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FATIGUE
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FATIGUE AMONG PERSONS WORKING IN SHIPPING

INDUSTRY
1. INTRODUCTION
Fatigue can be defined in many ways. However, it is generally described as a state
of feeling tired, weary, or sleepy that results from prolonged mental or physical
work, extended periods of anxiety, exposure to harsh environments, or loss of
sleep. The result of fatigue is impaired performance and diminished alertness.

The effects of fatigue are particularly dangerous in the shipping industry. The
technical and specialized nature of this industry requires constant alertness and
intense concentration from its workers. Fatigue is also dangerous because it affects
everyone regardless of skill, knowledge and training.

Effectively dealing with fatigue in the marine environment requires a holistic

approach. There is no one-system approach to addressing fatigue, but there are
certain principles (e.g. lifestyle habits, rest, medication, workload.) that must be
addressed in order to gain the knowledge and the understanding to manage this
human element issue.

For many years, fatigue was discounted as a potential cause of or contributor to

human error. One reason for this misunderstanding was the old myth that fatigue
could be prevented by various characteristics: personality, intelligence, education,
training, skills, compensation, motivation, physical size, strength, attractiveness, or
professionalism. However, recent accident data and research point to fatigue as a
cause of and/or contributor to human error precisely because of its impact on
performance. Human error resulting from fatigue is now widely perceived as the
cause of numerous marine casualties.

The negative effects of fatigue present a disastrous risk to the safety of human life,
damage to the environment, and property. Because shipping is a very technical and
specialized industry, these negative effects are exponentially increased, thereby
requiring seafarers’ constant alertness and intense concentration.
1. DEFINING FATIGUE

There is no universally accepted technical definition for fatigue. However,

common to all the definitions is degradation of human performance. The
following definition is found in International Maritime Organisation circular
“A reduction in physical and/or mental capability as the result of physical,
mental or emotional exertion which may impair nearly all physical abilities
including: strength; speed; reaction time; coordination; decision making; or
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balance.”

2. FATIGUE AND LIFE ON A SEAGOING SHIP

Fatigue is a problem for all 24-hour a day transportation modes and

industries, the marine industry included. However, there are unique aspects
of seafaring that separate the marine industry from the others. It must be
recognized that the seafarer is a captive of the work environment. Firstly, the
average seafarer spends between three to six months working and living away
from home, on a moving vessel that is subject to unpredictable environmental
factors (i.e. weather conditions). Secondly, while serving on board the vessel,
there is no clear separation between work and recreation. Thirdly, today’s crew
is composed of seafarers from various nationalities and backgrounds who are
expected to work and live together for long periods of time. The operational
aspects associated with shipping become more complex compared with standard
industries, for reasons such as: variety of ship-types, pattern and length of sea
passage, port-rotation, and length of time a ship remains in port. All these
aspects present a unique combination of potential causes of fatigue.

3. CAUSES OF FATIGUE

The most common causes of fatigue known to seafarers are lack of sleep, poor
quality of rest, stress and excessive workload. There are many other contributors
as well, and each will vary depending on the circumstance (i.e. operational,
environmental).
There are many ways to categorize the causes of fatigue. To ensure
thoroughness and to provide good coverage of most causes, they have been
categorized into 4 general factors.

a) Crew-specific Factors
b) Management Factors (ashore and aboard ship)
c) Ship-specific Factors
d) Environmental Factors

4. Crew-specific Factors

The crew-specific factors are related to lifestyle behavior, personal habits and
individual attributes. However, fatigue varies from one person to another and
its effects are often dependent on the particular activity being performed.

The Crew-specific Factors include the following:

a) Sleep and Rest
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i. Quality, Quantity and Duration of Sleep

ii. Sleep Disorders/Disturbances
iii. Rest Breaks
b) Biological Clock/Circadian Rhythms
c) Psychological and Emotional Factors, including stress
i. Fear
ii. Monotony and Boredom
d) Health
i. Diet
ii. Illness
e) Stress
i. Skill, knowledge and training as it relates to the job
ii. Personal problems
iii. Interpersonal relationships

f) Ingested Chemicals
i. Alcohol
ii. Drugs (prescription and non-prescription)
iii. Caffeine
g) Age
h) Shiftwork and Work Schedules
i) Workload (mental/physical)
j) Jet Lag

6. Management Factors (ashore and aboard ship)

The Management Factors relate to how ships are managed and operated. These
factors can potentially cause stress and an increased workload, ultimately resulting
in fatigue. These factors include:

a) Organizational Factors
i. Staffing policies and Retention
ii. Role of riders and shore personnel
iii. Paperwork requirements
iv. Economics
v. Schedules-shift, Overtime, Breaks
vi. Company culture and Management style
vii. Rules and Regulations
viii. Resources
ix. Upkeep of vessel
x. Training and Selection of crew

b) Voyage and Scheduling Factors

i. Frequency of port calls
ii. Time between ports
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iii. Routing
iv. Weather and Sea condition on route
v. Traffic density on route
vi. Nature of duties/workload while in port

7. Ship-specific Factors

These factors include ship design features that can affect/cause fatigue. Some
ship design features affect workload (i.e. automation, equipment reliability),
some affect the crew’s ability to sleep, and others affect the level of physical
stress on the crew (i.e. noise, vibration, accommodation spaces, etc.). The
following list details ship-specific factors:

a) Ship design
b) Level of Automation
c) Level of Redundancy
d) Equipment reliability
e) Inspection and Maintenance
f) Age of vessel
g) Physical comfort in work spaces
h) Location of quarters
i) Ship motion
j) Physical comfort of accommodation spaces

8. Environmental Factors

a) Exposure to excess levels of environmental factors, e.g. temperature,

humidity,excessive noise levels, can cause or affect fatigue. Long-term
exposure may even cause harm to a person’s health. Furthermore,
considering that environmental factors may produce physical discomfort,
they can also cause or contribute to the disruption of sleep.

b) Ship motion is also considered an environmental factor. Motion affects

a person’s ability to maintain physical balance. This is due to the extra
energy expended to maintain balance while moving, especially during
harsh sea conditions. There is a direct relation between a ship’s motion
and a person’s ability to work. Excessive ship movement can also cause
nausea and motion sickness.

