (g) To estimate the quantity of cutting,

filling, and the capacity of reservoirs.
The relative position of points in a plane
are represented by a map. The value 6.3 DEFINITION OF CONTOUR
of the map is even more if the relief
(variation in the elevation of earth’s A contour may be defined as an imaginary
surface) is also included along with their line passing through points of equal
relative positions. elevation on the earth surface.
There are two methods by which the A contour line may also be defined as the
conformation of the ground may be intersection of a level surface with the
presented on a map. surface of the earth.
(a) By delineating the surface slopes by Contour lines on a plan illustrate the
shading, intended to given a impression topography of the ground.
of relative relief. The relative elevations When the contours are drawn underwater,
of the points are not indicated in this they are termed as submarine contours,
case. fathoms or bathymetric curves.
(b) By plotting the contour lines (imaginary
line passing through points of equal Note: Generally the contours are not
elevations) on maps. These lines are visible on the grounds excepts in the case
arrange such that the form of the of shorelines.
earth’s surface can be portrayed with
greater accuracy and thoroughness, and
can be readily be interpreted.
Contours are used by engineers in a
many ways.
6.2 USE OF CONTOURS
(a) Proper and precise location of
engineering works such as roads,
canals, etc.
(b) In location of water supply, water 6.4 CONTOUR INTERVAL
distribution and to solve the problems
of steam pollution. • The vertical distance between
(c) In planning and designing of dams, consecutive contours is termed as
reservoirs, aqueducts, transmission contour interval.
lines, etc. • It is desirable to have a constant
(d) In selection of sites for new industrial contour interval throughout the map.
plants. • In special cases, a variable contour
(e) Determining the indivisibility of interval may also be provided.
stations. • A variable contour interval is, as far as
(f) Determining the profile of the country possible avoided since it gives a false
along any direction. impression of the relative steepness of
. the ground in different parts of the map.
• Generally contour intervals are taken 1 the figure in a break in the respective
to 15 m. contour or printed close to the contour.
• The smaller the contour interval, the When no value is represented, it
more precisely the terrain relief is indicates a flat terrain. A zero meter
predicted on the plan. contour line represents the coat line.
• The contour interval depends upon the
following factors.
(i) Scale of the map
(ii) Purpose of the map
(iii) Nature of the Country
(iv) Time
(v) Funds
1. Scale of the Map: If scale is small, the 2. Two contour lines do not intersect each
contour interval is kept large so that other except in the cases of an
there is no overcrowding of the overhanging cliff or a cave penetrating a
contours. On the other hand, if the scale hillside.
of the map is large, the contour interval 3. A contour line is a closed curve. They
can be kept small. may close either on the map or outside
the map, it depends on the topography.
2. Purpose of Map: The contour interval 4. Equally spaced contour represent a
selected should be small so that the uniform slope and contours that are
map serves the intended purpose, but at well apart represents a gentle slope.
the same time it should not be too small 5. A set of close contours with higher
otherwise the cost of the work would be figures inside and lower figures outside
too much. The contour interval should indicate a hillock, whereas in case of
be kept small when the plan is required depressions & lakes, etc. the lower
for the detailed design. figures are inside and the higher figures
are outside.
3. Nature of Ground: For a flat ground, 6. A watershed or bridge line (line joining
the contour interval is small, but for a the highest points of a series of hills)
steep slope, the contour interval is and the thalweg or valley line (line join
large. If the ground is broken, the the lowest points of a valley) cross the
contour interval is kept large so that the contours at right angles.
contours do not come too close to each 7. Irregular contours represent an uneven
other. ground surface.
8. The direction of the steepest slope is
4. Time: Contour interval is kept large along the shortest distance between the
when time is less. contours.
At a point the direction of the steepest
5. Funds: Contour interval is kept large slope on a contour is, at right angles to
when funds as less. the contour
6.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOUR LINES
1. All the points of a contour line have the

same elevation. The elevations of the
contours are shown either by inserting
9. Two contour lines having same
elevations cannot unite and continue as 6.6.1 HIGH-LYING FORMS
one line. Similarly a single contour,
cannot put into two lines. These are characterized by elevated
grounds, for example hill, hillock and
6.6 TYPICAL LAND FEATURES AND plateau.
THEIR CONTOUR FORMS SLOPES Hills are elevated ground usually with a
pointed peak. The contours of hills are bit
A slope may be gentle or steep. circular in shape and increasing the
A very steep slope is termed as scarp. contour values inwards.
A high scarp is known as crag.
6.6.2 LOW-LYING FORMS
The most common among the low-lying

forms are ravines, valleys, etc.
6.6.3 RAVINE
Ravine is a through like depression of the

earth’s surface, elongated in one direction
with the bottom inclined towards one side
A ravine can be imagined as a depression
washed out in the ground by flowing water.
6.6.4 VALLEY
A valley is a broad ravine with a gental

sloping bottom.
The contours of a valley are in a shape of V
If the ground is low as compared to the
surrounding land and the sides slope
generally, it is called as a depression.
The contours are quite few and far apart.
If the valley floor is very narrow and has
steep sides on a level terrain, it is called as
gorge and in mountains as canyons.
Due to the steepness of sides, the contours
are crowded.
• A part of the land in form of tongue,
which cuts out from a hilly are/is called
as spur.
• The contours are similar to that of a
valley, with a difference that here the
counter values decrease towards the
vee.
6.7 VALLEY LINE AND RIDGE LINE
• The slopes of ravine intersect along a

line referred as the axis of the ravine,
the line of discharge, or a valley line in
case of a valley.
• Contour part of a ravine is a ridge-a • A high land, having flat narrow top with
convex form of terrain gradually steep (scrap) slope on one side and
declining in one direction. gentle (dip) slope on the other side is
• Two ravines are generally separated by called as escarpment.
a more or less pronounced ridge.
• The line along which the slopes interest
is referred as the axis of ridge, the
watershed or watershed line. The
watershed line is generally wavy.
6.7.2 CLIFF
Cliff are the steep rock faces along the sea

coast and may be vertical where the
contour lines coincide with each other, an
6.7.1 SADDLE overhanging cliff where the contour lines
intersect each other.
• The lowest points on the watershed are
known as passes.
• Pass is narrow this low land passing
through high mountains on either sides.
• Sometimes this narrow low land is cut
back by the streams. This steep-sided
depression is called as a COL. When this
depression is broad and low, it is
known as saddle.
7 TACHEOMETRY
7.1 INTRODUCTION
• Tacheometry is defined as an optical
distance measurement method. The
other names given to Tachemetry are
Tachymetry of Telemetry.
• As compared to chaining on flat
grounds, the accuracy of tacheometric
distances is low, but on rough and steep
grounds the accuracy is more.
7.2 TACHEOMETER
• It is also called as vertical stave.
• It is a transit theodolite fitted with • It is a 5 – 15 m long rod, graduated in
stadia diaphragm. The stadia decimals of leveling.
diaphragm consists of two stadia hairs • For small distances up to 100 m, an
at equal distances, one above and the ordinary leveling staff may be used but
other below the horizontal hairs of the beyond this a stadia rod is used, since
cross-hairs. the graduations of an ordinary leveline
staff become indistinct.
• The staff can be held either vertical or
normal to the line of sight.
Note: The staff is held normal to the
line of sight can be judged when staff
intercept is minimum.
Important characteristics of Tacheometer 7.4 METHODS OF TACHEOMETRY
1. Value of the multiplying constant, k = 100. • There are three methods of measuring
2. Value of the additive constant, C = 0. distances by optical means
3. Telescope should be fitted with an
anallactic lens. 1. Stadia Method
4. Magnification power of the eyepiece is
kept high.
7.3 STADIA ROD
• In a tacheometer the various wires, in

addition to the cross-wires on the
diaphragm, are known as stadia wires
and the vertical distance between these sight OC. Draw a line A’B’ passing
stadia wires is termed as stadia interval. through C and perpendicular to OC.
• When the parallaxes angle α, defined Cutting OA at A’ and OB at B’.
with the help of stadia wires, is kept
fixed and the staff intercept is varied,
e.g., AB and A’B’, the method is known
as fixed hair method.
• Another way used to make the
observation is to keep the staff
intercept fixed, e.g, AB, and A”B”, and
vary the parallaxes angle, e.g. α and α’.
• In this case the stadia wires will have to
be moved and is accordingly called as
In right angle triangle OFC
the movable hair or sub tense method.
• In both the above method a tachometer ∠OCF = 90o − θ
& staff are used to take the observations. ∠BCB' = θ (as CB’ is perpendicular to
OC)
2. Tangential Method ∠A 'CA = ∠B'CB = θ
• In this method observations are made Let the stadia-hairs subtend an angle α,
for vertical angles and staff intercepts
are obtained with the cross-wires only. ∠COA ' = α 2
• Stadia wires are not used at all. This ∠CAO= 90o − ( α 2 )
method of tachometry is quite similar to
' A 180o − ( 90o − α 2 )
∠CA=
the method of trigonometrically leveling.
= 90o + α 2
3. Range Finding
We know that the value of α 2 (its
• This method is used to determine the
horizontal distance and direction of a value being 17’11’’ for K = 100) is very
line without going to the far end of the small. Hence, the triangles AA’C and
line. The instrument used is called as BB’C may be assumed to be right angled
range finder. triangles.
• A fixed base is used to compute the ∴ A’B’ = A’C + B’C
ranges. The instruments and methods
= AC cos θ + BC cos θ
used are base on measurement of either
the base angles or the angle of parallax. = (AC + BC) cos θ
• By this method only horizontal distance = s cos θ
can be measured but with the help of a
level the vertical distances can also be
measured.
• A great care should be taken to observe
the staff intercepts during tacheometric
surveying.
7.5 DISTANCE AND ELEVATION Inclined distance OC,

FORMULA FOR INCLINED SIGHTS L = KA’B’ + C
L = Ks cos θ + C
1. Staff Vertical ∴ D = L cosθ
• As the staff is held vertical, the staff = (Ks cos θ + C) cos θ
interpret AB is not normal to the line of
= Ks cos 2 θ + C cos θ Case П: Line of sight at an angle of
V = FC = L sin θ depression
= (Ks cos θ + C) sin θ L = Ks + C
= Ks cos θ sin θ + C sin θ OF’ = L cosθ = (Ks + c) cosθ
1 D = OF’ – FF’ = OF’ – FE’
= Ks sin 2θ + Csin θ
2 = (Ks + C)cosθ – h sinθ
∴ Elevation of staff station for angle of Elevation of staff station,
elevation θ V = OC sinθ = L sinθ = (Ks + C)sinθ
= H.I + V – h Elevation of staff station = H.I.–V–h cosθ
∴ Elevation of staff station for angle of
7.6 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF
depression θ
THE MOVABLE-HAIR METHOD
= H.I. – V – h 7.6.1 ADVANTAGES
2. Staff Normal
• As the staff at E is held normal to the • As compared to the stadia method
line of sight AC therefore the staff (fixed hair method), this method is
intercept AB is normal to the line of more accurate for long sights which can
sight OC. be taken with great accuracy as only
targets are to be bisected.
7.6.2 DISADVANTAGES
1. The method is slow.

