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Main Documentation
CHAPTER – I
1.1 INTRODUCTION
People who are blind or visually impaired have choices when it comes to
travelling. At any given time, they can travel using a human guide, holding onto
someone's arm; use a long, white cane to identify and avoid obstacles; use a dog
guide, use special optical or electronic aids, or use no additional aid. The choice
of tools depends on the extent and nature of visual impairment, personal
preference, lighting, and familiarity with the area. In order to travel
independently, people with visual impairments use whatever vision they have,
auditory and tactual clues, and other information they know about an area to
keep track of their locations and make travel decisions.
1.2 HISTORY:
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1.3 MOTIVATION:
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1.4 OBJECTIVE:
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TEXT
FORMAT GPS
KEYPAD
CONSISTI
89S5 MODU
2 LE
NG OF
SWITCHE
MICRO-
S
CONTROL
TRACKED ROUTE
LCD
GSM
(LIQUID
CRYSTA MOD
L ULE
DISPAY)
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AUTOMA
TIC CALL
FORW
ARDING MOBI
LE
AUDIO FORMAT SERVI
PHONE
CE
OF OUTPUT
BLIND CENT
PERSO RE
CHAPTER – II
MAJOR COMPONENTS
2.1 MICROCONTROLLER:
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B) FEATURES OF AT89S52:
3 16-bit Timer/Counters
Watchdog Timer
Power of flag
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C) PIN CONFIGURATION
Special Function Registers (SFR s) are areas of memory that control specific
functionality of the 8051 processor. For example, four SFRs permit access
to the 8051’s 32 input/output lines. Another SFR allows the user to set the
serial baud rate, control and access timers, and configure the 8051’s
interrupt system.
E) THE ACCUMULATOR:
The “R” registers are a set of eight registers that are named R0, R1etc up to
R7. These registers are used as auxiliary registers in many operations.
The “B” registers: The “B” register is very similar to the accumulator
in the sense that it may hold an 8-bit (1-byte) value. Two only uses the “B”
register 8051 instructions: MUL AB and DIV AB.
The Data Pointer: The Data pointer (DPTR) is the 8051’s only user
accessible 16-bit (2Bytes) register. The accumulator, “R” registers are all 1-
Byte values. DPTR, as the name suggests, is used to point to data. It is used
by a number of commands, which allow the 8051 to access external
memory.
The program counter (PC) is a 2-byte address, which tells the 8051 where the
next instruction to execute is found in memory. The stack pointer like all
registers except DPTR and PC may hold an 8-bit (1Byte)value.
H) TYPES OF MEMORY:
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The 8051/8052 has three very general types of memory. To effectively program
the 8051/8052 it is necessary to have a basic understanding of these memory
types.
The memory types are illustrated in the following graphic. They are: On-Chip
Memory, External Code Memory, and External RAM.
On-Chip Memory refers to any memory (Code, RAM, or other) that physically
exists on the microcontroller itself. On-chip memory can be of several types, but
we'll get into that shortly.
External Code Memory is code (or program) memory that resides off-chip. This
is often in the form of an external EPROM.
External RAM is RAM memory that resides off-chip. This is often in the form
of standard static RAM or flash RAM.
I) TCON REGISTER:
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J) TMOD REGISTER:
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a) INTRODUCTION:
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the only fully functional Global
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). The GPS uses a constellation of between
24 and 32 Medium Earth Orbit satellites that transmit precise microwave signals,
which enable GPS receivers to determine their location, speed,. GPS was
developed by the United States Department of Defense. Its official name is
NAVSTAR-GPS. Although NAVSTAR-GPS is not an acronym, a few
acronyms have been created for it. The GPS satellite constellation is managed by
the United States Air Force 50th Space Wing.
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A GPS receiver calculates its position by carefully timing the signals sent
by the constellation of GPS satellites high above the Earth. Each satellite
continually transmits messages containing the time the message was sent, a
precise orbit for the satellite sending the message (the ephemeris), and the
general system health and rough orbits of all GPS satellites (the almanac). These
signals travel at the speed of light through outer space, and slightly slower
through the atmosphere. The receiver uses the arrival time of each message to
measure the distance to each satellite, from which it determines the position of
the receiver (conceptually the intersection of spheres - see trilateration ) The
resulting coordinates are converted to more user-friendly forms such as latitude
and longitude, or location on a map, then displayed to the user.
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laboratory clock can provide. Using four or more satellites allows the receiver to
solve for time as well as geographical position, eliminating the need for a super
accurate clock. In other words, the receiver uses four measurements to solve for
four variables: x, y, z, and t. While many GPS applications have no particular use
for this (very accurate) time, it is used in some GPS applications such as time
transfer, and it is the only variable of interest in some applications, such as traffic
signal timing.