c) Environmental factors can also be divided into factors external to the

ship and those internal to the ship. Within the ship, the crew is faced with
elements such as noise, vibration and temperature (heat, cold, and
humidity). External factors include port and weather condition and vessel
traffic.
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9. BASIC CONCEPTS IN UNDERSTANDING FATIGUE

This section highlights some of the basic concepts that provide an overall
understanding about fatigue.

a) Sleep

Sleep is an active process; when people sleep they are actually in an altered
state of consciousness. All sleep does not have the same quality and does
not provide the same recuperative benefits. In order to satisfy the needs of
the human body, sleep must have three characteristics to be most effective:
i. Duration: Everyone’s sleep needs are unique; however, it is
generally recommended that a person obtain, on average, 7 to 8
hours of sleep per 24-hour day. A person needs the amount of sleep
that produces the feeling of being refreshed and alert. Alertness and
performance are directly related to sleep. Insufficient sleep over
several consecutive days will impair alertness. Only sleep can
maintain or restore performance levels.
ii. Continuity: The sleep should be uninterrupted. Six one-hour naps do
not have the same benefit as one six-hour period of sleep.
iii. Quality: People need deep sleep. Just being tired is not enough to
ensure a good sleep. An individual must begin sleep in synch with
the biological clock to ensure quality sleep. If the time of sleep is out
of synchronization with his/her biological clock, it is difficult to
sleep properly.
b) Many factors contribute to sleep disruption, some are within our control
while others are not:
i. environmental factors (e.g. ship’s violent movement, weather, heavy
vibration, noise or poor accommodation)
ii. food and consumption of chemicals (e.g. alcohol intake, coffee,
medication, etc.)
iii. psychological factors (e.g. stress, family worries, on-duty
responsibilities)

iv. sleep disorders (e.g. one, insomnia–prolonged inability to obtain

adequate sleep or e.g. two, sleep apnea–a condition where breathing
stops when sleep occurs due to a collapse of the upper airway or the
diaphragm not moving causing the person to wake up)
v. operational factors (e.g. disruptions caused by drills, loading and
unloading)

c) Biological Clock and Circadian Rhythm

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i. Each individual has a biological clock, and this clock regulates the
body’s circadian rhythm. To best understand both of these features, it
is first necessary to understand how the circadian rhythm functions.
Our bodies move through various physical processes and states within
a 24-hour period, such as sleeping/waking, and cyclical changes in
body temperature, hormone levels, sensitivity to drugs, etc. This cycle
represents the circadian rhythm. The biological clock regulates the
circadian rhythm. The biological clock is perfectly synchronised to the
traditional pattern of daytime wakefulness and night-time sleep.

ii. The biological clock makes a person sleepy or alert on a regular

schedule whether they are working or not. In normal conditions, the
sleep/wake cycle follows a 24-hour rhythm, however, the cycle isn’t
the same for everyone. Although individual rhythms vary, each
person’s cycle has two distinctive peaks and dips. Independent of
other sleep-related factors that cause sleepiness, there are two times of
low alertness (low-points or dips) in each 24-hour period . These
commonly occur between 3-5am and 3-5pm. Preceding these lowest
alertness periods, are maximum alertness periods (peaks).

iii. The states of sleep/wakefulness and circadian rhythms interact in

several ways:
 The two can work against one another and thereby weaken or
negate each other’s effect. For example, a well -rested person is
still affected by a circadian low-point; conversely, a person who
is sleep deprived may feel a momentary increase in alertness
due to a peak in circadian rhythm.
 The two can also work in the same direction, thereby
intensifying the effect they each have on a person’s level of
alertness. For example, when someone is sleep deprived, a
circadian low point will further exacerbate the feeling of
sleepiness.
iv. For many seafarers, working patterns conflict with their biological
clock. Irregular schedules caused by shifting rotations, crossing time
zones, etc. cause the circadian rhythms to be out of synchronization.

v. Further, the internal clock can only adjust by an hour or two each day.
Sometimes, depending on the new schedule, it takes several days to
adjust. In the meantime, the internal clock wakes a person up when
they need to sleep and puts them to sleep when they need to be awake.

d) Stress
Stress occurs when a person is confronted with an environment that poses a
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threat or demand, and the individual becomes aware of his/her inability or

difficulty in coping with the environment (a feeling of being overwhelmed).
This can result in reduced work performance and health problems. Stress can
be caused by a number of things, including:
i. Environmental hardships (noise, vibration, exposure to high and
low temperatures, etc)
ii. Weather (i.e. ice conditions)
iii. Personal problems (family problems, home sickness, etc.)
iv. Broken rest
v. Long working hours
vi. On-board interpersonal relationships

10. EFFECTS OF FATIGUE

a) Alertness is the optimum state of the brain that enables us to make

conscious decisions. Fatigue has a proven detrimental effect on alertness–
this can be readily seen when a person is required to maintain a period of
concentrated and sustained attention, such as looking out for the
unexpected (e.g. night watch).
b) When a person’s alertness is affected by fatigue, his or her performance
on the job can be significantly impaired. Impairment will occur in every
aspect of human performance (physically, emotionally, and mentally)
such as in decision-making, response time, judgement, hand-eye
coordination, and countless other skills.
c) Fatigue is dangerous in that people are poor judges of their level of
fatigue. The following is a sample of fatigue’s known effect on
performance.
i. Fatigued individuals become more susceptible to errors of
attention and memory (forexample, it is not uncommon for
ii. fatigued individuals to omit steps in a sequence).
i. Chronically fatigued individuals will often select strategies that
have a high degree of risk on the basis that they require less
effort to execute.
ii. Fatigue can affect an individual's ability to respond to stimuli,
perceive stimuli, interpret or understand stimuli, and it can take
longer to react to them once they have been identified.
iii. Fatigue also affects problem solving which is an integral part
of handling new or novel tasks. Fatigue is known to
detrimentally affect a person’s performance and may reduce
individual and crew effectiveness and efficiency; decrease
productivity; lower standards of work and may lead to errors
being made. Unless steps are taken to alleviate the fatigue, it
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will remain long after the period of sustained attention, posing

a hazard to ship safety.