2. It is very difficult to measure the stadia
interval accurately.
3. Computations are tedious as the factor
m comes in the denominator.
Case І: Line of sight at an angle of
elevation. 7.7 TANGENTIAL METHOD OF
TACHEOMETRY
Where,
AB = s = staff intercept,
• The tangential method of tacheometry
CE = h= central hair reading, is generally used when the diaphragm
θ = angle of elevation, and OC = L = does not have stadia hairs, when the
inclined distance staff is too far from the instrument and
Draw a perpendicular CF’ to OF. it becomes difficult to read the staff.
∴ L = Ks + C • In this method, a staff fitted with two
OF’ = (Ks + C) cosθ big targets (vanes) spaced at a fixed
vertical distance (s) of 2m or 3m is
∴ D = OF’ + F’F sighted.
= (Ks + C) cosθ + h sinθ • Vertical angle θ1 and θ 2 are measured
Elevation of staff station= H.I.+V– h cosθ
by sighting the two targets.
• Horizontal distance D and the vertical
intercept V are computed from the
values of s, θ1 and θ 2 .
• Depending upon whether the angles θ1 have stadia hairs. This method has the
and θ 2 are the angles of elevation or following disadvantages.
1. As two vertical angles have to be
depression, the following three cases
measured, it takes more time in
usually occur.
Case 1: Both angles of Elevation comparison the stadia method.
2. Error will occur if the instrument gets
disturbed between the two observations.
3. There may be changes in atmospheric
refraction in the period between the
two observations which will cause
error.
4. Readings are not easily reduced to the
D=
S horizontal distance and vertical
tan θ1 − tan θ2 intercept.
=
V D tan θ2
Case 2: Both angles of Depression
θ1θ 2
S
D=
tan θ2 − tan θ1
=
V D tan θ2
Case 3: One angle of elevation and
one angle of depression
S
D=
tan θ1 − tan θ2
=
V D tan θ2
Disadvantages of the Tangential Method
• The tangential method is inferior to the

stadia method. The method should be
used only if the diaphragm does not
8 PLANE TABLE
8.1 INTRODUCTION 1. The sighting and plotting are done

simultaneously. Therefore there is no
• The plane tables in an instrument used risk of omitting necessary details.
for surveying by a graphical method in 2. The error and mistakes in plotting can
which the field work and plotting are be checked by drawing the check lines.
simultaneously. 3. Irregular objects can also be plotted
• The main feature of plane tabling is that accurately as the lay of land is in view.
the topographic features to be mapped 4. It is most rapid and useful for filling in
are in full view. Hence no chance of details.
missing of any important detail. 5. No great skill is required.
• It is suitable for small and medium 6. It is less costly in comparison to
scale-mapping (1:10,000 to 1:2,50,000). theodolite survey.
Where the great accuracy is not 7. It is very advantageous in areas, where
required. It is also used for plotting the compass survey is not reliable e.g. area
topographical maps in the field. effected by magnetic fields.
• Before commencing a plane table
survey, the instrument stations are 8.1.2 DISADVANTAGES
fixed to cover the entire area. 1. It is not suitable for, work in a wet
• These stations may be fixed by climate & in a densely wooded country.
surveying a trigonometrically framework, 2. The absence of measurements (field
establishing a network of control points notes) causes inconvenience, if the survey
on a pattern to suit the scale at which is to be replotted to some different scale.
plane tabling is carried out. 3. Plane table is heavy and awkward to
• The elevations of these points are carry and the accessories are likely to
determined with the help of leveling. be lost.
• A surveyor starts filling in details from 4. It does not give very accurate results.
any of these control points, one by one,
and traverses all the control points. 8.2 ACCESSORIES USED IN PLANE TABLE
• The finished maps so produced are SURVEYING
known as topographic maps. (1) Plane table board
• This graphical method of producing (2) Tripod
topographic maps is known as (3) Alidade
cartographic surveying. (4) Trough compass
• It should be noted that all the (5) Spirit level
measurements made are plotted (6) Plumbing fork
directly on the drawing sheet instead of (7) Drawing sheet
recording in the field work.
• The principle used in plane table
surveying is that an unknown point of
interest can be established by measuring
its directions from known points.
8.1.1 ADVANTAGES
3. Alidade
• An alidade is a straight –edge ruler

having some sighting device. It is used
for sighting the objects and drawing the
lines.
1. Plane Table Board • Plain Alidade, it is a straight-edge ruler
• The drawing board is carefully made of about 450 mm long, made of a metal or
well-seasoned wood so that counteract wood. One of the edges is beveled and
the effect of warping and damages due graduated. The alidade is provided with
to weathering. a sight vane at each end. The sight
The upper surface is kept smooth. vanes have hinges at the lower end so
• The table at the centre of the underside, that they can be folded down on the
is attached to the tripod with the help of ruler when not in use. One of the sight
a screw and wing nut. By means of the vanes is provided with a narrow slit and
wing nut, table can be clamped in any is used as an eye vane. The object vane
position. is open and it carries a hair or thin wire
• Plane tables are available in the at its centre. The two sight vanes is
following different sizes. open and it carries a hair or thin wire at
its centre. The two sight vanes provide
a definite line a sight.
• The beveled edge of the ruller is also
known as the fiducial edge. The line of
sight of the alidade is in the same plane
as that of the fiducial edge or in a plane
Designation Size(mm × mm) parallel to it.
B0 1500 × 1000
4. Trough Compass
B1 1000 × 700
B2 700 × 500
B3 500 × 350
2. Tripod
• An open frame type light tripod is
• Generally it is 15 cm long and is
usually used in the simplest form of
provided to plot the magnetic meridian
plane tables, surveying of the board is
(N – S direction) to facilitate orientation
achieved with the tripod legs and
of the plane table in the magnetic
checking the horizontality of the board
meridian.
with the help of two spirit levels fixed at
right angles to each other in a block of • At the extremities of the trough
wood. compass, there are graduated scales
with zero at the centre and marking
upto 5° on either side of the zero line.
Longer sides of the trough compass are • The drawing sheet used should be of
parallel and plane such that they can be the best quality to withstand
used as a ruler for drawing the line or rubbing and scrubbing.
for placing the compass such that it
coincides with a line already drawn on
the drawing sheet. 8.3 SETTING UP THE PLANE TABLE
5. Level Tube/Spirit Level Following operations are included in

• The essential condition in plane table setting up of the Plane Table:
surveying is that the board should be
level, This level tube is either tubular or 1. Centering
of the circular type. • It is the operation of bringing the
• It is placed on the board in two plotted station point exactly over the
positions mutually at right angles and ground station. A plumbing fork is used
the bubble is centered in each position for checking the centering.
to make the board horizontal. • For small-scale mapping, an error in
centering of about 30 cm is permissible.
6. Plumbing Fork
• A plumbing form is a U-shaped piece of 2. Leveling
metal frame. It is used for the centering • It is the operation of bringing the plane
of the plane table over the station. table in a horizontal plane.
• One end of the frame is pointed and is • Level the board with the help of a spirit
kept over the drawing sheet touching level.
the plotted position of the instrument
station while the other end of the frame 3. Orientation
carries a plumb bob. • It is the operation of keeping the plane
• The position of the plane table is parallel to the position it occupied at
adjusted until the plumb bob hangs the first station.
over the station occupied by the • In such a case all the lines plotted will
instrument. be parallel to the corresponding lines
• Use of a plumbing fork is justified only if on the ground. If the position of board is
the plotting is done at large scale and different at successive stations, the
the rays being short. Whereas small– relative positions of the plotted details
scale mapping, which is usually done will not remain same as the relative
with a plane table, the use of plumbing positions of the details on the ground.
fork is a sheer waste. • As a result, the plotted work of the
previous stations cannot be connected
to that of the successive stations.
• During orientation the table is rotated
and the plotted position of the
instrument station is also disturbed and
shifts relative to the ground stations.
• Therefore operations of orientation and
centering are therefore interrelated.
Orientation of plane table can be close
using a trough compass, back sighting
or by resection.
7. Drawing Sheet
8.4 METHODS OF PLANE TABLE • The method of resection will be
ORIENTATION discussed later in this chapter in details.
1. By Trough Compass 8.5 METHODS OF PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

