Figure 1 Bacteria produce new individuals simply by dividing in two. Under ideal conditions, bacteria can ‘double their numbers every 20 minutes. (18 000%) asexual reproduction the process of producing ospring from ony one parent; ‘he procuction of offspring that are genetically identical tothe parent sexual reproduction the process of Producing offspring by the fusion of two gamotes; th production of offspring that havo genetic information fom each parent To eam more about meiosis, The Importance of Cell Di You started life as a single cell: a fertilized egg. Now your body is made up of trillions of cells. How does a single cell become a full-grown multicellular plant or animal? Cell division allows organisms to reproduce, to grow, and to repair damage. Cell Division for Reproduction ‘The ability to reproduce is an important characteristic of all living things, from bacteria to elephants. All cells, including single-celled organisms, use cell division to reproduce. Each time a parent cell divides, it results in two new organisms (Figure 1). Each organism inherits genetic information from its parent. It is very important that each new cell has a complete set of genetic information. This type of reproduction, called asexual reproduction, involves only one parent. ‘The offspring are exact genetic copies of the parent. Mutticellular organisms also need to reproduce and pass their genetic information along to their offspring. Some multicellular organisms can produce offspring by asexual reproduction (Figure 2). Only one parent is involved, and the young will have exactly the same DNA as that parent. ‘We are more familiar with the idea of sexual reproduction, in which a cell from one parent joins with a cell from another parent. These two parental cells are different from normal body cells: they contain only half of the DNA usually found in a cell. These “half cells” are known as gametes. ‘To produce gametes, some of the parents’ cells undergo an additional cell division process called meiosis. When the two gametes combine, the offspring inherits characteristics from both parents (Figure 3). @ Figure 2 This houseleek is reproducing Figure 3. Sexual reproduction resuts in offspring asexualy. Each rosette isan individual plant that have characteristics ofboth parents. Tis is that is genetically identical tothe parent ‘because ther cells contain DNA from both parents. Cell Division for Growth One of the multicellular organisms grow, the number of cells increases. Why does the number of cells increase instead of simply increasing the size of the cells? ‘This has to do with how a cell uses chemicals to function. ain characteristics of life is that all organisms grow. As 36 Chapter 2 + Cells, Cel Division, and Cell Specialization etPlant and animal cells all need the same things: a source of energy, nutrients, water, and gases (Figure 4). Many chemicals need to be in solution (dissolved in water) so that they can be used in chemical reactions within the cell. Itis therefore very important water @ coygen carbon dioxide that cells contain plenty of water. The @o cell must excrete (get rid of) carbon dioxide and other waste products. @e Why does the number of cells increase as an organism grows? Chemicals used sugar waste products during cell activity and growth enter the cell across the membrane and travel through the cell to where they are used. This movement of chemicals occurs by diffusion. Chemicals diffuse from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration (Figure 5). Concentration is the amount of substance (the solute) in a given volume of solution, Water enters and leaves cells by a process called osmosis. In osmosis, high concentration law concentration ‘water moves in the direction of greater solute concentration. @ Figure 5 The red particles diffuse Diffusion and osmosis take time. Important chemicals must be available trough the fst cll an ino the next toall parts of the cell, in the right amount of water, for the cell to function Figure 4 Substances entering and leaving a typical animal coll properly. Waste products must also diffuse out of the cell quickly so they do aifusion a transport mechaiom for ‘not poison the cell. When a cell gets too large, chemicals and water cannot moving thea toad ot! ea z ‘fom an area of higher concentration to an move through the cell fast enough. ' eeieconnaie Cell Division for Repair ‘concentration the amount of a substance Every day, your body sheds millions of dead skin cells, all of which are Sage ee Nis tia tenn replaced by new ones. Your body replaces each red blood cell about every __ostasis the movoment ofa, wually ‘ate, across @ membrane towaré an area of high solute concentration g To earn more about osmosis, 120 days. If you break a bone, cells divide to heal the break. Every cut and blister needs new cells to fill in the gaps. All organisms need to repair themselves to stay alive. + Cells undergo cell division for reproduction, + Chemicals diffuse into, throughout, and out of growth, and repair, cells. This process must happen quickly enough + Reproduction involves the transfer of genetic for the cell to function. information from the parent(s) to the offspring. + When part of an organism is damaged, the + As multicellular organisms grow, their cells remaining cells divide to repair the injury. duplicate their genetic information and divide, RGESARGUEENA 1. Name three reasons for cell division, 4. What processes are responsible for chemicals 2. A cleaning product claims to kill “99.9 9 moving into, throughout, and out of cells? = of all bacteria” Will a cleaned surface stay 5. Why do cells divide instead of just getting bacteria-free forever? Explain your answer. = bigger, as an organism grows? ™ 3. List three differences between asexual 6. A minor wound heals over time. Explain how reproduction