The method of calculating position for the case of no errors has been
explained. One of the most important errors is the error in the GPS receiver
clock. Because of the very large value of c, the speed of light, the estimated
distances from the GPS receiver to the satellites, the pseudo ranges, are very
sensitive to errors in the GPS receiver clock. This seems to suggest that an
extremely accurate and expensive clock is required for the GPS receiver to
work. On the other hand, manufacturers would like to make an inexpensive GPS
receiver which can be mass marketed. The manufacturers were thus faced with a
difficult design problem. The technique that solves this problem is based on the
way sphere surfaces intersect in the GPS problem.
It is likely the surfaces of the three spheres intersect since the circle of
intersection of the first two spheres is normally quite large and thus the third
sphere surface is likely to intersect this large circle. It is very unlikely that the
surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite will intersect either of
the two points of intersection of the first three since any clock error could cause
it to miss intersecting a point. However the distance from the valid estimate of
GPS receiver position to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth
satellite can be used to compute a clock correction. Let denote the distance
from the valid estimate of GPS receiver position to the fourth satellite and let
denote the pseudo range of the fourth satellite. Let . Note that
is the distance from the computed GPS receiver position to the surface of the
provides an estimate of: (correct time) - (time indicated by the receiver's on-
board clock) and the GPS receiver clock can be advanced if is positive or
delayed if is negative.
d) SYSTEM SEGMENTATION:
The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space
segment (SS), a control segment (CS), and a user segment (US).
e) SPACE SEGMENT
The space segment (SS) comprises the orbiting GPS satellites or Space
Vehicles (SV) in GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs,
eight each in three circular orbital planes, but this was modified to six planes
with four satellites each.
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f) CONTROL SEGMENT:
The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by US Air Force monitoring
stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Colorado
Springs, Colorado, along with monitor stations operated by the National
Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). The tracking information is sent to the
Air Force Space Command's master control station at Schreiber Air Force Base
in Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space Operations Squadron (2
SOPS) of the United States Air Force (USAF). Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS
satellite regularly with a navigational update (using the ground antennas at
Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein, and Colorado Springs). These
updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few
nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's internal
orbital model. The updates are created by a Kalman filter which uses inputs from
the ground monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other
inputs.
g) USER SEGMENT
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The user's GPS receiver is the user segment (US) of the GPS. In general,
GPS receivers are composed of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted
by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly-stable clock (often a crystal
oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and speed
information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of channels:
this signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously. Originally
limited to four or five, this has progressively increased over the years so that, as
of 2007, receivers typically have between 12 and 20 channels.
The orbital planes are centered on the Earth, not rotating with respect to
the distant stars. The six planes have approximately 55° inclination (tilt relative
to Earth's equator) and are separated by 60° right ascension of the ascending
node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection).
The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of
sight from almost everywhere on Earth's surface.
NM)), each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day. The ground track
of each satellite therefore repeats each (sidereal) day. This was very helpful
during development, since even with just four satellites, correct alignment means
all four are visible from one spot for a few hours each day. For military
operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in
combat zones.
i) NAVIGATIONAL SIGNALS:
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becoming a significant element of the delay to first position fix, because, as the
hardware becomes more capable, the time to lock onto the satellite signals
shrinks, but the ephemeris data requires 30 seconds (worst case) before it is
received, due to the low data transmission rate.
The almanac consists of coarse orbit and status information for each
satellite in the constellation, an ionosphere model, and information to relate GPS
derived time to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). A new part of the almanac
is received for the last 12 seconds in each 30 second frame. Each frame contains
1/25th of the almanac, so 12.5 minutes are required to receive the entire almanac
from a single satellite. The almanac serves several purposes. The first is to assist
in the acquisition of satellites at power-up by allowing the receiver to generate a
list of visible satellites based on stored position and time, while an ephemeris
from each satellite is needed to compute position fixes using that satellite. In
older hardware, lack of an almanac in a new receiver would cause long delays
before providing a valid position, because the search for each satellite was a slow
process. Advances in hardware have made the acquisition process much faster,
so not having an almanac is no longer an issue. The second purpose is for
relating time derived from the GPS (called GPS time) to the international time
standard of UTC. Finally, the almanac allows a single frequency receiver to
correct for ionospheric error by using a global ionospheric model. The
corrections are not as accurate as augmentation systems like WAAS or dual
frequency receivers. However it is often better than no correction since
ionospheric error is the largest error source for a single frequency GPS receiver.
An important thing to note about navigation data is that each satellite transmits
only its own ephemeris, but transmits an almanac for all satellites.
Each satellite transmits its navigation message with at least two distinct
spread spectrum codes: the Coarse / Acquisition (C/A) code, which is freely
available to the public, and the Precise (P) code, which is usually encrypted and
reserved for military applications. The C/A code is a 1023 length Gold code at
1.023 million chips per second so that it repeats every millisecond. As pointed
out in a chip is essentially the same thing as a bit and chips per second are the
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same as bits per second. The justification for coming up with this new term,
chip, is that in some cases a sequence of bits is used as a type of Modulation and
contains no information.
k) POSITION DETERMINATION:
. of the message.