• A trough compass is placed on the top
right side corner of the plane table in The methods of surveying with a plane
such a way that the magnetic needle table are
points exactly towards the N – S • Radiation,
direction. • Traversing,
• Draw a line along the edge of the • Intersection and
compass. • Resection.
• Shift and set up the plane table on the 1. Radiation
next station. Place the trough compass
along the N – S line.
• Rotate the table till the magnetic
needle coincides with N – S line
previously drawn.
2. By Back Sighting
• This is the most accurate method of • In this method the instrument is setup
orientation. at a station and rays are drawn to
various stations which are to be plotted.
• The distances are cut to a suitable scale
after actual measurements.
• This method is suitable only when the
area to be surveyed is small and all the
required stations to be plotted are
clearly visible and accessible from the
instrument station.
• The scope of the method is increased
when the distances are measured with
• In this method plane table is set on a the help of a tacheometer.
new station and the alidade is placed
against the line joining the new station 2. Traversing
with the preceding station and the table • This method is similar to compass or
is rotated until the line of sight bisects theodolite traversing.
the previous station. • The table is set at each of the stations in
• To achieve this, let the plane table is succession.
shifted from station A to B and let the • A foresight is taken to the next station
line ab has been plotted with the plane and required distance is cut according
table at A. to a suitably chosen scale.
• Set the table on station B, place the • This method is most suited when a
alidade along the plotted line ba and narrow strip of terrain is to be
rotate the till until the line of sight ba surveyed, e.g. survey of roads, railways,
bisects the station A. Clamp the board etc.
along this line of sight. The line ba truly • This method can be used for traversing
represents the line BA on the ground. both the open as well as close traverses.
3. Resection
3. Intersection • This problem can be solved by any of
the methods such as resection after
orientation by back ray, by two points,
or by three points.
• This method is employed when
surveyor feels that some important
details can be plotted easily by choosing
any station other than the triangulation
stations.
• In this method two stations are selected
such that all the other stations to be • The position of such a station is fixed on
plotted are visible from these. the drawing sheet by resection.
Three point problem: Locating the
• A line joining these two stations is
called base line. The length of this base position of station on the plan by
line is measured very accurately. means of observation to three
• Rays are drawn from these stations to well defined points whose positions
the station to be plotted. have been previously plotted on the
• The intersection of the rays from these plan.
two stations gives the position of the It involves minimizing the error triangle
station to be plotted on the drawing
to a single point by section from three
sheet.
• Sometimes, this method is also called as known points on grand as well as sheet.
graphical triangulation.
Two Point Problem
• This method is most commonly used for
• Locating the position on the plan, of the
plotting details. It is preferred when the
station occupied by the plane table by
distance between the stations is too
means of observation to two well
large, the stations are inaccessible, or
defined points whose positions have
the ground is undulating.
been plotted on plan.
For example is of broken boundaries,
• Use of ah auxiliary point near the
which can be very conveniently plotted station is done for orientation and
by this method. plotting of station at desired location.
4. Resection Errors in Plane Table Surveying :
• This method of orientation is employed
1. Instrumental errors
when the plane table occupies a
position not yet plotted on the drawing 2. Errorinpletting
sheet. 3. Error due to manipulation and sighting
• Resection can be defined as the process a) Non horizontality of board.
of locating the instrument station b) Detective sighting
occupied by the plane table by drawing c) movement of board between sights.
rays from the stations whose positions d) Detective of inaccurate centering.
are already plotted on the drawing
sheet.
• The point representing the resection of
two rays will be the station to be
located, provided the orientation at the
station to be plotted is correct, which is
seldom achieved.
GATE QUESTIONS
Topics Page No
1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF SURVEYING 11
2. THEODOLITES, COMPASS AND TRAVERSE SURVEYING 11
3. LEVELLING AND CONTOURING 11
4. TACHEOMETRIC, CURVE & HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING 11
5. REMOTE SENSING, GIS, GPS & PHOTOGRAMMETRY 11
1 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF SURVEYING
Q.1 The plan of a map was photo copied Q.2 The plan of a survey plotted to a
to a reduced size such that a line scale of 10 m to 1 cm is reduced in
originally 100 mm, measures 90 such a way that a line originally
mm. The original scale of the plan 10cm long now measures 9 cm. the
was 1:1000. The revised scale is area of the reduced plan is
a) 1:900 b) 1:1111 measured as 81cm2. The actual area
c) 1:1121 d) 1:1221 (m2 ) of the survey is
[GATE – 2007] a) 10000 b) 6561
c) 1000 d) 656
[GATE-2008]
ANSWER KEY:
1 2
(b) (a)
Q.1 (b) Q.2 (a)

Original length of a line, L = 100 mm 9cm
Shrunk length, L1 = 90 mm Shrinkage ratio, SR = = 0.9
10cm
L1 9 Reduced area = 81 cm2
Shrinkage ratio = =
L 10
Shrunk scale = original scale x 81
Actual area = = 100 cm2
Shrunk (0.9) 2
1 9 Actual area in the field = 100 x 10 =
Ratio = ×
1000 10 10000 m2
2 THEODOLITES, COMPASS & TRAVERSE SURVEYING
Q.1 In the figure shown, the lengths PQ d) 907m and 270°

(WCB 30°) and QR (WCB 45°) [GATE-2008]
respectively up to three places of Q.4 Inquadrantal bearing system,
decimal are bearing of a line varies from
a) 0° to 360° b) 0° to 180°
c) 0° to 90° d) 0° N to 90°
[GATE-2009]
Q.5 The magnetic bearing of a line AB is

S 45°E and the declination is 5°
West. The true bearing of the line AB
is
a) 273.205, 938.186 a) S 45°E b) S 40°E
b) 273.205, 551.815 c) S 50°E d) S 50°W
c) 551.815, 551.815 [GATE-2009]
d) 551.815, 938.186
[GATE-2006] Q.6 The magnetic bearing of a line AB
was N 59° 30’ W in the year 1967,
Q.2 The observed magnetic bearing of a when the declination was 4° 10’ E. If
line OE was found to be 185°. It was the present declination is 3°W, the
later discovered that station O had a whole circle bearing of the line is
local attraction of +1.5°. The true a) 299° 20’ b) 307° 40’
bearing of the line OE, considering c) 293° 20’ d) 301° 40’
declination of 3.5°E will be [GATE-2009]
a) 180° b) 187°
c) 190° d) 193° Q.7 The local mean time at a place
[GATE-2006] located in Longitude 90° 40’ E when
the standard time is 6 hours and 30
Q.3 The lengths and bearings of a closed minutes and the standard meridian
traverse PQRSP are given below. is 82° 30’ E is?
Line Length(m) Bearing a) 5 hrs, 2 min and 40 sec
(WCB) b) 5 hrs, 57 min and 20 sec
PR 200 0° c) 6 hrs, 30 min
QR 1000 45° d) 7 hrs02 min and 40 sec
RS 907 180° [GATE-2010]
SP ? ?
Q.8 The observations from a closed loop
The missing length and bearing, traverse around obstacle are
respectively of the line SP are Segm Observ Length( Azimuth(c
a) 207m and 270° ent ation m) lockwise
b) 707m and 270° from from
Station magnetic
c) 707m and 180° north)
PQ P Missing 33.7500°
QR Q 300.00 86.3847°
RS R 354.524 169.3819°
ST S 450.000 243.9003°
TP T 268.00 317.5000°
What is the value of the missing Q.10 The latitude and departure of a line
measurement (rounded off to the AB are +78 m and -45.1 m,
nearest 10 mm)? respectively. The whole circle
a) 396.86 m b) 396.79 m bearing of the line AB is
c) 396.05 m d) 396.94 m a) 30° b) 150°
[GATE-2011] c) 120° d) 330°
[GATE-2013]
Q.9 Following bearings are observed
while traversing with a compass Q.11 A Theodolite is set up to station A
Line Fore Back and a 3 m long staff is held vertically
Bearing Bearing at station B. The depression angle
reading at 2.5 m marking on the
AB 126°45’ 308°00’
staff is 6°10’. The horizontal
BC 49°15’ 227°30’ distance between A and B is 2200 m.
CD 340°30’ 161°45’ Height of instrument at station A is
DE 258°30’ 78°30’ 1.1 m and R.L. of A is 880.88 m.
EA 212°45’ 31°45’ Apply the curvature and refraction
correction, and determine the R.L. of
After applying the correction due to B (in m) _________________.
local attraction, the corrected for [GATE-2013]
bearing of line BC will be:
a) 48° 15’ b) 50° 15’
c) 49° 45’ d) 48° 45’
[GATE-2013]
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
(a) (b (b) (c) (c) (b) (d) (b) (d) (d) 642
EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (a) Declination in 1967 is 4°10’E

∑L = 1000 – 100 Present declinations is 3°W
= PQ cos 30 + QR cos 45 = N52°20’W
∑D = 1000 – 200 Present quadrantal bearing =
= PQ sin 30 + QR sin 45 N59°30’W - 4°10’ -- ° = N52°20’W
⇒ 900 = PQ(0.866) +QR(0.707) ...(1) Present W.C.B = 307° 40°
⇒800 = PQ(0.5) + QR(0.707) ...(2)
Solving the above two equations Q.7 (d)
PQ = 273.205 m QR = 938.186 m Local meridian = 90° 40’E
Standard meridian = 82° 30’E
Q.2 (b) Standard time = 6 to 30 m
Observed magnetic bearing of the Local meridian is a head of standard
line OE = 185 meridian by 8° 10’E
Local attraction = + 1.5°, For 360° → 24 hrs
Correction for local attraction = - 8°10 '× 24
For 8°10’→ = 0h 32m 40s
1.5° 360
Declination = 3.5°E Local mean time is ahead by 0h 32m
True bearing = 185– 1.5 + 3.5 = 187° 40s
∴ Local mean time = 6 h 30 m + 0 h
Q.3 (b) 32 m 40 sec = 7 hrs 2 mins 40 sec
∑L = 200 cos 0° + 1000 cos 45 + 907 = 7 hrs 2 min 40 sec
cos 180° + l cos θ = 0
lcos θ + 0.107 = 0 Q.8 (b)
∑D = 200 sin 0 + 1000 sin 45 + 907 In a closed traverse,
sin 180 + l sin θ = 0 ∑ latitudes = 0 & also ∑ Departures
707.1 + l sin θ = 0 =0
lsinθ 707.1 using, ∑ latitudes = 0
=
lcosθ 0.107 1 cos 33.75 + 300 cos 86.3847 +
θ = 270° L = 707 m 354.524 cos 169.3819 + 450 cos
243.9003 + 268 cos 317.5 = 0
Q.4 (c) ∴ 1 = 396.79 m.
In quadrantal bearing system
minimum angle is 0° and maximum Q.9 (d)
angle is 90° Fore bearing of DE – back bearing of
DE = 180°
Q.5 (c) Station D and E are free from local
Magnetic bearing of a line = AB = S attraction
45° E CD – DC = 340° 30’- 161° 45’
Declination = 5° W = 178° 45’
True bearing = S 45° E+5°= S 50° E Error at station ‘C’ = (-) 1°15’
Correction at station ‘C’ = (+) 1° 15’
Q.6 (b) Corrected bearing CB = 227° 30’ + 1°
Magnetic bearing of a line = N59°30’W 15’= 228°45’
BC – CB = 45° 15’ - 228° 45’
= (-) 183° 30’
Error at station B = (-) 3° 30’
Correction at station B = +3°30’
Corrected bearing of BC = 45° 15’ +
3° 30’ = 48° 45’
Q.10 (d)
l cos θ = +78 m
l sin θ = -45.1 m
As latitude is +ve and departure is
–ve the line AB lies in N-W quadrant
−45.1
tan θ =
78
θ = -30°
WCB of line AB = 360 – 30 = 330°
Q.11 (642.2 m)
RL of A = 880.88 m
6
Total correction between A & B =
7
[0.0786(2.2)2] = 0.36 m
Corrected staff reading at B = 2.5 –