and sexual reproduction, this happens. = net 2.8 The Importance of Cell Division 37What Limits Cell Size? Why do individual cells stop growing and start dividing when they reach a certain size? In this investigation you will use models of cells to investigate factors that might limit cell size. The model cells contain a CONDUCT AN INVESTIGATION Ee ‘© Questioning © Hypothesiing “@ Performing © Oncerving ‘@aratyzing ‘© Evaluating © Predicting @ Pianing © Controling Variables @ Communicating substance that changes from colourless to pink when it comes into contact with sodium hydro. Testable Question How does the size of a cell affect the distribution of chemicals throughout the cell? Hypothesis/Pre¢ Predict an answer to the Testable Question, what you know about diffusion in cells. Experimental De: ‘You will use different-sized agar cubes as models of living cells. You will submerge these cells in a solution of sodium hydroxide for 10 min. You will observe whether sodium hydroxide diffuses to the centre of a large cell as quickly as it diffuses to the centre of a small cell. You will also investigate the relationship between ‘the surface area and the volume of different-sized cells and draw conclusions about maximum cell size. Equipment and Materials + eye protection + lab apron + disposable gloves +250 mL beaker or plastic cup + 2 glass rods or stir sticks + timing device + scoopula ruler + scalpel +3 different-sized cubes of phenolphthalein agar + 100 mL sodium hydroxide solution + paper towels 38 Chapter 2 « Cells, Gell Division, and Cell Specialization Procedure L ‘Sodium hydroxide solution is corrosive and wil initate your skin or eyes. Avoid splashing tis solution on your skin, in your eyes, or on clothing. Immediately rinse any spils with cold water and inform your teacher of the spill. Carefully follow your teacher's instructions for disposal. en Put on your eye protection, lab apron, and gloves. Place your three agar “cells” into the beaker or cup. Pour enough sodium hydroxide solution into the beaker to cover the cells completely. Allow your cells to remain in the sodium. hydroxide solution for 10 min. Use the glass rods or stir sticks to gently turn the cells often. Make sure that all sides of the cells come in contact with the solution, Avoid cutting or scratching the cells when you turn them After 10 min, remove the cells from the beaker with the scoopula. Blot each cell dry with the paper towels Copy Table 1 (on the next page) into your notebook. Carefully measure the length of one side of one cell (cell A) in mm, Record this measurement in the appropriate place in your table. Carefully cut cell A in half with the scalpel. Be very careful when using @ scalpel. tis sharp enough to cut your skin. ivays cut down toward a cutting board or paper towel. Never cut toward your hand. Where the sodium hydroxide diffused into the cells, the agar will have turned pink or purple. Measure how far the colour change extends into cell A. Record this measurement in your table.‘Table 1 Observations of Three Celis in Socium Hydroxide Solution | ! J 9. Repeat Steps 6 to 8 with cell B and then with cell C. 10, Follow your teacher’ instructions for proper disposal of all used materials. Analyze and Evaluate (a) What does the colour change in your cells indicate about the diffusion of the sodium hydroxide? tm (b) Did all of the cells change colour all the way through? Explain, em (©) Calculate the area of one side of each cell. Record these values in your table, (d) Calculate the total surface area (for all six sides) of each cell. Record these values in your table. a (e) Calculate the volume (length X width X height) of each cell. Record these values in your table. sm (f) Calculate the diffusion rate in millimetres per ‘minute for each cell, Record this information in your table, sm (8) How does the surface area to volume ratio change as the cell gets larger? t= (h) Answer the Testable Question, kat (i) Compare your answer in (h) to your Hypothesis/ Prediction. Was your Prediction correct? = ()_ Imagine that sodium hydroxide represents a vital nutrient needed throughout a living cell. Did all parts of each cell obtain the “nutrient” within the 10 min time period? Which cell was able to have the nutrient diffuse into all (or most) of its volume? Explain, using the terms surface area and volume. 5 (K) Ifall cell activity takes place in the cell’ interior but all materials enter and exit through the cells surface, explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio, mt (fall parts ofa cell need a supply of a substance quickly, would it be better for the cell to be large or small sa (m) In what way(s) is a cube of agar a good model of 4 cell? In what way(s) is it not a good model? m= Apply and Extend (n) Predict how temperature might affect the results of this activity. Explain your reasoning, tt (0) Predict how the concentration of sodium hydroxide might affect the results of this activity. Give reasons for your prediction. = (P) In previous grades, you learned about the particle theory of matter. How does the particle theory relate to diffusion of substances throughout a cell? == 2.4 Conduct an Investigation 39The Cell Cycle As eukaryotic cells grow and divide, they move through three distinct stages. celleycle the tee stages (ntephase, These stages make up what is known as the cell cycle (Figure 1). The stages iitsis, and tokiness) though which of the cell cycle are interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis, Cells grow and 8 cell passes as it grows and divides prepare to divide during interphase. Cell division occurs during mitosis and eek on tahnelen oe cytokinesis, You will learn about each of these three stages in more detail in 2 cell ck this section. @ @ mitosis cyole begins cal call prepares to divide division call grows cel receives