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The article, trilateration, shows mathematically how the equation for a circle is
determined. A circle and sphere surface in most cases of practical interest
intersects at two points, although it is conceivable that they could intersect in 0
or 1 point. Another figure, Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle (not disk) at
Two Points, is shown below to aid in visualizing this intersection. Again
trilateration clearly show this mathematically. The correct position of the GPS
receiver is the one that is closest to the fourth sphere. This paragraph has
described the basic concept of GPS while ignoring errors.
More than four satellites should be used, if available. This results in an over-
determined system of equations with no unique solution, which must be solved
by least-squares or a similar technique. If all visible satellites are used, the
results are always at least as good as using the four best, and usually better. Also
the errors in results can be estimated through the residuals. With each
combination of four or more satellites, a geometric dilution of precision (GDOP)
vector can be calculated, based on the relative sky positions of the satellites used.
As more satellites are picked up, pseudoranges from more combinations of four
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satellites can be processed to add more estimates to the location and clock offset.
The receiver then determines which combinations to use and how to calculate the
estimated position by determining the weighted average of these positions and
clock offsets. After the final location and time are calculated, the location is
expressed in a specific coordinate system such as latitude and longitude, using
the WGS 84 geodetic datum or a local system specific to a country.
l) APPLICATIONS:
MILITARY:
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Many civilian applications benefit from GPS signals, using one or more of
three basic components of the GPS: absolute location, relative movement, and
time transfer.
The ability to determine the receiver's absolute location allows GPS receivers
to perform as a surveying tool or as an aid to navigation. The capacity to
determine relative movement enables a receiver to calculate local velocity and
orientation, useful in vessels or observations of the Earth. Being able to
synchronize clocks to exacting standards enables time transfer, which is critical
in large communication and observation systems. An example is CDMA digital
cellular. Each base station has a GPS timing receiver to synchronize its
spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate inter-cell hand off and
support hybrid GPS/CDMA positioning of mobiles for emergency calls and
other applications. Finally, GPS enables researchers to explore the Earth
environment including the atmosphere, ionosphere and gravity field. GPS survey
equipment has revolutionized tectonics by directly measuring the motion of
faults in earthquakes.
GPS tours are also an example of civilian use. The GPS is used to determine
which content to display. For instance, when approaching a monument it would
tell you about the monument.
In practice this is rarely possible and three SVs are used to compute a two-
dimensional, horizontal fix (in latitude and longitude) given an assumed
height.
This is often possible at sea or in altimeter equipped aircraft.
Five or more satellites can provide position, time and redundancy.
Twelve channel receivers allow continuous tracking of all available satellites,
including tracking of satellites with weak or occasionally obstructed signals.
a)INTRODUCTION:
The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries,
where these frequencies were previously used for first-generation systems.
b) GSM ADVANTAGES:
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GSM also pioneered a low-cost, to the network carrier, alternative to voice calls,
the Short t message service (SMS, also called "text messaging"), which is now
supported on other mobile standards as well. Another advantage is that the
standard includes one worldwide Emergency telephone number, 112. This makes
it easier for international travelers to connect to emergency services without
knowing the local emergency number.
c) GSM NETWORK:
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The switching system (SS) is responsible for performing call processing and
subscriber-related functions. The switching system includes the following
functional units.
All radio-related functions are performed in the BSS, which consists of base
station controllers (BSCs) and the base transceiver stations (BTSs).
BSC: The BSC provides all the control functions and physical links
between the MSC and BTS. It is a high-capacity switch that provides
functions such as handover, cell configuration data, and control of radio
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BTS: The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. The
BTS is the radio equipment (transceivers and antennas) needed to service
each cell in the network. A group of BTSs are controlled by a BSC.
• Mobile service node (MSN): The MSN is the node that handles
the mobile intelligent network (IN) services.
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Location Areas:
The cell is the area given radio coverage by one base transceiver station. The
GSM network identifies each cell via the cell global identity (CGI) number
assigned to each cell. The location area is a group of cells. It is the area in which
the subscriber is paged. Each LA is served by one or more base station
controllers, yet only by a single MSC Each LA is assigned a location area
identity (LAI) number.
An MSC/VLR service area represents the part of the GSM network that is
covered by one MSC and which is reachable, as it is registered in the VLR of the
MSC.
e) GSM SPECIFICATIONS:
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Cell broadcast: A variation of the short message service is the cell broadcast
facility. A message of a maximum of 93 characters can be broadcast to all
mobile subscribers in a certain geographic area. Typical applications include
traffic congestion warnings and reports on accidents.