11. HOW CAN YOU RECOGNIZE FATIGUE IN YOURSELF AND

OTHERS? -The following list describes how fatigue affects your mind,
emotions and body; you may recognize some of these changes in others
(with time, you may learn to identify some within yourself):

a) Physically:
• Inability to stay awake (an example is head nodding or falling
asleep against your will)
• Difficulty with hand-eye coordination skills (such as, switch
selection)
• Speech difficulties (it may be slurred, slowed or garbled)
• Heaviness in the arms and legs or sluggish feeling
• Decreased ability to exert force while lifting, pushing or pulling
• Increased frequency of dropping objects like tools or parts
• Non-specific physical discomfort
• Headaches
• Giddiness
• Heart palpitations / irregular heart beats
• Rapid breathing
• Loss of appetite
• Insomnia
• Sudden sweating fits
• Leg pains or cramps
• Digestion problems

b) Emotionally:
• Increased willingness to take risks
• Increased intolerance and anti-social behaviour
• Needless worry
• Reduced motivation to work well
• Increased mood changes (examples are irritability, tiredness and
depression)

c) Mentally:
• Poor judgement of distance, speed, time, etc.
• Inaccurate interpretation of a situation (examples are focusing
on a simple problem or failing to anticipate the gravity of the
situation or failing to anticipate danger)
• Slow or no response to normal, abnormal or emergency
situations
• Reduced attention span
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• Difficulty concentrating and thinking clearly

• Decreased ability to pay attention

12. WHAT CAN CAUSE FATIGUE?

Fatigue may be caused and/or made worse by one or a combination of

things:
• Lack of sleep
Only sleep can maintain or restore your performance level. When you
do not get enough sleep, fatigue will set in and your alertness will be
impaired. (Refer to Section 3)
• Poor quality of sleep
Fatigue may be caused by poor quality of sleep. This occurs when you
are unable to sleep without interruptions and/or you are unable to fall
asleep when your body tells you to. (Refer to Section 3)
• Insufficient rest time between work periods
Apart from sleep, rest (taking a break) between work periods can
contribute to restoring your performance levels. Insufficient rest
periods or postponing assigned rest times (to finish the job early) can
cause fatigue. (Refer to Section 3)
• Poor quality of rest
Disturbances while resting such as being woken up unexpectedly, on
call (during port operations), or unpredictable work hours (when
arriving in port) can cause fatigue.
• Stress
Stress can be caused by personal problems (family), problems with
other shipmates, long work hours, work in general, etc. A build up of
stress will cause or increase fatigue.
• Boring and repetitive work
Boredom can cause fatigue. You may become bored to the point of
fatigue when your work is too easy, repetitive and monotonous and/or
bodily movement is restricted.
• Noise or vibration
Noise or vibration can affect your ability to sleep/rest, and it can affect
your level of physical stress, thus causing fatigue.
• Ship movement
The ship’s movement affects your ability to maintain physical balance.
Maintaining balance requires extra energy, which can then cause
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fatigue. A ship’s pitching and rolling motions mean you might have to
use 15-20% extra effort to maintain your balance.
• Food (timing, frequency, content and quality)
Refined sugars (sweets, doughnuts, chocolates, etc.) can cause your
blood sugar to rise rapidly to a high level. The downside of such short-
term energy is that a rapid drop in blood sugar can follow it. Low
blood sugar levels can cause weakness, instability and difficulty in
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concentrating and in the extreme case unconsciousness. Eating large

meals prior to a sleep period may disrupt your sleep.

• Medical conditions and illnesses

Medical conditions (i.e. heart problems) and illnesses, such as the
common cold, can cause or aggravate fatigue. The effect depends on
the nature of the illness or medical condition, but also the type of work
being carried out. For example, common colds slow response time
and affect hand-eye coordination .
• Ingesting chemicals
Alcohol, caffeine and some over-the-counter medications disrupt
sleep. Caffeine consumption can also cause other side effects such as
hypertension, headaches, mood swings or anxiety.
• Jet-lag
Jet-lag occurs following long flights through several time zones. It is a
condition that causes fatigue in addition to sleep-deprivation and
irritability. It is easier to adjust to time zones while crossing from east
to west as opposed to west to east. The greatest difficulty in
adjustment results from crossing 12 time zones, the least from
crossing one time zone. Our bodies adjust at the rate of approximately
one-hour per day.
• Excessive work load
Working consistently “heavy” workloads can cause fatigue. Workload
is considered heavy when one works excessive hours or performs
physically demanding or mentally stressful tasks. Excessive work
hours and fatigue can result in negative effects such as the following:
- Increased accident and fatality rates
- Increased dependence upon drugs, tobacco or alcohol
- Poor quality and disrupted sleep patterns
- Higher frequency of cardiovascular, respiratory or digestive
disorders
- Increased risk of infection
- Loss of appetite

13.HOW CAN YOU PROTECT YOURSELF FROM THE

ONSET OF FATIGUE?
a) Sleep Issues
Sleep is the most effective strategy to fight fatigue. Sleep loss and
sleepiness can degrade every aspect of a person’s performance: physical,
emotional and mental. To satisfy the needs of your body, you must
acquire the following:
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• Deep sleep
• Between 7 to 8 hours of sleep per 24-hour day
• Uninterrupted sleep

Here is some general guidance on developing good sleep habits:

• Develop and follow a pre-sleep routine to promote sleep at
bedtime (examples are a warm shower or reading calming material).
• Make the sleep environment conducive to sleep (a dark, quiet
and cool environment and a comfortable bed encourages sleep).
• Ensure that you will have no interruptions during your extended
period of sleep.

