SPECIAL ISSUE PAPER 135

Energy storage devices in hybrid railway

vehicles: a kinematic analysis
S Hillmansen∗ and C Roberts
Department of Electronic, Electrical, and Computing Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, UK

The manuscript was received on 21 July 2006 and was accepted after revision for publication on 28 November 2006.
DOI: 10.1243/09544097JRRT99

Abstract: Concerns over future energy security, energy costs, and competitiveness with other
modes have prompted the railway industry to search for cost-effective energy efficient traction
solutions which will ensure continuing business feasibility. For non-electrified routes, where
the business case for electrification is unfavourable, traction is usually provided by diesel fuel
combustion. Hybridization offers the potential to achieve a step change in energy efficiency.
This article presents an analysis of the potential benefits of hybridization for rail vehicles. The
performance requirements of the energy storage device in a hybrid rail vehicle which is storage
device dominant are derived. A rail vehicle simulator has been developed in order to compute
the drive train duty cycle in typical high-speed and commuter passenger services. The outputs
from the simulator have been inputted into a series hybrid model, which has been optimized to
preserve the state of charge of the energy storage device over a single typical rail journey. The
analysis suggests the energy savings of up to 28 per cent for high-speed intercity vehicles and
35 per cent for commuter vehicles are achievable with practical system components. A sensitivity
analysis exploring the effect of the inherent efficiency of the regenerative braking capability and
the energy storage device revealed that primary energy savings are only realized with in/out
storage efficiencies of greater than ∼40 per cent.

Keywords: rail vehicle, hybrid propulsion, energy storage device

1 INTRODUCTION operating velocity and by the vehicle mass to derive

Rail offers arguably the most efficient form of land-
based transport. This is in part due to the low-
rolling resistance afforded by the stiff contact between
the wheel and rail which has a low hysteresis, and
partly due to the aerodynamic advantages associ-
ated with the train convoy formation where trail-
ing vehicles occupy the slipstream of the preceding
vehicle [1]. Comparison with other modes is com-
plex due to the different nature of the services that
are offered, but recently an attempt to rank vehi-
cles by transportation mode has been completed [2].
The installed power was divided by the maximum
∗ Corresponding author: Department of Electronic, Electrical, and
Computing Engineering, The University of Birmingham, Edgbas-
ton, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK. email: s.hillmansen@bham.ac.uk
parameter, which is representative of the specific
resistance to motion. This parameter was computed
for a number of vehicles and plotted against speed.
This data confirmed the common perception that
rail transport was fundamentally more energy effi-
cient than other modes. Notwithstanding the inherent
mechanical advantage of rail transport, there are also
operational issues which must be accounted for when
normalizing the use of energy by passenger kilo-
metres or freight tonne kilometres. Moreover, rapid
technological advances in other modes have reduced
the efficiency advantage that rail transport has been
enjoying [3]. Also, due to the lengthy technological
renewal period that the railway operates within, the
import and adoption of advanced technologies often
lags the automotive sector which is able to bring
new technologies to the market, and achieve deep
market penetration in a relatively short period of
time.