Fax mail: With this service, the subscriber can receive fax messages at any
fax machine. The messages are stored in a service center from which they can be
retrieved by the subscriber via a personal security code to the desired fax number
g) SUPPLEMENTARY SERVICES:
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Call forwarding: This service gives the subscriber the ability to forward
incoming calls to another number if the called mobile unit is not reachable, if it
is busy, if there is no reply, or if call forwarding is allowed unconditionally.
Advice of charge (AoC): The AoC service provides the mobile subscriber
with an estimate of the call charges. There are two types of AoC information:
one that provides the subscriber with an estimate of the bill and one that can be
used for immediate charging purposes. AoC for data calls is provided on the
basis of time measurements.
Call hold: This service enables the subscriber to interrupt an ongoing call and
then subsequently reestablish the call. The call hold service is only applicable to
normal telephony.
number of the calling party. The restriction service enables the calling party to
restrict the presentation. The restriction overrides the presentation.
h) MAIN AT COMMANDS:
"AT command set for GSM Mobile Equipment” describes the Main AT
commands to communicate via a serial interface with the GSM subsystem of the
phone.
Note that the starting "AT" is the prefix that informs the modem about the start
of a command line. It is not part of the AT command name. For example, D is
the actual AT command name in ATD and +CMGS is the actual AT command
name in AT+CMGS. However, some books and web sites use them
interchangeably as the name of an AT command.
Here are some of the tasks that can be done using AT commands with a
GSM/GPRS modem or mobile phone:
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a) INTRODUCTION:
A program must interact with the outside world using input and output
devices that communicate directly with a human being. One of the most common
devices attached to an controller is an LCD display. Some of the most common
LCDs connected to the controllers are 16X1, 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This
means 16 characters per line by 1 line 16 characters per line by 2 lines and 20
characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.
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b) FEATURES:
Data can be placed at any location on the LCD. For 16×1 LCD,
the address locations are:
c) PIN DESCRIPTION:
Most LCDs with 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2 controller has
16 Pins (two pins are extra in both for back-light LED connections).
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d) CONTROL LINES:
EN:
Line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you are
sending it data. To send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this
line is low (0) and then set the other two control lines and/or put data on the data
bus. When the other lines are completely ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for
the minimum amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies from
LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.
RS:
Line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as
a command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.).
When RS is high (1), the data being sent is text data which should be displayed
on the screen. For example, to display the letter "T" on the screen you would set
RS high.
RW:
Line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on
the data bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is
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effectively querying (or reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD
status") is a read command. All others are write commands, so RW will almost
always be low.
Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the mode of operation
selected by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referred to as
DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4, DB5, DB6, and DB7.
• RS - 0 Instructions
- 1 Character
Writing data to the LCD:
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Entering Text:
First, a little tip: it is manually a lot easier to enter characters and commands in
hexadecimal rather than binary (although, of course, you will need to translate
commands from binary couple of sub-miniature hexadecimal rotary switches is a
simple matter, although a little bit into hex so that you know which bits you are
setting). Replacing the d.i.l. switch pack with a of re-wiring is necessary.
The switches must be the type where On = 0, so that when they are turned to the
zero position, all four outputs are shorted to the common pin, and in position “F”,
all four outputs are open circuit.
All the available characters that are built into the module are shown in Table 3.
Studying the table, you will see that codes associated with the characters are
quoted in binary and hexadecimal, most significant bits (“left-hand” four bits)
across the top, and least significant bits (“right-hand” four bits) down the left.
Most of the characters conform to the ASCII standard, although the Japanese and
Greek characters (and a few other things) are obvious exceptions. Since these
intelligent modules were designed in the “Land of the Rising Sun,” it seems only
fair that their Katakana phonetic symbols should also be incorporated. The more
extensive Kanji character set, which the Japanese share with the Chinese,
consisting of several thousand different characters, is not included!
a) INTRODUCTION:
MAX232 chip has long been using in many microcontrollers boards. It is a dual
RS232 receiver / transmitter that meets all RS232 specifications while using only
+5V power supply. It has two onboard charge pump voltage converters which
generate +10V to -10V power supplies from a single 5V supply. It has four level
translators, two of which are RS232 transmitters that convert TTL/CMOS input
levels into +9V RS232 outputs. The other two level translators are RS232
receivers that convert RS232 input to 5V. Typical MAX232 circuit is shown
below.
FIG:MAX 232 IC
b) FEATURES:
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Recommendation V.28
Maxim MAX232
8. Applications
TIA/EIA-232-F
Battery-Powered Systems
Terminals
Modems
Computers
c) CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS:
A standard serial interfacing for PC, RS232C, requires negative logic, i.e., logic
'1' is -3V to -12V and logic '0' is +3V to +12V. To convert a TTL logic, say, TxD
and RxD pins of the uC chips, thus need a converter chip. A MAX232 chip has
long been using in many uC boards. It provides 2-channel RS232C port and
requires external 10uF capacitors. Carefully check the polarity of capacitor when
soldering the board. A DS275 however, no need external capacitor and smaller.