• Satisfy any other physiological needs before trying to sleep

(examples are, if hungry or thirsty before bed, eat or drink lightly to
avoid being kept awake by digestive activity and always visit the
toilet before trying to sleep).
• Avoid alcohol and caffeine prior to sleep (keep in mind that
coffee, tea, colas, chocolate, and some medications, including cold
remedies and aspirin, may contain alcohol and/or caffeine). Avoid
caffeine at least six hours before bedtime.
• Consider relaxation techniques such as meditation and yoga,
which can also be of great help if learnt properly.
b) Rest Issues
Another important factor that can affect fatigue and performance is rest.
Rest, apart from sleep, can be provided in the form of breaks or changes in
activities. Rest pauses or breaks are indispensable as a physical requirement
if performance is to be maintained. Factors influencing the need for rest are
the length and intensity of the activities prior to a break or a change in
activity, the length of the break, or the nature or change of the new activity.
c) Guidelines for maintaining performance
Here are some general guidelines that can help you maintain performance:
• Get sufficient sleep, especially before any period when you
anticipate that you will not get adequate sleep.
• When you sleep, make it a long period of sleep.
• Take strategic naps.
• Take breaks when scheduled breaks are assigned.
• Develop and maintain good sleep habits, such as a pre-sleep
routine (something that you always do to get you ready to sleep).
• Monitor your hours of work and rest when opportunity arises.
• Eat regular, well-balanced meals (including fruits and
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vegetables, as well as meat and starches).

• Exercise regularly.

14.WHAT CAN MITIGATE THE EFFECTS OF FATIGUE?

The most powerful means of relieving fatigue is to get proper sleep and
to rest when appropriate. However, a number of things have been
identified as potentially providing some short-term relief. Note,
however, that these countermeasures may simply mask the symptoms
temporarily —the fatigue has not been eliminated.
• An interesting challenge, an exciting idea, a change in work routine or
anything else that is new and different
• Bright lights, cool dry air, music and other irregular sounds
• Caffeine (encountered in coffee and tea, and to a lesser extent in colas
and chocolate) may combat sleepiness in some people for short
periods. However, regular usage over time reduces its value as a
stimulant and may make you more tired and less able to sleep.
• Any type of muscular activity: running, walking, stretching or even
chewing gum
• Conversation
• Controlled, strategic naps can also improve alertness and performance
(the most effective length of time for a nap is about 20 minutes).
15. Strategic Napping
Research has identified “strategic napping” as a short-term relief technique
to help maintain performance levels during long periods of wakefulness. The
most effective length for a nap is about 20 minutes. This means that if you
have the opportunity to nap you should take it. However, there are some
drawbacks associated with napping. One potential drawback is that naps
longer than 30 minutes will cause sleep inertia, where situational awareness
is impaired (grogginess and/or disorientation for up to 20 minutes after
waking. A second is that the nap may disrupt later sleeping periods (you may
not be tired when time comes for an extended period of sleep).

16. EFFECTS OF FATIGUE-These are listed in a tabular form

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.
TABLE 1
EFFECTS OF FATIGUE

PERFORMANCE
IMPAIRMENT SIGNS/SYMPTOMS
1 Inability to concentrate
 Unable to organize a series of activities
 Preoccupied with a single task
 Focuses on a trivial problem, neglecting
more important ones
 Reverts to old but ineffective habits
 Less vigilant than usual
Diminished decision-
2 making ability
 Misjudges distance, speed, time, etc.
 Fails to appreciate the gravity of the
situation
 Overlooks items that should be included
 Chooses risky options
 Difficulty with simple arithmetic,
geometry, etc.
3 Poor memory  Fails to remember the sequence of task or
task elements
 Difficulty remembering events or
procedures
 Forgets to complete a task or part of a task
4 Slow response  Responds slowly (if at all) to normal,
abnormal or
emergency situations
Loss of control of bodily
5 movements
 May appear to be drunk
 Inability to stay awake
 Affected speech e.g. it may be slurred,
slowed or garbled
 Feeling heaviness in the arms and legs
Decreased ability to exert force while
 lifting, pushing or
Pulling
Increased frequency of dropping objects
 like tools or parts
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6 Mood change
 Quieter, less talkative than usual
Unusually irritable
 Increased intolerance and anti-social
behavior
Depression
7 Attitude change
Fails to anticipate danger
 Fails to observe and obey warning signs
 Seems unaware of own poor
performance
 Too willing to take risks
 Ignores normal checks and procedures
 Displays a “don’t care” attitude
Weakness in drive or dislike for work
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FATIGUE IN THE MINING INDUSTRY

17. Fatigue in the Mining Industry 

The factors leading to fatigue in the workplace can be segregated into work and
non work issues as has been previously discussed. The mining industry shares the
same fatigue characteristics.
 

Whilst the mining industry presents occupational

hazards that are more diverse and more extreme than most other industries ,
research and studies within the mining industry seem to demonstrate that the
industry as a whole is managing the non-work fatigue issues quite successfully,
however fatigue related incidents in the workplace continue to pose human and
financial costs to organisations. This seems to indicate that it is the non-work
fatigue issues that need to be addressed further. The problem is highlighted as 55%
of workers have reported that working shifts caused problems frequently or always
with their social life. And herein lies the basal cause of non-work fatigue as
workers choose less sleep and greater social activities.The issues of fatigue affect
workers across the entire spectrum of shifts and activities performed and are not
specific to night shifts only. The reports state that 36% of Day Shift and 37% of
night shift workers sometimes experience problems with fatigue. This problem
with fatigue extends to driving home from work, with 57% of workers struggling
to stay awake. When incorporated with a working Fatigue Management plan, the
fatigue calculator will assist in identifying fatigue hazards in the workplace,
regardless of whether they are non-work related; what shift an employee is
currently on; and what activity they are performing.
 

18. Factors Causing Mine Fatigue-These are enumerated as under:-

a) Intrinsic
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i. Physiological (anthropometry, morbidity, sleep disorders)

ii. Psychological (depression, anxiety, substance abuse)
iii. Lifestyle (alcohol, smoking, physical inactivity, diet)
b) Extrinsic
i. Environment (heat, noise, vibration)
ii. Organisational (job demand, control, work:rest, shift duration)
c) Mixed
Inadequate Sleep (quality, quantity, circadian rhythm)

19. Occupational Hazards Causing Fatigue

a) At surface and underground mines, miners routinely detonate explosives
to break the overburden, coal, ore or host rock into smaller pieces that
can be readily transported for processing, beneficiation or disposal. The
detonation of explosives generates potentially harmful gases such as
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, ammonia, and
sulfur dioxide. The gases generated depend upon the composition of the
explosive and the material undergoing blasting.

b) Blasting also reduces the oxygen concentration in the air. Breathing

contaminated air after a blast may kill a miner in a few minutes.
Consequently, miners need to recognize that the atmosphere
immediately after explosives are detonated may present a health hazard.