0.36 = 2.14 m
RL of B = RL + 1.2 – 2200 x tan 6°10’
– 2.14 m = 642.2 m
3 LEVELLING AND CONTOURING
Q.1 During a levelling work along a c) 157.380 d) 157.860

falling gradient using a Dumpy Level [GATE-2007]
and a Staff of 3 m length, following Q.4 The following observations are
successive readings were taken: observed during testing a leveling
1.785, 2.935, 0.360, 1.320. What instrument
will be the correct order of looking Instrum Staff reading at
these four readings in a level book? ent at P1 Q1
(BS: Back Sight, IS: Intermediate P 2.8000 m 1.7000 m
Sight, FS: Fore Sight) Q 2.7000 m 1.8000 m
a) BS, FS, BS, FS b) BS, IS, FS, FS
c) BS, IS, IS, FS d) BS, IS, BS, FS P1 is close to P and Q1 is close to Q. If
[GATE-2006] the reduced level of station P is
100.00 m, the reduced level of
Q.2 Consider the following figure, which station Q is
is an extract from a contour map a) 99.000 m b) 100.000 m
(scale-1:20,000) of an area, an c) 101.000 m d) 102.000 m
alignment of a road at ruling [GATE-2007]
gradient of 4% is to be fixed from
the point O and beyond. What Q.5 A light house of 120m height is just
should be the radius of the arc with visible above the horizon from a
O as the centre to get the point of ship. The correct distance (m)
alignment of the next contour on the between the ship and the light
map? house considering combined
correction for curvature and
refraction, is
a) 39.098 b) 42.226
c) 39098 d) 42226
a) 0.025 cm b) 0.25 cm [GATE-2008]
c) 2.5 cm d) 5.0 cm
[GATE-2006] Q.6 Consider the following statements:
Assertion a): Curvature correction
Q.3 A bench mark (BM) with reduced must be applied when the sights are
level (RL) 155.305 m has been long.
established at the floor of a room. It Reason(R): Line of collimation is
is required to fine out the RL of the not a level line but is tangential to
underside of the roof (R) of the the level line. Of these statements
room using spirit leveling. The back a) Both A and R are true and R is
sight (BS) to the BM has been the correct explanation of A
observed as 1.500m whereas the b) Both A and R are true but R is
Fore sight (FS) to R has been not a correct explanation of A
observed as 0.575 m (staff held c) A is true but R is false
inverted). The RL (m) of R will be d) A is false but R is true
a) 155.880 b) 156.320 [GATE-2009]
Q.7 A benchmark was established at the
soffit of an ornamental arch at the
known elevation of 100, above m.s.l.
The back sight used to establish a) Both I and II b) I only
height of instrument is an inverted c) II only d) Neither I nor II
staff reading of 2.105 m. A forward
sight reading with normally held [GATE-2012]
staff of 1.105 m is taken on a
recently constructed plinth. The Q.10 The horizontal distance between
elevation of plinth is two stations P and Q is 100 m. The
a) 103.201 m b) 101.00 m vertical angles from P and Q to the
c) 99.00 m d) 96.79 m top of a vertical tower at T are 3°
[GATE-2010] and 5° above horizontal,
respectively. The vertical angles
Q.8 Curvature correction to a staff from P and Q to the base of the
reading in a differential leveling tower are 0.1° and 0.5° below
survey is horizontal, respectively. Stations P,
a) always subtractive Q and the tower are in the same
b) always zero vertical plane with P and Q being on
c) always additive the same side of T. Neglecting
d) dependent on latitude earth’s curvature and atmospheric
[GATE-2011] refraction, the height (in m) of the
tower is
Q.9 Which of the following errors can be a) 6.972 b) 12.387
eliminated by reciprocal c) 12.540 d) 128.745
measurements in differential [GATE-2012]
levelling?
I. Error due to earth’s curvature
II. Error due to atmospheric
refraction
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(b) (a) (c) (c) (d) (a) (d) (a) (b) *
EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (b) Q.7 (d)

both the statements are true, but no Bench mark at the bottom of
relation between the two. ornamental arch = 100 m
RL of plinth = 100 – 2.105 – 1.105
Q.2 (a) = 96.79 m
Scale = 1:20,000
Gradient = 4% Q.8 (a)
Contour interval = 20 m Curvature correction is always
Vertical distance between two subtractive.
successive contours
20 Q.9 (b)
Gradients = = 0.05 m
400 Error due to atmospheric refraction
0.05m×1 can be completely eliminated by
Distance on map = reciprocal levelling.
20000
= 0.025 cm
Q.10 No answer.
Q.3 (c)
BM = 155.305 m
RL of roof(R) = BM + BS + FS
= 155.305 + 1.5 + 0.575 = 157.38 m
Q.4 (c)
Difference in level between PQ =
(2.8 − 1.7) + (2.7 − 1.8)
=1m
2
RL of Q = RL of P + 1
= 100 + 1 = 101 m
Q.5 (d)
Distance of visible horizon,
6
C = (0.0786)( D) 2
7
6
120 = (0.0786) D 2
7
D = 42.226 km = 42226 m
Q.6 (a)
Correct order of booking levels is
BS, FS, BS, FS.
After second reading again staff
reading is reduced this indicates a
change point.
4 TACHEOMETRIC, CURVE & HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING
Q.1 Two straight lines deviate at an Q.2 The focal length of the object glass
angle of 60 degrees. The radius of a of a tacheometer is 200 mm, the
curve joining the two straight lines distance between the vertical axis of
is 600 m. The length of long chord the tacheometer and the optical
and mid ordinates in meters of the centre of the glass is 100 mm and
curve are the spacing between the upper and
a) 80.4 and 600 lower line of the diaphragm axis is
b) 600 and 80.4 1m, 2 m, & 3 m. With the line
c) 600.0 and 39.89 collimation perfectly horizontal, the
d) 49.89 and 300.0 horizontal distance (m) between the
[GATE-2007] staff and instrument station is
a)100.3 b) 103.0
c) 150.0 d) 153.0
[GATE-2008]
ANSWER KEY:
1 2
(b) (a)
EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (b) Q.2 (a)

θ = 60° focal length of objective, f = 200 mm
R = 600 m Distance from vertical axis to centre
Length of long chord = 2 R sin(θ/2) of objective is, d = 100 mm
= 2 x 600 x sin(60/2) = 600 m Staff intercept, s = 3 – 1 = 2 m
Mid ordinate = R(1 – cos(θ/2)) Stadia intercept; i = 4mm
= 600[1 – cos(60/2)] Horizontal distance from instrument
= 80.4 m f
to staff station = (s) + (f + d)
i
200
= (2) + (0.2 + 0.1)= 100.3m
4
5 REMOTE SENSING, GIS, GPS & PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Q.1 The minimum number of satellites b) Global Positioning System

needed for a GPS to determine its c) Passive Remote Sensing
position precisely is d) Active Remote Sensing
a) 2 b) 3 [GATE-2016]
c) 4 d) 24
[GATE-2016] Q.3 Optimal flight planning for a
photogrammetric survey should be
Q.2 The system that uses the Sun as a carried out considering
source of electromagnetic energy a) Only side-lap
and records the naturally radiated b) Only end-lap
and reflected energy from the object c) Either side-lap or end-lap
is called d) Both side-lap as well as end-lap
a) Geographical Information System [GATE-2016]
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3
(c) (c) (d)
EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (c)
Q.3 (d)
At a minimum, four satellite must be
For optimal flight planning for a
in view of the receiver for it to
photogrammetric survey both side
compute four unknown quantity
lap and end lap should be
(three position coordinate and one
considered.
for clock deviation from satellite
time)
Q.2 (c)
The sun provide a very convenient
source of energy for remote sensing.
The Sun’s energy is either reflected,
as it is for visible wavelengths, or
absorbed and then re-emitted, as
Remote sensing system which
measure energy i.e., naturally
available are called as passive
remote sensing.
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
Q.1 The sides of a rectangle are (120 ± c) 0.28 m2 d) 0.88 m2