Either circuit can be used without any problems.
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a) GENERAL DESCRIPTION
These buffers/line drivers are designed to improve both the performance and PC
board density of 3-STATE buffers/ drivers employed as memory-address drivers,
clock drivers, and bus-oriented transmitters/receivers. Featuring 400 mV of
hysteresis at each low current PNP data line input, they provide improved noise
rejection and high fan-out outputs and can be used to drive terminated lines
down to
133W.
b) FEATURES
Inverting 10.5 ns
Non inverting 12 ns
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c) CONNECTION DIAGRAM:
d) FUNCTION TABLE:
I NPUT OUTPUT
G A Y
L L L
L H Z
H X Z
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Z = High Impedance
Supply Voltage 7V
Input Voltage 7V
Operating Free Air Temperature Range 0°C to +70°C
Storage Temperature Range -65°C to +150°C
Note 1: The “Absolute Maximum Ratings” are those values beyond which the safety of the
device cannot be guaranteed. The device should not be operated at these limits. The parametric
values defined in the Electrical Characteristics tables are not guaranteed at the absolute
maximum ration..The “Recommended Operating Conditions” table will define the conditions for
actual device operation.
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a) INTRODUCTION:
b) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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d) CIRCUIT EXPLANATION:
TRANSFORMER:
The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal transformer, is scaled from the
primary VP by a factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their
respective windings:
1) BASIC PRINCIPLE:
The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can
produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing
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magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil
(electromagnetic induction). By changing the current in the primary coil, it
changes the strength of its magnetic field; since the changing magnetic field
extends into the secondary coil, a voltage is induced across the secondary.
Figure 2.17: An ideal step-down transformer showing magnetic flux in the core
2) INDUCTION LAW:
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's
law of induction, which states that:
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Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equation for
stepping up or stepping down the voltage
If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical
power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally,
the transformer is perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed
from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If
this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal the outgoing
power.
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If the voltage is increased (stepped up) (VS > VP), then the current is decreased
(stepped down) (IS < IP) by the same factor. Transformers are efficient so this
formula is a reasonable approximation.
If the voltage is increased (stepped up) (VS > VP), then the current is decreased
(stepped down) (IS < IP) by the same factor. Transformers are efficient so this
formula is a reasonable approximation.
The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For
example, if an impedance ZS is attached across the terminals of the secondary
coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of
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4) DETAILED OPERATION:
The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each
winding. Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated
voltage drop, and so the voltages VP and VS measured at the terminals of the
transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as
it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the "back
EMF". This is due to Lenz's law which states that the induction of EMF would
always be such that it will oppose development of any such change in magnetic
field.
e) BRIDGE RECTIFIER:
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transformer design, but has two diode drops rather than one, thus exhibiting
reduced efficiency over a center-tapped design for the same output voltage.
1) BASIC OPERATION:
When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with
respect to the one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right
along the upper colored path to the output, and returns to the input supply via the
lower one.
When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner, current
flows along the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the lower
colored path.
In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the lower
right one. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only
produces DC power when supplied with AC power: it also can provide what is
sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits normal
functioning when batteries are installed backwards or DC input-power supply
wiring "has its wires crossed" (and protects the circuitry it powers against
damage that might occur without this circuit in place).
For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave
bridge serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a
capacitor may be important because the bridge alone supplies an output voltage
of fixed polarity but pulsating magnitude (see diagram above).
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This charge flows out as additional current through the load. Thus the change of
load current and voltage is reduced relative to what would occur without the
capacitor. Increases of voltage correspondingly store excess charge in the
capacitor, thus moderating the change in output voltage / current. Also see
rectifier output smoothing.
The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant τ = RC where
C and R are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long as the load
resistor is large enough so that this time constant is much longer than the time of
one ripple cycle, the above configuration will produce a smoothed DC voltage
across the load.
In some designs, a series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. The
smoothing can then be improved by adding additional stages of capacitor–
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resistor pairs, often done only for sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits that
tend to be sensitive to supply voltage noise.
f) VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
The inputs ie.4 inputs are utilized here with their specific destinations where the
blind person frequently visits, and these keypads are connected to the port 2 of
microcontroller that is to pin 2122,23,24 to transmit this particular data of the
location of the blind person’s i.e. latitude and longitude and his destination
number. This information reaches the buffer of the microcontroller and thus the
remaining process continues.
So initial inputs are very important for this project and it plays a major and
crucial role in this project by passing on the basic information for tracking of the
route through GPS and sending that tracked information to the service centre
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through GSM and thus helps the blind person’s accessibility to go around in a
much comfortable and allow him to live independently.
2.1.9 BUZZER:
There is another buzzer near the GSM for the ring of the phone that is connected
to the DTMF socket, but here this buzzer in our project has an audible range of
10-15 db and this can be extended by soldering the pin behind it in the GSM
module and thus can be used in real time implementation which produces
double the sound it produced initially.