JRRT99 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part F: J. Rail and Rapid Transit
136 S Hillmansen and C Roberts
Rail services can be broadly split into freight,
commuter, and high-speed intercity. These are pro-
vided by a variety of railway vehicles. Electrified
routes primary energy is dependent on the genera-
tion mix used by the local electricity suppliers, and
therefore electrified rail can offer improvements in
gaseous CO2 emissions if the generation mix becomes
increasingly decarbonized. On routes where electri-
fication is not present, or not deemed cost effec-
tive, then diesel-powered traction is usually used. It
is these routes where hybridization of the propul-
sion system could offer significant energy savings.
Hybridization of power trains is relatively advanced
in the automotive sector with commercially avail-
able hybrid vehicles, which at the time of writing
are being produced by Honda, Ford, and Toyota [4].
The worldwide rail market is several orders of mag-
nitude smaller than that of the automotive sector
and historically rail has often imported technol-
ogy from other sectors, e.g. marine diesel engines,
to avoid high-development costs. There are notable
exceptions, including the Japanese Railway Com-
pany JR East who have implemented the first hybrid
diesel multiple unit which is about to enter revenue
service [5].
Rail is potentially well suited to hybridization of its
propulsion system. The vehicles used in rail appli-
cations are highly utilized and have a well-defined
duty cycle which is a function of the timetable. Opti-
mization of the system can capitalize on the highly
restrictive service pattern which fixes the required
duty cycle of the vehicle. Plug-in recharging and
system configuration can be scheduled for when a
vehicle is out of service and in a depot. A number of
authors have recently considered the use of alterna-
tive power in rail and similar large applications [5–10].
These articles allude to the potential savings that
are possible with hybrid propulsion. Interestingly, the
developments in which solid oxide fuel cells have
been used to provide a constant mean power for the
duty cycle in a battery dominated system may in fact
represent an optimal solution for many rail applica-
tions [11]. Many of the difficulties associated with the
application of this technology to private road trans-
port, for example, long stabling periods and variable
duty cycles, are relatively straightforward to overcome
in the rail environment.
The analysis presented herewith uses typical pas-
senger high-speed and commuter routes and vehi-
cles and computes the journey energy consumption
for a range of component efficiency ratings. CO2
emissions are closely coupled to the energy con-
sumption, but reductions in other gaseous emissions
such as HC, CO, and NOx could be significant due
to the reduction in engine transients that would be
achieved with a hybrid system. Freight haulage has
been omitted from the current analysis because it
Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part F: J. Rail and Rapid Transit
has a relatively flat load curve in long-distance oper-
ation. However, there could be considerable savings
in energy made by optimizing the operations in
lightly loaded situations or in freight loading termi-
nals. An analysis of this complexity would require
detailed understanding of the daily requirements of
a freight vehicle. Of note, hybrid shunt locomotives
have been developed in North America and have
demonstrated clear energy savings in comparison
with traditional diesel technology [12]. This is impart
due to the intermittent duty cycle in which full power
is required in short bursts followed by long-periods
of idling. This is a duty cycle that is well suited to
hybridization.
2 DUTY-CYCLE SIMULATION
The key inputs to the current analysis include the
kinematic vehicle model and route description. The
output of the duty-cycle analysis is the mechani-
cal power that is delivered at the wheels to achieve
the desired vehicle service. This mechanical power
is then analysed using a hybrid vehicle model in
which propulsion energy is derived from a gener-
ating set operating at a fixed output to provide the
mean power, and an energy storage device. The stor-
age device is used to track the varying part of the
duty cycle, as well as providing a receptacle for the
captured braking energy. The energy savings of such
a configuration come from the benefits of operat-
ing the prime mover at its most optimum efficiency,
coupled with the immediate savings associated with
capturing and redeploying braking energy. Addition-
ally, the size of the generating set can significantly
be downsized in comparison to a non-hybrid prime
mover.
2.1 Vehicle models
The vehicle models used in the analysis have resis-
tance characteristics based on the Davis equation
[13, 14] and a traction curve with a friction limited
region, which is dependent on the maximum creep
force between the driving wheels and rail, and a
region which is dependent on the performance of
the traction motor. The characteristics assumed in
the current analysis are illustrated in Fig. 1 for the
high-speed and commuter vehicles with key parame-
ters being provided in Table 1. These characteristics
are representative of generic high-speed and com-
muter vehicles and are used here to simplify the
analysis. For the purposes of modelling the braking
performance, it was assumed that the braking was
provided by the traction motors. Additional complex-
ity could be introduced by optimizing the driving style
JRRT99 © IMechE 2007
 Energy storage devices in hybrid railway vehicles 137