instructions regarding division Figure 1 The cell eyle consists of three stages: intorphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis, Interphase is ‘the time between cel divisions witen a cell grows. DNA replicates ‘The length of time it takes to complete one cycle varies. Embryonic cells divide rapidly. Some of your body cells may take as much as 30 h for a cycle. Very specialized cells, such as adult nerve cells, may never divide at all Interphase Interphase is the longest stage for most cells, but it is not a resting stage. Intorphaso tho phase ofthe calcycle ‘During interphase, the cell is carrying out all life activities except division. ‘during which the cell performs its normal These activities include growth, cellular respiration, and any specialized pair inpleade 'scopied functions of that cell type. During this stage, the genetic material, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), is in very long, thin, invisible strands. When the cell prepares for cell division, the strands are duplicated so that there are two identical strands of the genetic material, More organelles are also formed. mitosis the stage ofthe cl cyte in ‘wich the DNA the rules idee: Gl] Division the fst part of cel division ‘ytokinesis the stage inthe cell oycle Cell division occurs in two stages: mitosis—the division of the contents ‘ohen be oropaem didestofomtno of the nucleus—and eytokinesis—the division of the rest of the cell, such identical ols te fel part of el esion as cytoplasm, organelles, and cell membrane (Figure 2). Each cell division caauterea vat argu produces two genetically identical cells called daughter cells. Identical new cals tat raft fom the Mitosis is composed of four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and division of one parent cell telophase (PMAT). The cells move gradually from one phase to the next. 40 Chapter 2 + Cells, Cell Division, and Gell Specialization etInterphase DNAs copied A complete sot sis Of DNA colcts cel divides {atetherend nto two {ofthe cel daughter oot (coll division Prophase As interphase ends, the cell enters the first phase of mitosis—prophase. ‘The long strands of DNA condense into a compact form, becoming visible under a light microscope as chromosomes (Figure 3(a)). Because the DNA was copied during interphase, each chromosome consists of two identical strands called sister chromatids. An individual strand is called a chromatid, ‘The sister chromatids are held together by a centromere. ‘The nuclear ‘membrane breaks down during prophase. Metaphase During metaphase, the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell (Figure 3(b)). This stage is easily recognized. All the chromosomes must be in the line for mitosis to continue. chromosome chromatic centromere = Figure 2 The three stages of the cell cycle in which a parent cell grows, lplicates its DNA, and divides into two aughtercels, Prophase the fist stage of mitosis, in ‘which the chromosomes become visible ‘and the nuciear membrane dissolves, ‘chromosome a structure inthe co ‘uteus made up ofa potion ofthe cel’ DNA, condense into a structure that is ble under a tight microscope cromatid one of two identical strands of (ONA that make up chromosome centromere the structure that olds chromatids together as chromosomes ‘metaphase the second sige of mitosis, in which the cirormasomes ine up inthe mile ofthe cot ‘Stages and Phases ‘There are three stages in the cel eye Interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis Mitosis sdvded into four phases Even ‘hough “interphase” ends with phase, do not gt confused: tis a stage, nota hase! Figure 3 The frst two phases of mitosis: a) prophase and (b) metaphase 25The Call Cycle 41‘anaphase tho third phaso of miosis, in which the centromere spits and ‘ister chromatids separate into daughter ‘chromosomes, and each moves toward ‘opposite ends ofthe coll {telophase the fina phase of mitosis, in which the chromatids unwind and a nuclear membrane reforms around the ‘chromosomes at ezch end of the cel 3 ‘To sean animation of mitosis, Figure § Cytokinesis in plant and ‘animal ces (a In a plant cell, a plate develops into a new cell wall, sealing ofthe contens of the new cels from each other (b) In an animal cel, the call ‘membrane is pinched off inthe centre to form two new calls. Toleam mare about te formation 2 action of spindle res, Anaphase In anaphase, the centromere splits and the sister chromatids separate (Figure 4(a)). They are now called “daughter chromosomes.” These daughter chromosomes move to opposite sides of the cell. Under the microscope, they appear to be pulled apart. Telophase Telophase is the final stage of mitosis (Figure 4(b)). The daughter chromosomes stretch out, become thinner, and are no longer visible. A new nuclear membrane forms around each group of daughter chromosomes. At this stage, the cell appears to have two nuclei. @ Figure 4 The last two phases of mitosis: (a) anaphase and (b telophase Cytokinesis Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division. ‘The cytoplasm divides, producing two genetically identical daughter cells. The process of cytokinesis is slightly different in plant and animal cells. In a plant cell, a plate between the daughter cells develops into a new cell wall (Eigure 5(a)). In an animal cell, the cell membrane is pinched off in the centre (Figure 5(b)). Moving the Chromosomes During mitosis, the movements of chromosomes are controlled by spindle fibres: specialized structures that attach to the centromeres of each chromosome. They begin forming during late interphase. During prophase and metaphase, the spindle fibres pull the chromosomes into the middle of the cell. Finally, during anaphase they pull the daughter chromosomes toward opposite ends of the cell. @ 42 Chapter 2 « Cells, Cel Division, and Cell Specialization Ne