Thus buzzer is one of the important component for the blind person to act
accordingly and lead an independent life in a better way.
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version can be used to test the full functionality of the RS232 serial port with
Norton Diagnostics or Check it.
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Serial Cables can be longer than Parallel cables. The serial port transmits a '1'
as -3 to -25 volts and a '0' as +3 to +25 volts where as a parallel port transmits a
'0' as 0v and a '1' as 5v. Therefore the serial port can have a maximum swing of
50V compared to the parallel port which has a maximum swing of 5 Volts.
Therefore cable loss is not going to be as much of a problem for serial cables
than they are for parallel.
You don't need as many wires than parallel transmission. If your device needs
to be mounted a far distance away from the computer then 3 core cable (Null
Modem Configuration) is going to be a lot cheaper that running 19 or 25 core
cable. However you must take into account the cost of the interfacing at each
end.
Infra Red devices have proven quite popular recently. You may of seen many
electronic diaries and palmtop computers which have infra red capabilities
build in. However could you imagine transmitting 8 bits of data at the one time
across the room and being able to (from the devices point of view) decipher
which bits are which? Therefore serial transmission is used where one bit is
sent at a time. IrDA-1 (The first infra red specifications) was capable of 115.2k
baud and was interfaced into a UART. The pulse length however was cut down
to 3/16th of a RS232 bit length to conserve power considering these devices
are mainly used on diaries, laptops and palmtops.
2.1.11 UART:
UART stands for Universal Asynchronous Receiver / Transmitter. Its the little box of
tricks found on your serial card which plays the little games with your modem or other
connected devices. Most cards will have the UART's integrated into other chips which
may also control your parallel port, games port, floppy or hard disk drives and are
typically surface mount devices. The 8250 series, which includes the 16450, 16550,
16650, & 16750 UARTS are the most commonly found type in your PC. Later we will
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look at other types which can be used in your homemade devices and projects.
The 16550 is chip compatible with the 8250 & 16450. The only two
differences are pins 24 & 29. On the 8250 Pin 24 was chip select out which
functioned only as a indicator to if the chip was active or not. Pin 29 was not
connected on the 8250/16450 UARTs. The 16550 introduced two new pins in
their place. These are Transmit Ready and Receive Ready which can be
implemented with DMA (Direct Memory Access). These Pins have two different
modes of operation. Mode 0 supports single transfer DMA where as Mode 1
supports Multi-transfer DMA.
All the UARTs pins are TTL compatible. That includes TD, RD, RI,
DCD, DSR, CTS, DTR and RTS which all interface into your serial plug,
typically a D-type connector. Therefore RS232 Level Converters (which we talk
about in detail later) are used.
These are commonly the DS1489 Receiver and the DS1488 as the PC has
+12 and -12 volt rails which can be used by these devices. The RS232
Converters will convert the TTL signal into RS232 Logic Levels.
The UART requires a Clock to run. If you look at your serial card a
common crystal found is either a 1.8432 MHZ or a 18.432 MHZ Crystal. The
crystal in connected to the XIN-XOUT pins of the UART using a few extra
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components which help the crystal to start oscillating. This clock will be used for
the Programmable Baud Rate Generator which directly interfaces into the
transmit timing circuits but not directly into the receiver timing circuits. For this
an external connection mast be made from pin 15 (Baud Out) to pin 9 (Receiver
clock in.) Note that the clock signal will be at Baud rate * 16
CHAPTER - III
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CHAPTER – IV
ADDITIONAL FEATURES:
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
One of the major goals for blind and visually impaired people is independent
mobility. In this paper we have an additional feature that if used creates most
comfort for the visually blind person. It involves a sensor in the integrated cane
to detect the movement of the user when he walks. This aid is a portable, self
contained system that will allow blind or visually impaired individuals to travel
through familiar and unfamiliar environments without the assistance of guide i.e.
through the customer service. In addition, it provides information to the user
about urban walking routes using spoken words to indicate what decisions to
make and helps him from easily knowing the hurdles.
4.2.2 PHOTODIODE
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In the one-shot mode, the pulse width of each circuit is precisely controlled by
one external resistor and capacitor. For a stable operation as an oscillator, the
free-running frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately controlled by two
external resistors and one capacitor.
1. FEATURES:
Exact equivalent in most applications for NE/SE555
Low supply current: 80 mA (typical)
Extremely low trigger, threshold, and reset currents: 20 pA (typical)
High-speed operation: 500 kHz guaranteed
Wide operating supply voltage range guaranteed 3 V to 16 V over full
automotive
Temperatures
Normal reset function; no crow barring of supply during output transition
Can be used with higher-impedance timing elements than the NE/SE555
for longer
Time constants.