c) Blast areas must be cleared of smoke, dust and gases before anyone is
permitted to enter. Good ventilation sweeps the harmful gases from the
area quickly. After blasting is completed, and the area is cleared, but
before miners enter a blasting area, the area needs to be examined by an
experienced and qualified individual. This person will determine if the
concentrations of oxygen and the blast gases are at a safe level and do
not present a hazard to the miner. Because most gases do not have a
distinct odor, taste, or color, the mine management should consider the
use of instruments to check the oxygen level and the toxic gas
concentrations in blast areas. The gases affect miners in different ways.

d) Carbon dioxide
After blasting there is an increase in carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide
displaces the oxygen in the atmosphere. At lower concentrations,
miners respond by breathing faster and deeper (more lung
ventilation). At elevated levels, carbon dioxide causes
inattentiveness, sleepiness, and an accelerated heart rate. This
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impairment may lead to the potential for increased accidents. Also

there is the danger that miners with preexisting heart conditions
may be severely affected by an elevated heart rate. When the carbon
dioxide concentration reaches 3 percent, the lung ventilation rate
doubles. A 10% concentration can only be tolerated for a few minutes
by a miner at rest. High concentrations of carbon dioxide will asphyxiate
a miner. The exposure limit for carbon dioxide has been set at 0.5%
for 8 hours at underground and surface metal/nonmetal and coal
mines [with a short term exposure for underground coal mines set
at 3.0% for 15 minutes and for metal/nonmetal mines, at 1.5 % for
15 minutes].
e) Ammonia
Ammonia (NH3; CAS 7664-41-7) is a colorless, strongly alkaline gas
with a strong irritating odor. As the concentration increases, the strong
penetrating odor becomes increasingly irritating. Ammonia is absorbed
by inhalation, ingestion, and probably through the skin at concentrations
high enough to cause skin injury.Ammonia irritates the eye and
causes tears to form. Additionally, ammonia irritates the mucous
membranes in the nose and throat. Mild to moderate exposure can
produce headache, salivation, burning of the throat, loss of the sense
of smell, perspiration, nausea, vomiting, and chest pain. A rare
allergic reaction from inhaling ammonia is hives or nettle rash. Severe
exposure can cause death from suffocation or fluid in the lungs
(pulmonary edema). With prompt medical treatment most victims
recover completely. However, in some cases residual effects, such as
visual impairment, decreased respiratory function, and hoarseness,
remain.Exposure limit for ammonia has been set as 25 parts per million
(ppm) for 8 hours.
f) Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur dioxide (SO2; CAS 7446-09-5) is a clear gas with a characteristic
strong suffocating odor. When inhaled, sulfur dioxide irritates the
mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract. The rapid
formation of sulfurous acid on contact with moist mucous membranes
explains its prominent biological effect. Chronic effects include dryness
of the throat, cough, and inflammation of the mucous membranes in
the nose (rhinitis). Acute overexposure may result in death by
asphyxiation. Survivors may later develop bronchopneumonia with
bronchiolitis obliterans. After an interval of several days,
bronchopneumonia may prove fatal in some people.
Long term exposure to sulfur dioxide may result in inflammation of the
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nasal passages and upper windpipe (nasopharyngitis), fatigue, altered sense

of smell, chronic bronchitis, and shortness of breath, cough, and increased
mucous secretion. Exposure limit for sulfur dioxide has been set as 5 ppm
for 8 hours.
g) Oxygen
The oxygen concentration in the workplace air has an affect on the health of
the miner (see table). Insufficient oxygen leads to unconsciousness and
death. Frequently, before unconsciousness early warning signs are present.
MSHA requires the oxygen concentration in areas where miners work or
travel to be at least 19.5%.

Oxygen Concentration in Associated Health Effects

%

21.0 None - normal atmospheric value

19.5 None - lowest mine atmospheric value

permitted in U.S.

12-16 Disturbed respiration, emotional upsets,

abnormal fatigue upon exertion

10-11 Increased respiration and heart rate,

disturbed coordination, some euphoria,
possible headache

6-10 Nausea and vomiting, inability to move

freely, possible unconsciousness, possible
collapse while remaining conscious but
cannot move

Less than 6 Gasping respiration; respiration stops

followed by cardiac arrest, death within
minutes
 21

20. Signs Of Fatigue Among Miners-Fatigue Signs Include:-

a) Unintentionally falling asleep.

b) (Microsleeps, between a few & many seconds).
c) Increased irritability.
d) Depression, anxiety.
e) Digestive upset.
f) Increased illness susceptibility.
g) Loss of appetite.

21. Coal Mining Safety and Health Regulation 2001

An effective Fatigue management programme is the most basic requirement of any

successful fatigue program on a mine site. Within a Fatigue Management Program,
hazards resulting from fatigue – whether work or non work related – should be
identified and assessed with sufficient control measures put in place. Accordingly a
fatigue management system pilot project known as the Predictive Risk Intelligent
Safety Module (Prism), is therefore used.The electronic and software module's aim
is to r and he and he we are moving in the end in the away in an air: it will and and
and: do educe and manage fatigue within mines, enhancing employee safety,
preventing accidents, death and lost time owing to injury once the mine starts its
operations next year. Prism also includes a fatigue risk warning system, which
comprises the notification of an employee and several supervisors when an
employee has met a fatigue warning threshold and provides indications as to
when specific employees will reach fatigue warnings, as well as a fatigue risk
mitigation system, which provides specific fatigue countermeasures and
integrates the fatigue countermeasures into an individual's fatigue index.The
countermeasures are customised to individual jobs and can include exercise, a
40-minute nap, specific food or liquid intake or bright light therapy.
22. Salient Features of Prism ( A Fatigue Index Monitoring System)

a) PRISM – Predictive Risk Intelligent Safety Module – is a ground-breaking

software application that will provide 24/7 organizations with a superior,
cost-effective methodology for managing employee performance, liability,
health and safety costs related to fatigue.
b) The founders of PRISM are specialists in applied sleep/fatigue research &
management, data collection and retrieval, and shiftwork lifestyle planning
algorithms delivering innovative business-focused solutions to help improve
24/7 business success .
 22

c) A prism is a fatigue index monitoring system which links to the mines

clock-in system and collects the total number of hours worked by an
employee and calculates fatigue based on the consecutive hours and shifts
worked.The consultants working with Prism conduct analysis of:-

i. A mine's requirements,
ii. Its schedules, the employees' shifts,
iii. the number of workers and
iv. the mine's function to identify changes needed to reduce fatigue at the
mine.
v. Prism then tracks each employee and
vi. based on age, work and shift functions, provides a fatigue score.
vii. Lifestyle planners help determine the amount of sleep and food a
particular employee needs and the best times of the day for sleeping
and eating.

