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Project Work On Mathematics: Theorem On Limits/ Continuity and Their Geometrical Meanings/Applications"
Project Work On Mathematics: Theorem On Limits/ Continuity and Their Geometrical Meanings/Applications"
entitled
SUBMITTED TO:
20B8-SC (BOARD EXAM ROOM)
SUPERVISED BY:
Mr. Narayan Poudel
Lecturer-Mathematics (ccrc)
DATE OF SUBMISSION:
29/08/2021
SUBMITTED BY:
Name Symbol no Registration no
Abhishek Patel 12727009 783271270063
Abhishek Gupta 12727018 783271270072
Aditi Pokharel 12727025 783271270079
Akash Chaudhary 12727037 783271270091
Anamika Singh 12727064 783271270118
Anuja lamsal 12727099 783271270153
Anupa Khanal 12727101 783271270155
Anusurya Bhattarai 12727109 783271270163
Apekshya Khadka 12727110 783271270164
Avipsha Basnet 12727148 783271270202
Group-A
B8, XI(20th batch)
CAPITAL COLLEGE AND RESEARCH CENTER
Koteshwor, Kathmandu
Nepal
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would also like to extend our gratitude to our project guide, Mr.
Narayan Poudel for his guidance and support in completing our
project.
This project didn’t only help us to increase our knowledge but also it
helped us to develop other skills like teamwork.
A. INTRODUCTION
A.1 Definition of limit
A.2 History
B. INTUITIVE IDEA OF LIMIT
C. APPLICATION OF LIMIT
C.1 Application in real life
C.2 Application in mathematical calculations
C.2.a Limits of algebraic functions
C.2.b Limit of trigonometric functions
C.3.c Limit of exponential and logarithmic functions
D. CONTINUITY
D.1 Introduction to continuity
D.1.1 History
D.1.2 Intuitive idea of continuity
D.2 Application of continuity
D.3 Types of continuity
A. BACKGROUND
A.1 Definition of limit
A limit of a function is a number that a function reaches as the
independent variable of the function reaches a given value. The
value (say a) to which the function f(x) gets close arbitrarily as the
value of the independent variable x becomes close arbitrarily to
a given value “A” symbolized as f(x) = A.
Now, let’s put this example in a functional notation. For this, lets
denote the area of a regular polygon with n sides inscribed in a fixed
circle by An such that n >2. Here An is the function of n so this
functional relation is written as
F(n)=An
When n tends to infinity than An approaches to the area of circle.
Thus the limiting value of f(n) or An is the area of the circle and is
denoted by, nlim f (n) or lim ❑A
→∞ x→ ∞ n
i.e.
1
Lim x
2 =0
𝑥→∞
•Meaning of 𝑥→ a (x tends to a)
Let x be a variable and ‘a’ is a constant. If the value of X comes
nearer and nearer to ‘a’ then we say x tends to a or “x approaches to
a” and we write 𝑥 → a
Example: Let the value of x be 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, 0.9999, 0.99999, ……
And, let the constant a = 1. Here, the value of x increasing and going
nearer and nearer to ‘a' i.e. 1 but not exactly reaches to ‘a' where
a=1. So, it means that “x tends to a or approaches to ‘a’
Thus, we write; 𝑥 → a
If x approaches to a from the value greater than ‘a’
i.e. From the right side of a, we write 𝑥 → a + or 𝑥 → a + 0.
For example: let x = 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, …………. Here the value
of X decreasing and going nearer and nearer to the a=2. It shows that
x is approaches to 2 from the value greater than 2 i.e from the right
side of a = 2 Thus we write. 𝑥 → a+ or 𝑥 → a + 0.
Similarly if x approaches to a from the value less than a, i.e. from the
left side of a, then we write 𝑥 → a− or 𝑥 → a – 0
For examples: let x = 1.9 , 1.99, 1.999, .......... and let a = 2. Here
the value of x increasing and going nearer and nearer to the a = 2. It
shows that X approaches to 2 from the value less than a = 2 i.e from
the left side of a. Thus, we write 𝑥 → a− or 𝑥 → a – 0
C. APPLICATION OF LIMIT
lim f (x)
f ( x)
Quotient Rule: x→ a ; if lim g ( x) ≠ 0
x →a
lim =
g( x ) lim g(x ) x→ a
x→a
Important theorem
For all rational values of n
xⁿ−aⁿ n-1
lim
n→ a x −a =nx
CASE: I
When n is a positive integer:
xn −an
By actual division, x−a
= x n−1+ x n .a+ x n−3 . a 2 + …. + a n−1
2
xⁿ−aⁿ
Now,lim
n→ a x −a =lim ¿ x n−2.a+ x n−3.a 2+…. +a n−1)
n→ a +
Case II:
When n is a negative integer:
Let n = -m where m is a positive integer
−¿ ᵐ−a ⁻ᵐ
x ⁿ−a ⁿ x
Then, lim = lim ¿
x→ a x−a x→ a x−a
1 1
−
= m m
lim
x→ a x−a
a ᵐ−x ᵐ
= lim
x→ a x ᵐa ᵐ(x−a)
−x ᵐ−a ᵐ 1
= lim ⨯
x→ a x−a xᵐaᵐ
x ᵐ−a ᵐ
=−( lim
x→a x−a
)¿
1
= -m. aᵐ⁻¹ a ᵐ. a ᵐ (using case I)
= (-m) a⁽⁻ᵐ⁾⁻¹
=n aⁿ⁻¹
Case III:
When n is a rational fraction:
p
Let n = q where p and q are integers and q ≠0.