Fig. 1 Traction and resistance characteristics for the high-speed vehicle and the commuter vehicle,
with available acceleration indicated, derived from reference [14]. The maximum traction
force is computed by assuming a co-efficient of friction of 0.3 of the driven wheels. The
proportion of mass on the driven wheels for both vehicles is indicated in Table 1

to include coasting and blended braking, but has not
been included in the current analysis.
2.2 Route information
Route information was provided by Network Rail. On
each route, a number of station stops were incorpo-
rated into the running diagram. A typical gradient
profile was also incorporated into the route informa-
tion. The route descriptions used are illustrated in
Fig. 2. These routes were chosen to represent typical
journeys, but a full analysis of the intended routes to
be operated would be required to advance the concept
design for the hybrid rail vehicle further.
rail vehicle is governed by the equation
1
ẍ = [F (ẋ) · NT − B(ẋ) · NB − M g sin(α(x)) − R(ẋ)]
M
(1)
where ẍ is the vehicle acceleration, M the effective
vehicle gross mass (to include the effect of the rotating
components), F (ẋ) the tractive force, B(ẋ) the braking
force, g the acceleration due to gravity, α(x) the slope,
positive for a vehicle travelling uphill, NT and NB the
driver inputs for traction and braking, respectively
(0  NT , NB  1), and R(ẋ) the resistance to motion
described by the Davis equation

R(ẋ) = Aẋ 2 + B ẋ + C (2)

2.3 Kinematic simulation of the vehicle motion
The motion of the rail vehicle in the longitudinal
direction is governed by: the traction power, the
braking power, the resistance to motion, gradients,
and rail curvature. In this simulation, the increased
resistance that is experienced while a rail vehicle
is cornering has been excluded from the analysis
because it is only significant on routes with many
small radius curves. The simulation developed here
has adopted a similar strategy to models previously
described in the literatures [15–18]. The motion of the
where A, B, and C are vehicle specific coefficients
which are obtained experimentally [14].
In general, the maximum available tractive force
and braking force are dependent on the velocity,
and the driver operates the vehicle within these con-
straints to achieve the required journey. In this simu-
lation, the driver input was not modelled, instead the
vehicle was operated at maximum permissible trac-
tive forces and braking forces to complete the journey
in the minimum time. Driving behaviour can have a
significant effect on the energy required to complete

Table 1 Key parameters for high-speed and commuter vehicles

Davis coefficients
Effective Mass on
mass driving Power A B C
Vehicle Seats (tonne) axles (%) (MW) (kN/(m/s)2 ) (kN/(m/s)) (kN)

High-speed 600 416 34 2.64 0.0078 0.11 3.2

Commuter 289 142 25 1 0.0094 0.03 1.1

JRRT99 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part F: J. Rail and Rapid Transit
138 S Hillmansen and C Roberts

Fig. 2 Route descriptions for high-speed and commuter vehicles, showing the vehicle acceleration
due to the gradients, and the velocity operating envelope. Station stops occur when the
velocity limit tends towards zero. Both journeys have three stops between the start and end
station

a given journey and relates directly to journey time. which utilizes the current value of acceleration and
This has not been simulated in the current analysis. the previous value of velocity
As the route is described by discrete data, no

analytical solutions exist to describe the motion of ẋ[n] = ẋ[n − 1]2 + 2ẍ[n]x (4)
the vehicle under real route conditions. Therefore,
the solution is obtained numerically. The solution
where x is the length of the track element (10 m in
algorithm used in the current analysis divides the
the current analysis), and n is the timestep indicator.
track into uniform elements. In each element, the
A similar procedure is used for computing the
acceleration, velocity, and time are computed to sat-
braking curve, but importantly, the computation is
isfy the constraints. A forward projection computa-
reversed and a backwards projection procedure is
tion is used to compute the acceleration, and a reverse
used. The two projections are then superimposed and
projection is used to compute the deceleration under
the lowest velocity in each element is recorded. This
braking. Maximum tractive forces are limited at low
process is illustrated in Fig. 3(a).
speed and are simply described by an inverse law
The total time is computed by integrating the
at higher speed in this analysis. (Conventional trac-
incremental time calculated in each element
tion induction motors would exhibit limited toque
and power at high speed due to machine slip.) This x x
is expressed in the algorithm as: t(x) = (5)
0 ẋ(x)

If
Energy is computed by integrating the power demand
P
> Fmax x
ẋ
E(x) = P(x) · t(x) (6)
F (ẋ) = Fmax 0

else The algorithm was compared with an analytical

P solution obtained by computing the velocity for an
F (ẋ) =
ẋ accelerating mass, which is being propelled using
end (3) a constant power. Under these boundary condi-
tions, the numerical solution becomes increasingly
where P is the tractive power, and Fmax is the maxi- inaccurate at low velocities, and therefore the solu-
mum tractive force limited by the driven wheel slip. tion was compared with the analytical case with an
The acceleration is computed using equation (1). initial velocity of 1 m/s. The comparison is illustrated
The velocity is computed using a difference equation in Fig. 3(b) for the high-speed vehicle simulated