23. Benefits Of Fatigue Management System(FMS):-

Effective safety management is key to sustaining viability & competitiveness. The

system requires employees to log into work through a point of safety unit with
personalised SWIPE CARDS, which will allocate a colour signal based on the
employee's calculated fatigue level. Applying specialised knowledge & skills,
FMS can help companies enhance safety & performance by:-

a) Conducting management briefings on the causes, risks & costs of fatigue &
demonstrating the benefits of implementing fatigue management programs.
b) Developing & integrating customised & cost-effective fatigue management
systems & programs into company operations to improve safety &
performance.
c) Designing alertness-enhancing work practices & schedules/rosters, meeting
or exceeding safety & work standards’ regulatory requirements.
d) Helping achieve/retain operational flexibility & cost-effectively meeting
operational targets by designing performance-based safety standards &
work practices to replace prescriptive regulations.

24. Measurement of fatigue:-

There are various methods of measuring fatigue. These are:-
 23

a) Physical Test-Fatigue can be measured by a hand dynamometer and by

ergograph.
b) Chemical Test-Various techniques have been devised for the analysis of
blood, urine, saliva and corresponding changes at work.

c) Physiological Test-The amount of oxygen intake, examination of pulse rate

and blood pressure etc.

d) Mental Test-Test of sensory discrimination, attention, memory, imagination

and measurement of other higher mental process of an individual.

25. Besides these tests, there are also some indirect ways of measuring fatigue.
These are as under:-
a) Accident's-when worker gets tired, because of long hours of work, becomes
inattentive and commits more accidents.

b) Absenteeism and Turnover-rise in the rate of absenteeism and turnover

indicates the onset of fatigue. An increase in hours worked per week often
leads to increase in absenteeism.

26. Elimination of Fatigue-The occurrence of fatigue can be reduced by

eliminating all the factors that cause fatigue. One thing must be kept in mind that
the production process always causes some extent of exertion and exhaustion, and
hence we cannot eliminate fatigue completely but it can be reduced so that it does
not exceed beyond a certain limit. The following measures should be adopted to
reduce fatigue. They are as follows:-
a) Reducing the hours of work.
b) Providing the rest periods.
c) Maintaining proper and correct temperature.
d) Providing proper ventilation.
e) Providing adequate proper lighting natural as well as artificial.
f) Designing proper equipment and machines.
g) Providing proper seating arrangements.
h) Controlling excessive noise.
i) Maintaining healthy working conditions.
j) Making proper arrangements for sleep.
k) Maintaining high morale of the workers.
l) Creating and maintaining proper social atmosphere.
 24

BOREDOM
AND
MONOTONY
 25

BOREDOM AND MONOTONY

27. Boredom and monotony are commonly referred to as mental or psychological
fatigue which leads to work decrement. It is an important aspect of industrial
unrest and it may be responsible for increase of nervous disorders in modern life.
Boredom is usually associated with work that is an interesting to the individual
performing in. It is often associated with job that are repetitive or relatively
simple such as blue-collar jobs in construction trades, maintenance and
operations, manufacturing, mechanical work, repair and installation, factory
job, truck drivers, packing job such as meatpacking or even clerical jobs which
classically not fit into blue-collar job, yet are boring and monotonous. Monotony
and boredom or influenced by the way the personal views his task causing the
output to fluctuate rather than fall of progressively. It is claimed that repetitive
work makes a man is about and it destroys human values such as pride in
workmanship and individuality. Boredom will be pronounced on repetitive jobs
like an assembly line operation where continuous workflow and the task
requirements occur over and over again but permits a few lapses or shifts in
attention. Boredom is a more pronounced state of monotony. Mono means one and
Tonus means tone. One thing being repeated so many times over and over again
creates ' monotony '. Both boredom and monotony are subjective phenomena,
which has led many investigations to look into the personality factors related to
them.

Characteristics of Boredom
28. These are as under:-
a) Personality of the person.
b) Attitude and mood of the person.
c) Work being entirely repetitive becomes meaningless.
d) The perception of the task performed.
e) Lesser job satisfaction.
f) Satiation and physiological condition.

Causes of Monotony and Boredom.

29. Monotony and boredom have a considerable adverse effect on efficiency and
production. The causes of monotony and boredom are as under:-
a) Individuality of the Worker-Boredom is closely connected with the
individual traits of the workers. It is commonly seen that one particular kind
of work will strike some people as boring while others will find no boredom
in doing it. In experiment on 400 students, it was seen that boredom depends
upon the individual and particular personality traits, not upon the nature of
 26

the work. Different individuals take interest in different kind of work.