0.05) m and (180 ± 0.06) m. The Q.8 Geodetic surveying is different from
probable error in the area will be plane surveying because of
a) ± 16.8 sq m b) ± 12.3 sq m a) the curvature of earth
c) ± 16.2 sq m d) ± 11.53 sq m b) the large difference of elevations
between various points
Q.2 If a quantity A has a weight of 3, c) coverage of very large area
then the weight of A/3 will be d) undulations of very large area
a) 28 b) 27
c) 24 d) 21 Q.9 The difference between the most
probable value of a quantity and its
Q.3 Theory of errors and adjustments observer value is
deals with minimizing the effects of a) true error
a) instrumental errors b) weighted observations
b) mistakes c) conditional error
c) systematic errors d) residual error
d) personal and accidental errors
Q.10 The error due to bad ranging is
Q.4 A plot of land 60 m x 20 m is a) cumulative; positive
measured by a steel tape. If the b) cumulative; negative
standard error of length and width c) compensating
measurements is taken as ±1 cm, d) cumulative; positive or negative
then the standard error of the area
of the plot would be Q.11 Offsets are
a) ±0.1414 m2 b) ±0.566 m2 a) lateral measurements made with
c) ±0.632 m2 d) ±0.8484 m2 respect to main survey lines
b) perpendiculars erected from
Q.5 Which one of the following closely chain line
represent the shape of the earth? c) taken to avoid unnecessary
a) Spheroid walking between stations
b) Ellipsoid d) measurements which are not
c) Oblate spheroid made at right angles to the chain
d) Prolate spheroid line
Q.12 The plan of a map was photo copied
Q.6 The representative fraction 1/2500 to a reduce size such that a fine
means that the scale 1 cm is equal to originally 100 mm, measures 90
a) 025 m b) 2.5 m mm. The original scale is
c) 25 m d) 2.5 km a) 1 : 900 b) 1 : 1111
c) 1 : 1121 d) 1 : 1221
Q -7 A circle of radius 7 m has a standard
error of 0.02 m on the radius. The Q.13 The shrinkage factor of an old map
standard error of its area is is found to be 15/16 and the
a) 0.04 m2 b) 0.14 m2
representative fraction for the map meters. What is the true length of
is line if the chain was 10 cm too long
a) 1/1600 b) 1/1500 a) 251.25 m b) 248.75 m
c) 1/1906.6 d) None of these c) 250.1 m d) 249.9 m
Q.14 Which of the following instruments Q.20 The required slope correction for a
is generally used for base line length of 60 m along a gradient of 1
measurement? in 20 is
a) chain b) metallic tape a) 7.5 m b) 75 cm
c) steel tape d) invar tape c) 0.75 cm d) 5.50 cm
Q.15 The correction for sage is Q.21 A 30 m steel tape was standardized
a) always additive at 20°C and measurement of
b) always subtractive distance were taken at 15°C. If the
c) always zero coefficients of linear expansion α of
d) sometime additive and the material of the tape were
sometime subtractive 0.000112 per °C, then error due to
temperature per tape length would
Q.16 A 30 m metric chain is found to be be
0.1 m too short throughout the a) -0.0000560 m b) +0.0000560 m
measurement. If the distance c) +0.0016800 m d) -0.0016800 m
measured is recorded as 300 m,
then the actual distance measured Q.22 A 100 m tape is suspended between
will be thee ends under a pull of 200 N. The
a) 300.1 m b) 301.0 m weight of the tape is 30 N. The
c) 299.0 m d) 310.0 m correction for sag and correct
distance between the tape ends is
Q.17 The length of a chain is measured a) 0.056 m; 99.944 m
from b) 0.094 m; 99.906 m
a) centre of one handle to centre of c) 0.094 m; 100.094 m
other handle d) 0.056 m; 100.056 m
b) outside of one handle to outside
of other handle Q.23 A 20 m chain was found to be 10 cm
c) outside of one handle to inside of too long after chaining a distance of
other handle 2000 m. It was found to be 18 cm
d) inside of one handle to inside of too long at the end of the day’s work
other handle after chaining a total distance of
4000 m. What is the true distance if
Q.18 A surveyor measured the distance the chain was correct before the
between too point on the plain commencement of the day’s work?
drawn to a scale of 1 cm = 40 m and a) 3962 m b) 4019 m
the result was 468 m. Later he c) 3981 m d) 4038 m
discovered that he used a scale of 1
cm = 20 m. What is the true distance Q.24 Normal tension is that pull which
between the two point? a) is used at the time of
a) 936 m b) 234 m standardizing the tape
c) 117m d) 702 m b) neutralizes the effect due to pull
and sag
Q.19 The length of a line measured with a c) makes the correction due to sag
20 meter chain was found to be 250 equal to zero
d) makes the correction due to pull Q.30 The error due to eccentricity of
equal to zero inner and outer axes can be
eliminated by
Q.25 The length of a base line is a) reading both verniers and taking
measured on ground at an elevation the mean of the two
of 300 metres above mean sea level b) taking both face observations
is 2250 metres. The required and taking the mean of the two
correction to reduce to sea level c) double sighting
length (give Radius of earth = 6370 d) taking mean of several readings
m) will be distributed over different
a) 106 mm b) 206 mm portions of the graduated circle
c) 306 mm d) 212 mm
Q.31 The following bearings were
Q.26 In the prismatic compass observed while traversing with a
a) the magnetic needle moves with compass:
the box Line F.B. B.B
b) the line of the sight does not
AB 104°30’ 284°30’
move with the box
BC 48°15’ 226°0’
c) the magnetic needle and
CD 290°30’ 115°15’
graduated circle do not move
with the box DA 180°15’ 375°15’
d) the graduated circle needle Which stations were affected by
always remains in the N-S local attraction?
direction a) A and B b) B and C
c) C and D d) A and D
Q.27 Local attraction in compass
surveying may exist due to Q.32 If fore bearing of a line is S49°52'E
a) incorrect levelling of the (assuming there is no local
magnetic needle attraction), the back will be
b) loss of magnetism of the needle a) S 52°49’E b) S 49°52’E
c) friction of the needle at the pivot c) N 49°08’E d) N 49°52’W
d) presence of magnetic substances
near the instrument Q.33 If the declination is 5°40'W, which
one of the following magnetic
Q.28 The horizontal angle between the bearing would represent the true
true meridian and magnetic bearing of S25°20'6?
meridian at a place is called a) S 19°20’E b) S 31°0’ E
a) azimuth c) S 20°0’ E d) S 19°20’ W
b) declination
c) local attraction Q.34 If the declination of a star is 70°10'N
d) magnetic bearing and the latitude of the observer is
49°50'N,
Q.29 A negative declination shows that then the values of the zenith
the magnetic meridian is to the distance and the altitude of the star
a) eastern side of the true meridian at the lower
b) western side of the true meridian culmination will be respectively
c) southern side of the true meridian a) 60° and 30°
d) None of the above b) 109°50’ and 40°10’
c) 120° and 60°
d) 20° 20’ and 30°00’
d) None of the above
Q.35 If the forebearing of a line AB is 35°
and that of line BC 15°, then the Q.42 The Bowditch method of adjusting a
included angle between the lines is traverse is based on the assumption
that
a) 20° b) 50°
1
c) 160° d) 230° a) e1∞ l and e 2 ∞
l
Q.36 The line drawn through the points b) e1∞ l and e 2 ∞ l
of same declination is known as 1
a) Isogonic line b) Agonic line c) e1∞ and e 2 ∞ l
l
c) Diurnal line d) None of these
1 1
d) e1∞ and e 2 ∞
Q.37 ABCD is a regular parallelogram plot l l
of land whose angle BAD is 60°. If where e1 and e2 are errors in linear
the bearing of line AB is 30° then the and angular measurements
bearing of line CD is respectively and l is the length of a
a) 90° b) 120° line
c) 210° d) 270°
Q.43 Accuracy of elevation of various
Q.38 In an old map a line was drawn to a points obtained from contour map is
magnetic bearing of10°30’ the limited to
magnetic declination being 2° East 1
a) of the contour interval
at that time. The magnetic bearing 2
to which the line should be set now 1
b) th of the contour interval
if the present magnetic declination 4
is 4°30’ west 1
a) 17° b) 15° c) rd of the contour interval
3
c) 10° d) 8° 1
d) th of the contour interval
5
Q.39 A series of closely spaced contour
lines represents a
Q.44 If L is the perimeter of a closed
a) steep slope b) gentle slope
traverse; ∆ D is the closing error in
c) uniform slope d) plane surface
departure, the correction for the
Q.40 In the cross-section method of departure of a traverse side of
indirect contouring, the spacing of length l, according to Bowditch rule,
cross-sections depends upon is
1. contour interval L l2
2. scale of plane a) ∆D × b) ∆D ×
l L
3. characteristics of ground l l
The correct answer is c) L × d) ∆D ×
∆D L
a) only 1 b) 1 and 2
c) 2 and 3 d) 1, 2 and 3
Q.45 If arithmetic sum of latitudes of a
Q.41 Closed contours, with higher value closed traverse is ∑ Lat and closing
inwards, represent a error in latitude is dx, the correction
a) depression for a side whose latitude is l, as
b) hillock given by Transit Rule, is
c) plain surface
a) l ×
dx
b) l ×
∑ Lat
∑ Lat dx
dx
c) ∑ Lat × l
d)None of these c) d)
Q.46 If the reduced bearing of a line AB is