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part F: J. Rail and Rapid Transit JRRT99 © IMechE 2007
 Energy storage devices in hybrid railway vehicles 139

Fig. 3 (a) Forward and backward velocity projections and (b) analytical solution comparison

with no resistive forces. The simulation results have
a negligible error, which does not grow during the
computation, thus indicating that the algorithm is
stable. The inaccuracies at low velocities are min-
imal in realistic simulations since the maximum
acceleration is friction limited.
The high-speed and commuter journeys were simu-
lated and the results are illustrated in Fig. 4. The key
output from the simulation is the mechanical energy
that is expended and absorbed at the wheel–rail inter-
face. This will be used as an input in the following
propulsion system analysis.
3 BASE CASE DIESEL EFFICIENCY SIMULATIONS
AND PRIMARY ENERGY CONSUMPTION
ESTIMATES
In order to assess the benefits of the hybrid simula-
tion, it is necessary to perform a base case analysis
of a conventional diesel engine for comparative pur-
poses. Diesel engines have varying efficiency and at
any given engine speed can produce a wide range of
output torques, each with a unique system efficiency.
Typically, these data are expressed in the form of an
efficiency map which describes the efficiency in all
possible engine states. Data were extracted from an
existing efficiency map to produce a single dimension
relationship between efficiency and engine power
demand [19]. This particular engine map is from a
modern high speed 720 kW unit whose target appli-
cation is in a hybrid 40 ton goods vehicle. This is
illustrated in normalized form in Fig. 5(a) and the
diesel engine operating efficiency for the high-speed
journey is illustrated in Fig. 5(b). Figure 5(b) illustrates
one of the principal disadvantages of using a diesel
engine for providing propulsion, which is the signifi-
cant time in which the engine is operating outside its
optimum efficiency. This base case assumes no on-
board energy storage and the transient requirements
are met by operating the diesel engine over a range of
output powers. This contrasts with the hybrid case in
which the diesel engine operates at a constant power
output with high efficiency. The function was used
to postprocess the mechanical power requirements
and to determine in the base case the quantity of

Fig. 4 High-speed and commuter journey simulation results. Dashed line – velocity limit, solid
line – computed vehicle velocity