Hence, the pattern of boredom and each is different.
b) Satiation-Satiation is caused by doing the same kind of work. It does not
imply fatigue. This was also proved by the fact that some workers
complaining of fatigue resume their work when they were allowed to change
their positions. Attention in the work gradually decreases, and persons mind
becomes more and more satiated. As a result, the quality and quantity of
production also declines. Satiation is a psychological condition in which
physical fatigue is at very low level.
c) Attitude towards work-The worker with a negative attitude to their work,
experience boredom much sooner than those having positive attitude.
d) Feeling of Progress-Studies have shown that if a worker is aware of the
progress, he has made in his work, he does not experience boredom. In fact,
as the work progresses, the worker becomes excited at the prospect of
achieving the target. But individuals become bored quickly if they have no
target to it.
e) Provision for Rest-Boredom increases in the absence of any rest period. In
a study conducted by Mayo, it was seen that the workers in the cloth mill
suffered from boredom because they did not have any rest intervals in their
working hours. When provision was made for the rest, an immediate decline
in the level of boredom was noticed.
f) Working Method-Wyalt,Frazor and Stock studied the work technique of
three girls working in a cigarette factory. One of these three girls had to
work three times as much as the third girl. Change was made, instead of
allowing one girl do work at one position for the whole day, the girls were
made to interchange their positions six times in a single day. It was noticed
that there boredom grew less and produce an extra 10% work.
g) Social Factors-Boredom also depends to a large extent upon some social
factors, because worker works in a social environment which has decided
influence upon his mental condition. If the relationship between
management and the workers are cordial and there is co-operation and good
understanding between them, it helps to maintain the worker's interest in his
work and reduces boredom.
h) Arrangements for Wages-The salary system plays important part in
creating interest among workers. They feel dissatisfied on board is the wages
are not paid at the correct time or at the correct rate. Proper wages reduce
boredom.
i) Intelligence-It has been found that intelligent and highly intelligent workers
are great sufferers of monotony. For example, a worker with low intelligence
may be satisfied with simple job of washing or stitching buttons as such jobs
 27

do not require much intelligence but under such situations, and intelligent
worker will not find interest and job satisfaction. There will obviously be
fluctuation of attention and onset of boredom. Evidence showed that low
intelligence workers are better adapted to return to work. Bill studied the
turnover rate of clerical workers and found that the labour turnover was the
highest in an intelligent group because clerical work was considered
monotonous by them. Other studies have also proved that workers having
high IQ show high turnover. On the basis of these findings, it may be
concluded that by and large intelligence has clear correlation with monotony
and boredom. The principle of right man on right job should be adopted.
j) Neuroticism-studies have shown that neuroticism is related to monotony.
The attention of such workers fluctuates more rapidly than normal once. As
a result they lose interest in the job and get bored very soon.
Methods of eliminating boredom and monotony in industry
30. These are listed as under:-
a) Exchanging Jobs-Satiation is a part of fatigue. But exchanging job i.e job
rotation provides solution to it, when workers get the chance to exchange the
jobs. In some cases, change may be better than the rest, as some changes in
work for more opportunity for variability then rest period. Rest period if
lengthy, may lead to boredom. The change in work involves the exchange of
different muscles of the body or so. It maintains novelty of the work and aids
in avoiding boredom. It helps the worker to gain new work experience,
reduce mental fatigue and to boost their morale. The worker should be
allowed to do the same job in different ways, which are at ease and comfort.
b) Rest Pauses-To decrease the monotonous task, proper rest pauses should be
provided which are useful in ending monotony and boredom. The different
rest pauses or periods act as brakes in the cyclic process of work. It enables
the worker to establish social contacts with his co-workers. By and large,
frequent rest periods seem to be more effective than a few larger ones. A too
long rest usually creates disturbances in different types of mental work
because the person looses the continuity of work and gets out of the mood
for it. Though the amount of rest pauses variy with nature of work.
Generally, it should be five minutes in length. It is however true that actual
percentage of rest required for any mental work is less than that for manual
work.
c) The Use of Pacing and Automatic Work Habits-Work which is repetitive
creates mental satiation and boredom, not because the activity is imperative,
but because it creates the experience of marking time. Thus repetitive work
should be made entirely automatic whenever possible. It is the attention that
plays an important role to keep the worker going to good speed. A natural
 28

pace is desirable speed to work because it is the least fatiguing. For example,
knitting on simple mechanical pattern for a long period will not appear
monotonous, is the mindless Capt Gates in some other task.
d) The benefits of industrial music-Although music may be beneficial for a
number of reasons, one of the most favourable effects is its influence on
boredom. It takes the mind from the work and frees the brain of the
obligation of initiating the activity. The general finding is that employees
like music. At least 15% strongly favour it and 1% to 2% oppose it. Slow
music seems more desirable than lively music. Variety is essential to keep
the younger and older employees satisfied with the programmes. For
example the effects of musical programmes on s 66 imple assembly
operations showed a productions increase up to 6%, when production on
days with music was compared to bat on days without music. Subsequent
studies show that due to music, production increases and favourable effects
are seen on employees states of mind.
e) The use of sub-Goals-the practice of breaking by introducing rest periods
and by grouping the production units is an important method of reducing
monotony and boredom. Subgoals can also be introduced by grouping the
productions into large units. For example 100 units or a box of units may
become a subgoal. Making 10 boxes of 400 parts is not as repetitive as
making 1000 parts.
f) Relating the job to the larger picture-The basis for monotony and
boredom is the feeling of experiencing no progress. But progress depends
upon the way the individuals view the job. For example, the typist who is
interested in people to whom her employer writes will find her work less
boring than the girl who approaches the letter as a stack of work. Telling the
typist a little more about the business and the customers or asking her
opinion about certain matters would help a good deal. Once he/she realises
the importance of their own job they can thus be seen in the right perspective
as a part of the larger picture. Then, the responsibility increases and better
work is done.
g) Working in comfort social groups-This is another means of removing
boredom. It provides workers and opportunities to have some conversation
with each other. Due to interaction, there is an opening for expression, which
helps in reducing boredom.
h) Feeling of experience of progress-The absence of experience of gold or and
end towards which one moves may appear quite different to different
employees. The same person on different occasions may view the same task
differently. If a change in the review and outlook regarding the task can be
possible, then monotony can be reduced. So experience of progress is to be
 29

introduced in work to avoid monotony.

i) Neuroticism-Neurotic workers should not be employed in jobs that are
repetitive and monotonous. The psychologist’s guidance and counselling
should be given to such workers.
j) Experience of completion-Incomplete task creates monotony because of
sense of dissatisfaction. In every management, the task should be divided
into sub parts so that when apart is completed, the employee experiences a
feeling of completion. When the interest of worker is not sustained in the
job, or the job appears to be monotonous it should be divided into parts to
create a sense of motivation after completion of each part. Task completion
represent the form of motivation inherent in nature of job and therefore is
one of the most practicable ways of creating jobs interest.