N60°W and length is 100 m, then the
latitude and departure respectively
of the line AB will be Q.51 With the rise of temperature, the
a) +50 m, + 86.6 m sensitivity of a bubble tube
b) + 86.6 m, -50m a) decreases
c) + 50m, - 86.6 m b) increases
d) + 70.7 m, -50 m c) remains unaffected
Q.47 If the sum of nor things of a traverse d) None of the above
exceeds the sum of southings by 1 m
and sum of eastings exceeds the sum Q.52 The RL, of the point A which is on
of westings by 1 m, the resultant the floor is 100 m and back sight
closing error and its true bearing reading on A is 2.455 m. If the
respectively are foresight reading on the point B
a) 1 m, N 45°E b) 2 m, N 45°W which is one the ceiling is 2.745 m,
c) √2 m, N45°E d) 0, N 45°E the RL of point B will be
a) 94.80 m b) 99.71 m
Q.48 In a closed traverse, the sum of c) 100.29 m d) 105.20 m
south latitudes exceeds the sum of
north latitudes and the sum of east Q.53 A level was set up at a point A and
departures exceeds the sum of west distance to the staff station B was
departures. The closing line will lie 100 m. The net combined correction
in the due to curvature and refraction as
a) N-W quadrant b) N-E quadrant applied to the staff reading is
c) S-E quadrant d) S-W quadrant a) 0.00673 m b) 0.000673 m
c) -0.000673 m d) -0.00673 m
Q.49 The direction of the magnetic
meridian is established at each Q.54) Two points A and B are 1530 m part
traverse station and the direction of across a river. The reciprocal levels
the line is determined with measured are
reference to the magnetic meridian. Level Reading on (in m)
This method of traversing is called at A B
a) fast needle method A 2.165 3.810
b) loose needle method B 0.910 2.355
c) bearing method The true difference in level between
d) fixed needle method A and B would be
a) 1.255 m b) 1.355 m
Q.50) Which one of the following figures c) 1.545 m d) 1.645 m
indicates the principle of traversing?
a) b) Q.55 Which one of the following gives the
correct distance between the
lighthouse and a ship, when the
lighthouse whose height is 100 m is
visible just above the horizon from b) the staff station that are changed
the ship? from point to point the reduced
a) 30.68 m b) 36.50 m level of the points.
c) 38.54 m d) 40.54 m c) the staff stations of known
elevations
Q.56 A line of levels was run from Bench d) the staff station were back sight
Mark A(770.815) to a Bench Mark and fore sight readings are
B(772.940). The sum of back sights taken.
was 32.665 m and sum of fore sights
was 30.44 m . The closing error is Q.61 The height of instrument method of
(in m) reducing level is preferred when
a) 0.105 b) 0.100 a) there are large numbers of
c) 0.205 d) 0.200 intermediate sights.
b) there are no intermediate sights.
Q.57 The RL of a classroom floor is 30.00 c) there are large number of fore
m and the staff reading on the floor sights.
is 1.40 m. The staff reading when, d) there are no fore sights.
held inverted with the bottom
touching the Tee beam of the roof is Q.62 The angular value of one division of
3.67 m. The height of the beam the bubble tube of a level is 20
above the floor is seconds. The reading on a staff held
a) 35.07 m b) 2.27 m 100 meters away for a disturbance
c) 5.07 m d) 27.73 m of the bubble 3 divisions from
centre towards the observer the
Q.58 The distance of visible horizon from reading with bubble in the centre
a height of 36 m above mean sea being 2.540 m will be
level is given by a) 2.511 m b) 2.569 m
36 1 c) 2.290 m d) 2.731 m
a) km b) 36 km
0.6728 0.06728
Q.63 The Process of determining the
36 locations of the instrument station
c) km d) 36 0.06728km
0.06728 by drawing resectors from the
locations the known station is called
a) radiation b) intersection
Q.59 If sensitivity of the bubble tube is c) resection d) traversing
30’’ per 2 mm division then what
would be the error in staff reading Q.64 The methods used for location the
on a vertically held staff at a plane table station are
distance of 200 m when its bubble is 1. radiation 2. traversing
out of centre by 2.5 divisions. 3. intersection 4. resection
a) 0.73 m b) 0.073 m The correct answer is
c) 0.0073 m d) 7.3 m a) 1 and 2 b) 3 and 4
c) 2 and 4 d) 1 and 3
Q.60 Change point in levelling are
a) the instrument station that are Q.65 The instrument which is used in
changed from one position to plane tabling for obtaining
another. horizontal and vertical distances
directly without resorting to
chaining, is known as
a) Plane alidade Which of these statements is/are
b) telescopic alidade correct?
c) clinometer a) 1, 2 and 4 b) 2, 3 and 4
d) tacheometer c) 1, 2 and 3 d) 1, 3 and 4
Q.66 Orientation of a plane table by Q.70 Consider the following statements
solving two point problem is only pertaining to plane table survey
adopted when 1. Two-point problem is solved by
a) saving of time is a main factor mechanical method
b) better accuracy is a main factor 2. Three-point Problem is solved
c) given points are inaccessible by Bessel’s method
d) None of these 3. In two-point problem, auxiliary
Q.67 For locating an inaccessible point station is required
with the help of only a plane table, Which of these statements is/are
one should use correct?
a) traversing b) resection a) 1 and 2 b) 1 and 3
c) radiation d) intersection c) 2 and 3 d) 1, 2 and 3
Q.68 Consider the following step: Q.71 Which one of the following
1. Using Lehmann’s rule, an instruments is used in plane table
improved position of station surveying for the measurement of
point is obtained horizontal and vertical distances
2. Procedure is repeated till the directly?
triangle of error is reduced to a a) Plain alidade
point b) Telescopic alidade
3. Triangle of error is obtained c) Tacheometer
4. The plane table is levelled over d) Clinometer
the station point
5. Three resection lines are drawn Q.72 In the given formula formats, L is
from three well defined station the length of a base line split into ‘n’
points. equal segments each of length ‘d’.
The correct sequence of “Lehman’s O1, O2...........,
Procedure” for solving the three On+1 are the ordinates at the
point problem is sequential ends of the segments and
a) 5, 4, 2, 3, 1 b) 4, 5, 3, 1, 2 M1, M2,..........Mn are the mid-
c) 1, 2, 4, 3, 5 d) 4, 1, 3, 2, 5 ordinates of successive segments.
Which of the following pairs of rules
Q.69 Consider the following statements and the formulas on the base line
regarding Plane Table surveying are correctly matched?
1. It is less accurate than chain a) Mid – ordinate Rule
surveying
 O + O + ... + O n 
2. It is not necessary to do accurate= A  1 2
×L
centering of plane table for small  n 
scale surveys b) Average – ordinate Rule
3. Compass rule may be made use L
of for adjusting the plane table
A= [ M1 + M 2 + ....M n ]
n
traverse c) Trapezoidal Rule
4. From the instrument station,  O + O  
resectors are drawn to plot the = A d  1 n +1  + O 2 + O3 + .... + O n 
position of objects in the field  2  
d) Simpsons’ rule 3) Length of long chord....... 2R cosec
d (O1 + O n ) + 4(O 2 + O 4 + ...)  ∆ /2
A=   4) Mid- ordinate.......... R ver sin ∆ /2
3  +2(O3 + O5 + ... + O n )  (R is the radius and A is the
Select the correct answer using the deflection angle)
codes given below Select the correct answer using the
a) 1 and 2 b) 1 and 3 codes given below:
c) 3 and 4 d) 2 and 4 a) 1 and 3 b) 2 and 4
Q.73 Which one of the following methods c) 1 and 2 d) 1 and 4
estimates the best area of an
irregular and curved boundary? Q.79 If a tacheometer is fitted with an
a) Trapezoidal method anallatic lens
b) Simpson’s method a) additive constant is 100,
c) Average ordinate method multiplying constant is zero
d) Mid-ordinate method b) multiplying constant is. 100,
additive constant is zero
Q.74 The angle subtended by the long c) both multiplying and additive
chord of a simple circular curve at constants are 100
its centre is equal to d) both multiplying and additive
a) angle of deflection constants are 50
b) two times the angle of deflection
c) 180° — angle of deflection Q.80 If ∆ is the angle of deflection of the
 angle of deflection  curve, T1 and T2 are its points of
d) 180 −  tangencies, the angle between the
 2  tangent at T1 and long chord T1 T2
will be
Q.75 The radial offset at a distance X from a) ∆/4 b) ∆/3
the point of commencement of curve c) ∆/2 d) ∆
of radius R is given by
a) R 2 − X2 − R b) R − R 2 − X 2 Q.81 If R is the radius of the main curve,
c) R − R 2 + X 2 d) R 2 + X2 − R el the angle of deflection, S the shift
and L the length of the transition
Q.76 The shape of the vertical curve curve, then, total tangent length of
generally provided is the curve, is
a) circular b) parabolic a) (R - S) tan θ/2 – L/2
c) spiral d) elliptical b) (R + S) tan θ/2 – L/2
c) (R + S) tan θ/2 + L/2
Q.77 If L is the length of transition curve d) (R - S) tan θ/2 + L/2
and R is the radius of circular curve,
then the shift of the curve is directly Q.82 If the intercept on a vertical staff is
proportional to observed as 0.75 m from a
a) R and 1/L2 b) 1/R and L2 tacheometer, the horizontal distance
c) 1/R2 and L d) R2 and 1/L between tacheometer and staff
station is
Q.78 Which of the following elements of a a) 7.5 m b) 25 m
simple curve are correctly matched? c) 50 m d) 75 m
1) Tangent length...........R tan ∆ /2
2) Apex distance ..........2R sin ∆ /2 Q.83 If the focal length of the abject glass
is 25 cm and the distance from
object glass to the trunnion axis is Q.89 For a circumpolar star, declination
15 cm, the additive constant is must be
a) 0.1 b) 0.4 a) equal to colatitudes
c) 0.6 d) 1.3 b) more than colatitudes
c) less than colatitudes
Q.84 If an upgrade of 1.5% is followed by d) any of the above
a downgrade of 0.5% and rate of
change of grade is 0.2% per 20 m Q.90 Which one of the following indicates
chain, then the length of vertical the correct relationship between the
curve is flying height (H), the focal length (f),
a) 100 m b) 200 m the air base (B) & the photographic
c) 300 m d) 400 m base (b)?
Q.85 If `g1' and `g2' are the two gradients, 1 b.H
a) B = b) B =
'r' is the rate of change of grade (%) b.H f
per chain, the length of the vertical c) B =
b
d) B =
H
curve will be f .H b.f
g +g   g −g 
a)  1 2 2  b)  1 2  Q.91 Satellite station S is established
 r   r  during a triangulation survey as
 g −g  g1 + g 2 shown in fig.
c)  1 2  d)
 r  r3
Q.86 A transition curve is required for a
circular curve of 200 m radius, the
gauge being 1.5 m and maximum
superelevation restricted to 15 cm. The angle α is equal to
The transition is to be designed for a a) θ + β1 + β2 b) θ - β1 + β2
velocity such that no lateral c) θ + β1 - β2 d) θ - β1 - β2
pressure is imposed on the rails and
rate of gain of radial acceleration is Q.92 Which of the following statements
30 cm/s2. The required length of about photogrammetric surveying is
transition curve will be correct?
a) 460 m b) 46 m a) decreases with increase in flying
c) 4.6 m d) 0.46 m height
b) Is negative for a point above
Q.87 The lengths of long chord and datum
tangents of a circular curve are c) decreases as the distance of the
equal for a deflection angle of object from the principal point
a) 30° b) 60° increases
c) 90° d) 120° d) of the point is not affected by the
tilt of the photograph.
Q.88 The staff intercepts on a vertically
held staff at a distance of 50 m and Q.93 Consider the following statements
200 m were found to be 0.49 m and associated with triangulation survey
1.99 m respectively. The constants 1. in triangulation survey unknown
of instrument used are distances between stations are
a) K = 101/ and C = 1 determined using tacheometric
b) K = 100/ and C = 0 relation
c) K = 101/ and C = 0 2. The triangulation station at
d) K = 100/ and C = 1 which astronomical observations
are made for azimuths are called b) Cadastral survey
Laplace station c) Aerial survey
3. In tertiary triangulation, the d) Photogrammetric survey
length of the sides is in the range
of 10 to 25 km Q.99 If the difference in height of two
4. The length of the base line in points whose parallax difference is
primary triangulation is 8 to 12 (+) 0.8 mm on a pair of stereo pair
km Of these statements taken from a flying height H and
a) 1 and 2 are correct having mean photo base 95.2 mm is
b) 3 and 4 are correct (+) 100 m, then the flying height H
c) 1 and 4 are correct will be
d) 2 and 4 are correct a) 8,000 m b) 10,000 m
Q.94 Given that for a triangulation survey c) 12,000 m d) 14,000 m
D = distance in km
h = the visible horizon from a
station of known elevation above
the datum (in metres)
If there is no obstruction due to
intervening ground, then h is equal
to
a) 0.6735 D2 b) 6.735 D2
c) 0.06735 D 2 d) 0.006735 D2
Q.95 The sun’s declination remains north