APPLICATIONS:
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Precision timing
Pulse generation
Sequential timing
Time delay generation
Pulse width modulation
Pulse position modulation
Missing pulse detector
4.2.2 PHOTODIODE:
PHOTODIODE:
1) PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient
energy strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a free electron
and a (positively charged electron hole). This mechanism is also known as the
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FEATURES:
Responsivety:
Dark current:
The current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is operated in
photoconductive mode. The dark current includes photocurrent generated by
background radiation and the saturation current of the semiconductor junction.
Dark current must be accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to
make an accurate optical power measurement, and it is also a source of noise
when a photodiode is used in an optical communication system.
Noise-equivalent power:
(NEP) The minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to the
rms noise current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. The related characteristic directivity
(D) is the inverse of NEP, 1/NEP; and the specific directivity ( ) is the
detectives normalized to the area (A) of the photo detector, . The
NEP is roughly the minimum detectable input power of a photodiode.
Applications
In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that
dim the display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used
rather than photodiodes, although in principle either could be used.
Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science
and industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than
photoconductors.
They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for
computed tomography (coupled with scintillations) or instruments to analyze
samples (immunoassay). They are also used in pulse ox meters.
1) GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
It is the same principle in ALL Infra-Red proximity sensors. The basic idea is to
send infra red light through IR-LEDs, which is then reflected by any object in
front of the sensor.
Then all you have to do is to pick-up the reflected IR light. For detecting the reflected
IR light, we are going to use a very original technique: we are going to use another IR-
LED, to detect the IR light that was emitted from another led of the exact same type!
2) PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
This is an electrical property of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) which is the fact that a
led Produce a voltage difference across its leads when it is subjected to light. As if it
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was a photo-cell, but with much lower output current. In other words, the voltage
generated by the leds can't be - in any way - used to generate electrical power from
light, It can barely be detected. that's why as you will notice in the
FEATURES
•= 940 nm
• Chip material =GaAs with AlGaAs window
• Package type: T-1 3/4 (5mm lens diameter
• Matched Photo sensor: QSD122/123/124
• Medium Emission Angle, 40°
• High Output Power
•Package material and color: Clear, united, plastic
• Ideal for remote control application
1) DESCRIPTION
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The BC547 transistor is an NPN bipolar transistor, in which the letters "N" and
"P" refer to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the
transistor. Most bipolar transistors used today are NPN, because electron
mobility is higher than hole mobility in semiconductors, allowing greater
currents and faster operation. NPN transistors consist of a layer of P-doped
semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current
entering the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector output.
In other terms, an NPN transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to
the emitter. The arrow in the NPN transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and
points in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in
forward active mode. One mnemonic device for identifying the symbol for the
NPN transistor is "not pointing in." An NPN transistor can be considered as two
diodes with a shared anode region. In typical operation, the emitter base junction
is forward biased and the base collector junction is reverse biased.
In an NPN transistor, for example, when a positive voltage is applied to the base
emitter junction, the equilibrium between thermally generated carriers and the
repelling electric field of the depletion region becomes unbalanced, allowing
thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. These electrons wander
(or "diffuse") through the base from the region of high concentration near the
emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector. The electrons
in the base are called minority carriers because the base is doped p-type which
would make holes the majority carrier in the base
2) FEATURES:
• Low current
• Low voltage
3) APPLICATIONS:
CHAPTER – V
CODING
/*******************/
#include<reg51.h>
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#include"lcddisplay.h"
#include"UART.h"
#include<string.h>
#include<intrins.h>
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if(RI==1)
XX=SBUF;
if(XX=='+')
newmsg=1;
else
temp[jj++]=XX;
if(jj==10)
jj=0;
RI=0;
void main()
lcd_init();
UART_init();
lcdcmd(0x85);
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sw1=sw2=sw3=sw4=1;
gps=1;
gsm=0;
RI=0;
lcdcmd(0x01);
lcdcmd(0xc0);
msgdisplay("GSM modem");
delay(300);
enter();
again:
enter();
goto again;
RI=0;
EA=1;
ES=1;
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lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("SYSTEM");
cdcmd(0xc3);
msgdisplay("CONNECTED");
delay(100);
send_to_modem("at+creg=0"); //
enter();
delay(300);
newmsg=0;
xxx: lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("CHEKING SIM");
send_to_modem("AT+CPIN?"); //
enter();