The FMB Triangle[ Fatigue-Monotony-Boredom Triangle]

31. Fatigue can be defined as physiological and psychological condition in which
the individuals physical and mental ability to work deteriorates. Fatigue has two
aspects, physical fatigue and mental fatigue. In case of physical fatigue, physical
efficiency and capacity falls down and physical coordination becomes difficult.
Physical fatigue is recognised by the condition of muscles, chemical changes,
blood chemistry Exeter. On the other hand mental fatigue is diagnosed from the
absence of motivation, and loss of interest. In spite of various differences they are
not distinct. They are intimately related with each other. A worker who complains
of fatigue is in fact suffering of both physical and mental fatigue. Monotony and
boredom are the consequence of mental fatigue. There has been some confusion
about the returns. These terms are different and denote different meaning.

Fatigue

Monotony Boredom

Fatigue is a reduction in ability of workers due to previous work. It is the

inability to work with a negative attitude towards work. Monotony is a
state of mind by performing the same and it didn't work. Boredom can
 30

be defined as the loss of interest in the work and a desire for change in
the activity.
The Difference Between Fatigue And Boredom
32.The Basic Difference between fatigue and boredom is as follows:-
SNO. FATIGUE BOREDOM
1. Fatigue is physiological in Boredom is psychological in nature.
nature.
2. Fatigue is the decrease in the Boredom is that the craven attitude and
inability to perform work. interest to work.
3. Fatigue is measurable to some Boredom cannot be measured hence it
extent and as such it is objective is subjective in nature.
in nature.
4. Fatigue gives rise to a need for Boredom gives rise to a need for a
rest. change in activity.
5. Fatigue results due to excessive Boredom results due to loss of interest
and too much work. in work.

The Difference Between Monotony And Boredom

33. The basic difference between monotony and boredom is as follows:-

SNO. Monotony Boredom

1. Monotony can be defined as the
reduction in the capacity to work
due to performance of repetitive
work.
2. Monotony is the affect of
repetitive work and is a state of
mind or mental condition.
3. Monotony can be reduced by
changing the job.
4. Monotony results due to
performance of same type of
work irrespective of the type of
Boredom is the desire to have a change
in the work.
Boredom is also effect of repetitive
work but it is a broader term which
takes into consideration the personality;
attitude and other psychological
factors.
Boredom can be reduced by providing
challenging and interesting work.
However as far as boredom is
concerned is, different type of work
may create boredom to different
 31

worker performing the task. workers. The one type of work and
interest of worker with the same type of
work may create boredom to some of
the workers.

Personality Traits Affecting Monotony

34. It has been revealed by Bhattacharya in his study of individual differences in
susceptibility to industrial monotony that:-

a) younger workers are more susceptible to monotony than other workers.

b) Susceptible workers were more restless in their daily habits and leisure time
activities than non-susceptible workers.

c) Susceptible workers were less satisfied with their personal and plant
situation than non-susceptible workers.

Field Studies On Mental Fatigue, Monotony And Boredom

35. These can be seen as under:-

a) A study on a production line-In 1961, Haider studied fatigue among 337

female workers in textile factories, 207 of whom worked on moving
production line, while the other 131 worked individually. Comparison of the
two groups gave, gave out that the production line workers were more
tense, board and dreamy than those who worked as their own speed.
Finally we may conclude that when the occupation is a long succession of
simple, repetitive acts,we may expect to see saturation phenomena with
increasing tension, restlessness, lack of incentive and the declining
performance of the boring work. Haider (1963) also studied the actual
physiological symptoms of boredom and fatigue among a selection of
literary workers, who were engaged in work that was both monotonous and
time linked. During their work these women were subjected to light signals,
which appeared at irregular intervals on the protective shield of the machine.
Each time they notice of flash of light they were required to press a pedal,
and in this way it was possible to monitor the level of alertness throughout
the day as well as there are speed of response. The author found that the
 32

alertness of the 29 women workers declined during the working period and
election time increased. In the course of a working shifts, the women
workers missed more and more signals, as well as taking longer to react to
the ones they did notice. It seems fair to assume that this decline in
performance is a result of monotonous, repetitive nature of the job.

b) A Study in the Food Industry-A study was carried out in the food industry.
The operatives studied were engaged in the visual control of bottles and
their contents which moved so quickly that the job was rated as
arduous, even though monotonous and repetitive. Even after a short time
of work, the number of rejected bottles became distinctly lower, there were
subjective symptoms as increasing fatigue, sleepiness, headache and a sense
of time dragging. This was absurd especially when the operative was talking
less to others and tended to doze, or even to fall asleep. Comparative study
was made with a group of operators whose work was more varied, and
therefore less monotonous. This group showed less absenteeism and
fewer subjective complaints.

c) Driver’s fatigue-It has been seen that about four hours of continuous
driving is enough to bring on a distinct reduction in the level of alertness,
and thereby to increase the risk of accidents. The performance of drivers of
buses and of heavy lorries became distinctly poorer, especially their
judgement of the edge of the road and the necessary number of corrective
movements of the steering wheel. Similarly the variability of heart rate and a
feeling of fatigue both increased, which was interpreted as a sign of a fall in
the level of cerebral activation.

d) Air traffic controllers -The studies of air traffic controller gives an analysis
of the work involved and Measurement of indicators of fatigue. The air-
traffic controllers to spend their time watching the movement of aircraft on
our radar screen is, while at the same time the exchange information and
instructions on the radio transmitter with the pilots and with the other
members of the control organisation. Work analysis shows that a controller
concentrates his attention on the radar screen for a total of 3 to 5 hours per
day and that he passes on about 800 items of coded information every day it
was seen while conducting psychomotor test that there was a moderate fall
 33

in the first six working hours, but after the seventh hour the draw became
much steeper.

Conclusion

36. The results of the workers in shipping industry, mining industry, assembly
line/production line, food industry, air-traffic controller, driver of buses and heavy
vehicles show interesting parallels. All such occupations called for sustained
vigilance. In such cases the dual efficiency appears after about four hours and
becomes very marked after seven or eight hours. This decline is a symptom of
fatigue estate, a decline in psychomotor efficiency, higher heart rate variability, a
fall in heart rate and the rise in the days of EEG. Occupations that demand
sustained vigilance must be so planned with working periods and rest periods,
that the fatigue, monotony and boredom can be avoided and consequently the
risk of accidents will not be increased through fatigue of the operators.