in the period between
a) March 21 to June 21
b) June 21 to September 21
c) September 21 to December 21
d) both (a) and (c)
Q.96 A star has a declination of 55°N. Its

upper culmination is in the zenith of
the place. The altitude of the lower
culmination is
a) 55 b) 35
c) 70 d) 20
Q.97 An aircraft is flying at a ground
speed of 200 km/h. The ground
distance covered is 200 mm. The
ground distance covered along the
flight line between exposures is 2
km. The time interval between
exposures is given by
a) 18 sec b) 36 sec
c) 72 sec d) 180 sec
Q.98 Which one of the following surveys
is required in observations of stars
a) Astronomical survey
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(d) (b) (d) (c) (c) (c) (d) (a) (d) (a) (b) (b) (c) (d) (b)
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(c) (b) (a) (a) (a) (a) (b) (b) (b) (a) (c) (d) (b) (b) (a)
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
(c) (d) (b) (a) (c) (a) (c) (a) (a) (d) (b) (a) (a) (d) (a)
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
(c) (c) (c) (b) (a) (a) (d) (a) (c) (c) (b) (c) (c) (b) (d)
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
(a) (b) (c) (c) (b) (c) (d) (d) (b) (c) (a) (c) (b) (a) (d)
76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
(b) (b) (d) (b) (c) (c) (d) (b) (b) (c) (b) (d) (d) (b) (b)
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99
(a) (a) (b) (c) (d) (d) (b) (a) (c)
EXPLANATIONS
Q. 1 (d) Q.4 (c)

Error of area is given by Standard error of area is given by
2 2 2 2
 dA   dA   dA   dA 
=eA  el  +  eb  =eA  el  +  eb 
 dl   db   dl   db 
dA  A=l×b
= b= 180
dl dA
 = b= 20
dA dl
= 1= 120
db dA
And = l = 60
( 0.05 ×180 ) + ( 0.06 ×120 ) db
2 2
eA =
Now, el = eb = ± 1 cm = 0 = 0.01 m
= 92 + 7.22 ∴ eA = ± 0.632 m2
 11.53 sq.m
Q. 5 (c)
Q. 2 (b) The actual shape of the earth is an
Weight of quantity A = 3, oblate spheroid. It is an ellipsoid of
Then weight of quantity revolution, flattened at the poles
= A = 3 × 32 = 27 and bulging at the equator. The
3 length of the polar axis is about 12,
113.168 km and that of equatorial
Q. 3 (d) axis is about
Systematic or cumulative errors 12,756.602 km. Thus polar axis is
which occurs from well understood shorter than the equatorial axis by
causes can be reduced by adopting about 43.434 km.
suitable methods. It follows some
definite mathematical or physical Q. 6 (c)
law and a correction can be 1/2500 means
determined and applied. 1 cm = 2500 cm
Accidental errors are those which ∴ 1 cm = 25 m
remain after mistakes & systematic
errors have been eliminated and are Q. 7 (d)
caused by a combination of reasons Are of circle A = πr 2
beyond the ability of the observer to dA
control. ∴ = 2πr
dr
Personal errors arise from the Let standard error in radius be er
limitations of the human senses ∴ Standard error in area,
such as sight, touch and hearing. dA
Both accidental and personal error eA = er
represent the limit of precision in dr
the determination of a value. They = 0.02 × 2 × π × 7 = 0.88 m2
obey the law of probability and
therefore theory of errors and Q. 8 (a)
adjustments applies to them.
Q. 9 (d) 299
Actual distance = × 300=299.0m
Q. 10 (a) 30
Q. 11 (b) Q. 17 (b)
The distance measured right or left
of the chain line to locate details like Q. 18 (a)
boundaries, culverts etc. are called Distance between two points
offsets. These are of two types: measured with a scale of 1 cm to 20
(i) Perpendicular offsets at right cm
angles to the chain line 468
(ii)oblique offsets not at right angles = = 23.4cm
20
to the chain line
Actual scale of the plan is 1 cm = 40
m
Q. 12 (b)
∴ True distance between points
90
Reduction factor = = 0.9 = 23.4 × 40 = 936 m
100
Revised scale = original scale × Q.19 (a)
reduction factor The true length of line is given by
1 1  L'
= × 0.9 = l = l ' 
1000 1111 L
 20.1 
Q. 13 (c) = 250 ×   = 251.25 m
Corrected scale= SF × RF  20 
15 1 1
= × = Q. 20 (a)
16 1600 1906.6
Q. 14 (d)
Inver tapes are used for linear
measurement of very high degree
precision such as base line
measurements cloth or lines tap for
rough and subsidiary measurements True length = 602 + 32 = 60.075 m
such as offset. Correction = 0.075 cm = 7.5 m
Q. 15 (b) Q. 21 (a)
Always negative α∆T = 0.00000112 (15 - 20)
l1 ( wl1 )
2 = -0.0000560 m
Cst =
24p 2 Q. 22 (b)
(Assuming parabola curve)
W2L
l1 =length suspended (m) Correction for sag =
p = pull applied (kg or N) 24p 2
w = weight of tape per meter length 302 ×100
= = 0.094m
wl= weight of tape suspended 24 × 2002
between supports Correct distance = 100 – 0.094
= 99.906 m
Q. 16 (c)
Actual length of chain = 30 – 0.1 = Q. 23 (b)
29.9 m
For the first 2000 m, average error Q. 30 (a)
is Error due to eccentricity of inner
0 + 10 and outer axes means that the
e= = 5 cm = 0.05 m
2 centre of graduated horizontal circle
∴ Incorrect length of chain, does not coincide with the centre of
L’ = 20 + 0.05 = 20.05 m vernier plate.
Measured length, l’ = 2000m
 L' Q. 31 (c)
∴ True length, l1 =   × l ' As the difference between F.B and
L B.B of line AB is exactly 180°,
 20.05  stations A and B are free from local
=   × 2000 = 2005 m
 20  attraction which is not the case with
For the next 2000 m, average error line CD. Hence stations C and D are
is affected by local attraction.
10 + 18
e= = 14 cm = 0.14 m Q. 32 (d)
2
∴ L’ = 20 + 0.14 = 20.14 m If the fore bearing of a line is given
l’ = 2000 m as the quadrantal bearing, then back
bearing is numerically equal to the
 L'
∴ True length, l2 =   × l ' fore bearing. However N changes to
L S and E changes to W and vice versa.
 20.14 
=   × 2000 = 2014 m
 20  Q. 33 (b)
Hence, true distance, l = l1 + l2 Note that negative (W) declination
= 2005 + 2014-07-08 = 4019 m should be added to quadrantal
bearing in second and fourth
Q. 24 (b) quadrant i.e. NOW or SOE and it
should be subtracted from
Q. 25 (a) quadrantal bearing in first and third
Lh quadrant i.e., NOE and SOW. Reverse
Correction to MSL = should be done for positive (E)
R
300 × 2.25 declination,
= = 0.106 m
6370
≈ 106 mm
Q. 26 (c)
Q. 27 (d) True bearing = S 25 20 ' E + 5 40 '