x ⁿ−a ⁿ x ᵐ̷ᵥ −a ᵐ̷ᵥ
Then, lim =lim
x→ a x−a x→ a x−a
( x 1 ̷ ᵥ ) ᵐ−( a1 ̷ ᵥ) ᵐ
=lim x−a
x→ a
Put x¹̷˅ = y and a¹̷˅= b so that x = yⁿ and a = bⁿ
When x→a, y→b
y ᵐ−b ᵐ
x ⁿ−a ⁿ y ᵐ−b ᵐ y −b
Now, lim =lim = lim
x→ a x−a x→ a y ˇ −b ˇ x→ a y ˇ −b ˇ
y −b
y ᵐ−b ᵐ
lim
y →b y −b p b ᵐ⁻¹ m
= y ˇ −b ˇ = q b ˇ ⁻¹ = p .bᵐ⁻˅
lim
y →b y −b
m p
= p .bᴾ⁽ᵐ̷ᵥ⁻¹⁾ = q .(bᴾ)ᵐ̷ᵥ⁻¹ =naⁿ⁻¹
Theorem 1.7.11.7.1
3. lim
x→ a
tan ( x)=tan(a)
KEYPOINTS
Radian measure is defined such that the angle associated with the
arc of length 1 on the unit circle has radian measure 1. An angle
with a degree measure of 180 degree has a radian measure of π
rad.
For acute angles θ, the values of the trigonometric functions are
defined as ratios of two sides of a right triangle in which one of
the acute angles is θ.
For a general angle θ, let (x,y) be a point on a circle of radius r
corresponding to this angle θ. The trigonometric functions can be
written as ratios involving x, y, and r.
The trigonometric functions are periodic. The sine, cosine, secant,
and cosecant functions have period 2π. The tangent and
cotangent functions have period π.
lim
x →0
sin ( x ) x = 1
Let’s examine both the graph and values of the function for
appropriate x values, to see if they cluster around particular y values.
Here is a sketch of the graph and a table of extreme values.
We first note that domain of the function is (−1,0)∪(0,+∞) and is
indicated in the graph as follows:
x +1
So, lim
x →0 x appears to approach the value 1 as the following table
suggests.
x +1
X lim
x →0 x
−0.1 1.05361
−0.001 1.0005
0 undefined
0.001 0.9995
0.1 0.953102
X log(x+1)/x
10 0.23979
50 0.078637
100 0.046151
1000 0.006909
10000 0.000921
D. CONTINUITY
D.1.1 History
The continuity theory was originated in the observation that a large
proportion of older adults show consistency in their activities,
personalities, and relationships despite their changing physical,
mental, and social status. In 1968, George L. Maddox gave
an empirical description of the theory in a book Middle Age and
Aging. The continuity theory was formerly proposed in 1971 by
Robert Atchley in his article "Retirement and Leisure Participation:
Continuity or Crisis?" in the journal The Gerontologist. Later, in 1989,
he published another article entitled "A Continuity Theory of Normal
Aging”, in The Gerontologist in which he substantially developed the
theory. In this article, he expanded the continuity theory to explain
the development of internal and external structures of continuity. In
1999, Robert Atchley continued to strengthen his theory in his book
“Continuity and Adaptation in Aging: Creating Positive Experiences”.
Discontinuity
The function f(x) is said to be discontinuous at point x=a in its
domain if any of the following three continuous is satisfied:
1. f(a) is not defined.
2. lim
x→ a
−f (x ) and lim + f ( x ) exists but are not equal.
x→ a
3. lim −f (x ) and lim + f ( x ) exists and are equal but not equal to f(a).
x→ a x→ a
Idea of Continuity and Discontinuity
The idea lies on either function is continuous or not if we sketch its
curve on a graph without lifting pen even once.
Continuity
Many functions have the property that they can trace their graphs
with a pencil without lifting the pencil from the paper’s surface.
These types of functions are called continuous. Intuitively, a function
is continuous at a particular point if there is no break in its graph at
that point. A precise definition of continuity of a real function is
provided generally in a calculus’s introductory course in terms of a
limit’s idea. First, a function f with variable x is continuous at the
point “a” on the real line, if the limit of f(x), when x approaches the
point “a”, is equal to the value of f(x) at “a”, i.e., f(a). Second, the
function (as a whole) is continuous, if it is continuous at every point
in its domain.
Mathematically, continuity can be defined as given below:
A function is said to be continuous at a particular point if the
following three conditions are satisfied.
1. f(a) is defined
2. lim
x→ a
f ( x ) exists
3. lim
x→ a
+ f ( x ) = lim −f (x )=f(a)
x→ a
f(a)= lim
x→ a
f (x)
Continuity at a Point
i. f(a) is defined.
Figure 1. The function f(x) is not continuous at a because f(a) is
undefined.
iii. lim
x→ a
f (x )=f(a).
Figure 3. The function f(x) is not continuous at a because lim f ( x ) ≠
x→ a
f(a).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
a) MacTutor History of Weistrass
b) Basic mathematics,D.R. Bajracharya, R.M. Shrestha, M.B. Singh, Y.R.
Sthapit, B.C. Bajracharya, Sukunda Pustak Publication
c) Class note : mathematics class note, Narayan Poudel
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