delay(500);
if(newmsg==0)
goto xxx;
lcdcmd(0xC0);
delay(500);
enter();
st:
lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("route guiding");
lcdcmd(0xC0);
msgdisplay("SYSTEM");
delay(500);
newmsg=0;
TR1=0;
TH1=-6;
TR1=1;
RI=0;
jj=0 ;
delay(100);
while(1)
RI=0;
a=0;
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while(RI==0);
a=SBUF;
RI=0;
i=0;
while(RI==0);
i=i+1;
RI=0;
while(RI==0);
RI=0;
i=i+1;
while(RI==0);
RI=0;
while(RI==0);
i=i+1;
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if(SBUF=='M')
RI=0;
while(RI==0);
i=i+1;
if(SBUF=='C')
RI=0;
while(RI==0);
i=i+1;
while(RI==0);
gpsdata[i]=SBUF;
RI=0;
i++;
lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("LT ");
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for(i=19;i<30;i++)
lcddata(gpsdata[i]);
lcdcmd(0xc0);
msgdisplay("LG ");
for(i=31;i<43;i++)
lcddata(gpsdata[i]);
jj=0;
if((temp[0]=='R')&&(temp[1]=='I')&&(temp[2]=='
N')&&(temp[3]=='G')) //if we get a call then
accept it automatically
buzzer=0;
ES=0;
send_to_modem("ATA");
enter();
jj=0;
lcdcmd(0x01);
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delay(500);
buzzer=1;
while(1);
delay(10000);
dest=2;
goto sendmsg;
if(sw2==0)
dest=3;
goto sendmsg;
if(sw3==0)
dest=4;
goto sendmsg;
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if(sw4==0)
dest=1;
goto sendmsg;
gsm=1;
gps=0;
delay(10);
sendmsg:
ES=0;
RI=0;
buzzer=0;
lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("destination-->");
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lcddata(dest+48);
delay(500);
lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("sending message");
send_to_modem("at+cmgs=");
ch_send_to_modem('"');
send_to_modem(mobilenum);
ch_send_to_modem('"');
enter();
delay(50);
send_to_modem("PERSON AT ");
send_to_modem("LT:");
for(i=19;i<30;i++)
ch_send_to_modem(gpsdata[i]);
send_to_modem(" LG:");
for(i=31;i<43;i++)
ch_send_to_modem(gpsdata[i]);
ch_send_to_modem(dest+48);
delay(10);
ch_send_to_modem(0x1a);
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ES=1;
delay(1500);
lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("MESSAGE SENT");
buzzer=1;
goto st;
CHAPTER – VI
6.1 ADVANTAGES:
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Support the blind, make the blind feel more closeness with normal life,
they will feel self-confident.
Based on the needs and diversity of the potential user population as described
above, and the previous research of the authors (See Previous Research below), a
well designed orientation and way finding aid should ideally be able to provide
the user with:
1) Their current location and head in relative to known landmarks and the
desired destination,
2) Descriptions of prominent surrounding features and the general layout of the
greater surrounding environment, and
3) Things of interest to the user in the greater surround in environment. Further,
location information should be accurate to within one meter, and be provided in
a fashion that can be clearly comprehended regardless of location or type of
environment.
Finally, the system should be usable by people with a variety of age-related co-
morbidities. In other words, the interface must meet established universal design
criteria.
6.3 APPLICATIONS:
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The route announcement is not only specified for the blind but
also to common human to release him from the trouble of tracking
the route and reaching to the destination.
To improve advantages and solve some features which are the minute limitations
in our project, some research is done for developing it and making it most
advanced usage of it for blind people :
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CHAPTER – VII
RESULT ANALYSIS:
The major goal of us doing this project was to establish a tool that is portable and
most convenient one to utilize, using the most common technologies that are
used in our day to day life, and the amount of knowledge we have is kept
forward only to help visually impaired people be independent in life and live
their lives in the most happiest way as everyone does and grab success towards
them in life. Thus through this project we’ v created a tool that has not been
created yet in INDIA and is developed in AUSTRALIA with different
technologies like speech synthesizer and tactile displays specially for visually
impaired people which made us develop module with components other then
that, and we hope this would help blind people and make our technology also the
“DEVELOPING ONE” and thus soon we can see developed INDIA.
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CONCLUSION
Thus this system is a tool that would remove the barriers in life for visually
challenged people and help them achieve their goals and career that they aspired
to have. It also gives them independence and confidence which would bring
success to them as well bring out the talent of such people in various way and
thus helps INDIA TO BECOME THE DEVELOPED NATION. Thus our
motives have partially become successful and hope this would be utilized in the
most effective way possible.
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REFERENCES:
[1]www.google.com
[2] http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/disability/disability.html.
[3] http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/disability/sipp/disab02/ds02ta.html.
[4] http://www.alk.com/copilot/smartphone.asp.
[5] http://blindcon_dential.blogspot.com/2007/04/mainstream-gps-products-part1.html.
[6] http://www.talkingsigns.com.
[7]
http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/disability/sipp/disab02/ds02ta.html.
[8] http://www.alk.com/copilot/smartphone.asp
.
[9] http://blindcon_dential.blogspot.com/2007/04/mainstream-gps-products-part-
1.html.
[10] http://www.talkingsigns.com.
[11] http://www.tiresias.org.
[12] http://www.pghvis.org.
[14] http://www.cathexis.com.
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[15] http://www.tiresias.org.
[16] http://www.pghvis.org.
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