Local attraction is a term used to = S 31 0 ' E
denote any influence, which
prevents the needle from pointing to
the magnetic north in a given
locality. Difference of fore bearing
and back bearing = 0 ⇒ No local
attraction.
Q. 28 (b)
Q. 29 (b)
Q. 34 (a)
60 and 30 at lower culmination
Zenith distance
ZA = ZP + ZA
= PA = (90 - θ) + (90 - δ)
= (90 - 49 50’) + (90 - 70 10’)= 60
Q. 35 (c)
TB = MB + Declination
= 2 + 1030 ' =
1230 '
BB of AB = FB + 180 MB = TB + Declination
= 35 + 180 = 215 = 430 '+ 1230 ' =
17
∴ Included angle between line
AB and BC = 360 − 215 + 15 Q.39 (a)
= 160 Closed contours ⇒ Steep slope
Apart contour lines ⇒ Gentle slope
Q. 36 (a) Equally spaced ⇒ Uniform slope
Straight parallel and equally speed
Q. 37 (c) Contours ⇒ plane surface
Bearing of CD = 180 + 30 =
210
Q. 40 (d)
Q. 41 (b)
Q. 42 (a)
Q. 43 (a)
Q. 44 (d)
Q.38 (a) Bowditch’s method – Correction to
True bearing drawing = latitude (or departure) of any side
1030 '+ 2 = 1230 '. = Total error in latitude (or
TB = MB at present ± declination at  Length of side 
departure) ×  
present.  perimeter of traverse 
1230 ' = (MB)present - 430 '
(MB) present = 1230 ' + 430 ' = 17 Q. 45 (a)
Alternate Method Transit method → Correction of
latitude (and departure) of any side
= Total error in latitude (or departure) = 100 + 2.455 + 2.745
 Latitude or departure  = 105.20 m
× 
 sum of latitude ( or departure )  Q.53 (a)
Net combined correction
Q. 46 (c) = -0.0673 d2 meters where d is in
kms
Q. 47 (c) 2
 1
= -0.0673 d2   = -0.00673 m
Q.48 (c)  10 
The closing line will have south
latitude & east departure. Therefore Q. 54 (c)
it will lie in S-E quadrant. True difference in levels.
h=
( 3.810 − 2.165) + ( 2.355 − 0.910 )
Q. 49 (b) 2
In the loose needle method, the = 1.545 m
direction of the magnetic meridian Error in collimation adjustment,
is established at each traverse
e=
( 3.810 − 2.165) − ( 2.355 − 0.910 )
station and the direction of the line
2
is determined with reference to the
= 0.1 m
magnetic meridian. In other words,
When the level is at A, the reading
the magnetic bearing of each line is
on the staff at A . While reading on
determined directly. A theodolite
the staff B is incorrect. When the
fitted with a compass is used for
level is at B, the reading on the staff
determining the magnetic bearing of
at A is incorrect.
the traverse line. The loose needle
Correct reading is:
method is also known as free needle
Level at Readings on (in m)
method.
A B
Q. 50 (a) A 2.165 3.71
The principle of traversing say that, B 0.81 2.355
a traverse should consist of a series
of straight lines connected together Q. 55 (c)
to form an open or a closed polygon. If d is the distance to the visible
The points defining the ends of the horizon,
traverse lines are called traverse It is given by
stations or traverse points. D = 3.8553 C km
‘C’ being in metres
Q. 51 (a)
With a rise in temperature the liquid ∴ d = 3.8553 100
expands. Hence the bubble shortens = 38.553 km
and consequently its sensitivity
decreases. Q. 56 (b)
Q. 52 (d)
RLB = RLA + ∑ BS − ∑ FS
Since the staff at the elevated point RLB = 770.815 + 32.665 – 30.44
= 773.035
B on the ceiling is hold vertically
∴ Closing error = 773.035 – 772.940
inverted.
RL of B = RL of A +B.S.on A + FS on B = 0.10
Q. 57 (c) stations is large or the stations
Height = staff reading on floor + are inaccessible or the ground is
inverted staff reading undulating.
= 1.40 + 3.67 (iv)Resection is used when some
= 5.07 m important details can be plotted
easily bychoosing any station
Q.58 (c) other than the triangulation
station.
Q. 59 (b)
The sensitive of a bubble tube is Q. 68 (d)
given by
s Q. 69 (b)
α = 206265 sec. .
nD
nDα ' 2.5 × 200 × 30 Q. 70 (c)
∴S= =
206265 206265
Q. 71 (a)
= 0.073 m
Q. 72 (c)
Q. 60 (d)
Q. 73 (b)
Q. 61 (a)
Mid-ordinate and Average ordinate
methods are used with the
Q. 62 (b)
assumption that the boundaries
S
=20 × 206265 between the extremities of the
3 ×100 ordinates are straight lines.
∴ S = 0.029 Trapezoidal method is based on the
Reading = 2.54 + 0.029 = 2.569 m assumption that the figures are
trapezoids. The method is more
Q. 63 (c) accurate than the above two
methods.
Q. 64 (c) Simpson's method assumes that the
short lengths of the boundaries
Q. 65 (b) between the ordinates are parabolic
arcs. This method is more useful
Q. 66 (c) when the boundary line departs
considerably from the straight line.
Q. 67 (d) The results obtained by use of
(i) Radiation method is suitable Simpson's method in all cases are
only when the area to be more accurate.
surveyed is small and all the
stations are visible and Q. 74 (a)
accessible from the instrument
station. Q. 75 (d)
(ii) Traversing is most suited when
a narrow strip of terrain is to be Q. 76 (b)
surveyed e.g. survey of roads,
railway etc. Q. 77 (b)
(iii)Intersection method is preferred
L2
when the distance between Shift S =
24R
D2 = 200=1.99 K + C .....(ii)
On solving (i) and (ii) we get,
K = 100 and C = 1
Q. 78 (d)
Q.89 (b)
Q. 79 (b)
Q. 90 (b)
Q. 80 (c)
Q. 91 (a)
Q. 81 (c)
Q. 92 (a)
Q.82 (d)
Because additive constant is zero Q. 93 (b)
and multiplying constant is 100 for a
tacheometer Q. 94 (c)
Q. 83 (b) Q. 95 (d)
Additive constant = f + d = 0.25 +
0.15 = 0.40 Q. 96 (d)
When star’s upper culmination is in
Q. 84 (b) zenith, polar distance = colatidude
Length of vertical curve and declination = latitude
15 − (−50) At lower culmination, zenith
L= × 20 =200m distance
02
= 180 - (latitude + delineation)
Q. 85 (c) = 180 - 2 × 55 = 70
Hence altitude = 90 − 70 = 20
Q. 86 (b)
0.15 Q. 97 (b)
v2 = × 9.81× 200
1.5 Timeinterval between exposures
⇒ v = 14 m/s (sec)
143 3600L
∴= l = 46m = where L is ground distance
0.3 × 200 V
covered between exposures along
Q. 87 (d) the flight line is km and V is the
The length of long chord (L) = 2Rsin group speed of the aircraft in km/h.
∆
and Q. 98 (a)
2
Cadastral survey is used to plot the
∆ details such as boundaries of fields,
The length of tagent (T) = R tan
2 houses and property lines in rural
When L = T and urban areas.These are also
∆ ∆ known as public land surveys.
⇒ 2Rsin = R tan ⇒ ∆ = 120
2 2 Photogrammetry is used to produce
a mosaic or map by compiling the
Q. 88 (d) photographs. Aerial survey covers
D1 = 50 = 0.49 K + C ......(i)
photogrammetry and photo-
interpretation both.
Q. 99 (c)
we know that
H∆p  b + ∆p 
∆h = = ⇒H   × ∆h
b + ∆p  ∆p 
 95.2 + 0.8 
=   ×100 = 12,000 m
 0.8 

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TRANSPORTATION

2.1 Traffic Characteristics 17

3.1 Development of Highway 30

4. TRAFFIC SIGNS AND SIGNAL DESIGN

5.1 Types of Intersection 42

6. HIGHWAY OR PAVING MATERIALS

7.1 Method of Pavement Design 66

9. ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS 109

1.1 Introduction 128

2. DIRECTION & DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS

3.1 Introduction 150

4.1 Introduction 156

5.1 Introduction 162

6.1 Introduction 168

7.1 Introduction 172

8.1 Introduction 176

9. GATE QUESTIONS 181

10. ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS 192

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.1.2 ROAD USER CHARACTERISTIC

• The crossfall for each shoulder should

1.4 TRAFFIC SEPARATORS OF MEDIAN • The safe and efficient operation of

• When the stopping sight distance for

1.6.1 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE (OSD)

1.7.3 HORIZONTAL CURVE

The presence of horizontal curve imparts

1.9 GUIDELINES ON SUPERELEVATION

• P is the centrifugal force acting • While designing the various elements of

even cause toppling. Taking into e1 =

speed, neglecting f, i.e. e1 =

If e1 < 0.07, then e = e1 = , else if widening are: When a vehicle

• It is therefore sufficient on single-lane

• The vertical alignment of a road The positive gradient or the ascending

• When these two curves meet, they form 1.12.4TYPES OF GRADIENT

1.12.5 RULING GRADIENT

Case B: Length of valley curve less than

From the figure,

2.1 TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS • The width of the vehicle affects the

2.5 TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY 2.5.2 TRAFFIC VOLUME CALCULATION

• Thirtieth highest hourly volume : Or the

In order to obtain certain traffic volume n

(iii) Design of signals

b) Cumulative speed of vehicles. The model speed is 47 km/hr

2.8.2 OBJECTIVES OF O & D STUDIES

2.9 CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE

• Represents a condition of free flow with 2.9.4 LEVEL OF SERVICE D

1. Parking demand: The parking demand Out of control

It may be carried out scientifically n the

3.1 DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHWAY • The main feature of his proposal was

3.1.5 MACADAM CONSTRUCTION

• John macadam (1756-1836) put

3.2 EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN 3.3 INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

3.7 ROAD PATTERNS

The various road patterns may be classified

• The choice of the pattern very much

3.7.5 PRELIMINARY SURVEY • Temporary bench marks are fixed at

4.1 TRAFFIC SIGNS

4.1.1 TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Traffic signals are control devices which

5.1 TYPES OF INTERSECTION Channelizing islands are used to guide