JRRT99 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part F: J. Rail and Rapid Transit
140
Fig. 5 (a) Normalized diesel efficiency and (b) efficiency operating point for the high-speed journey
Table 2 Diesel base case fuel consumption (assuming
10 kWh(diesel) /l)
Diesel fuel consumption
Vehicle l/journey l/km l/(ton km)
High-speed 919 5.14 0.0127
Commuter 46.7 2.68 0.0176
diesel fuel used in each of the journeys. This is shown
in Table 2 and is normalized against vehicle seating
capacity and mass for comparative purposes.
4 SERIES HYBRIDIZATION MODELLING
The principal differences between the hybrid con-
figured system and the existing propulsion systems
are relatively minor, given that many rail vehicles
currently use an electric transmission system. The
addition of an energy storage device to the existing
system is the major component which would need to
be incorporated into the propulsion system. Consid-
erable experience in electrical energy management
for propulsion exists in the railway sector, for this rea-
son it is likely that hybrid technologies will be adopted
in a timely manner.
The system was modelled by using a generic
generator set to provide the mean power across the
whole duty cycle. This technique has recently been
adopted in a road vehicle simulation by Brett et al.
[11]. It was assumed in the current analysis that the
device was operating at a high efficiency and could
convert energy from the liquid fuel carrier to the
electrical energy used by the hybrid system at an effi-
ciency rate of 0.35. This input variable could be higher
depending on the nature of the generator set. Fuel
cells for rail applications [6, 7] could feasibly oper-
ate at higher efficiencies. The variable load would be
provided by an energy storage device which would
Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part F: J. Rail and Rapid Transit
S Hillmansen and C Roberts
expend energy when the vehicle is accelerating, con-
sume braking energy, and consume energy from the
generating set when the vehicle demands a light load.
The energy storage device was assumed to have an
kWh(diesel) / in/out efficiency in the analysis. Real energy storage
(seat-km) devices, for example, batteries, have complex effi-
ciency maps which depend on numerous variables
0.086
0.093 including the state of charge, rate of discharge, age,
and temperature. Optimizing specific energy storage
devices has not been included within the scope of this
article, but it is worthy of detailed consideration in
future work. The proportion of the available braking
energy to be recovered was also used as a variable. For
each analysis, varying the size of the generating set
in order to preserve the state of charge in the energy
storage device at the end of the duty cycle was used
to optimize the system. In Fig. 6, the power analysis is
presented for both the high-speed cycle and the com-
muter cycle. The varying mechanical traction load is
achieved by summing the output from the constant
power provided by the generating set and the varying
power output/input from the storage device. These
simulations assume an efficiency of the storage device
cycle of 0.64 (equivalent to an input efficiency of 0.8
and an output efficiency of 0.8) and the regenera-
tive braking captured of 0.5. The power requirements
of the energy storage device are significant and in
practise would be realized by multiple energy stor-
age devices which were distributed along the length
of the train. For the commuter case, the mean power
produced by the generating set is considerably lower
than the peak required power. This would translate
into an effective downsize of the power unit for these
types of vehicles.
The state of charge of the energy storage devices
is illustrated in Fig. 7 for both cycles. Four regimes
of storage device operation are evidenced in Fig. 7.
First is discharging during periods of acceleration,
second is charging/recharging during cruise periods
(dependent on cruise speed), third is recharging dur-
ing braking, and fourth is recharging at stations. As
JRRT99 © IMechE 2007
 Energy storage devices in hybrid railway vehicles 141

Fig. 6 Power analysis for both the high-speed cycle and the commuter cycle

Fig. 7 State of charge of the energy storage device

no storage device sizing has been completed in the
current analysis, the initial state of charge for the
storage device was chosen to be zero for convenience
purposes.Varying the size of the generator set enabled
the state of charge to be equal to zero at the end of
the journey. A larger generating set than this opti-
mum would result in a positive residual charge in
the storage device at the end of the cycle, and vice
versa. The potential savings that such an optimized
system could achieve are explored in the subsequent
section.
5 EFFICIENCY SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
The performance of the hybrid system under vary-
ing storage efficiencies and regeneration capture has
been assessed for both duty cycles. The results are
shown in Fig. 8. This figure indicates the poten-
tial primary energy savings in comparison with the
diesel base case. A performance of zero therefore
would indicate equal performance, and positive value
indicates an improving performance. The impor-
tant features of the plots illustrated in Fig. 8 are
twofold. First, it is possible to increase primary energy
consumption in comparison with the base case if
the storage device has a poor operating efficiency.
Second, that significant savings are only made with
high-efficiency storage devices, these are only aug-
mented by any captured energy from the braking
cycle. In summary, the benefits of the hybrid system
fundamentally originate from the use of a generat-
ing set operating at a high efficiency and the use of a
storage device with a high efficiency. Captured brak-
ing energy improves the energy consumption further.
On the basis of the assumptions used in this analy-
sis, a hybrid configuration could offer considerable
primary energy savings for passenger rail, both in
commuting and high-speed services. Table 3 indicates
the potential savings with a storage efficiency of 0.64
and braking capture efficiency of 0.5. These figures
have been used to represent practicable devices that
are available now or are near to market. Under high-
speed operation, the primary energy consumption
will be reduced by 28 per cent and commuter oper-
ation by 35 per cent reflecting the increased amount
of braking in the commuter cycle. This translates
into significant economic savings, which need to be
assessed against increased capital costs in a whole
life-cost model.

JRRT99 © IMechE 2007 Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part F: J. Rail and Rapid Transit
142 S Hillmansen and C Roberts

Fig. 8 Sensitivity analysis of the storage device efficiency and braking capture rate

Table 3 Hybrid vehicle fuel consumption suggests that the move to hybrid systems could be
readily facilitated for rail vehicles. The requirements
kWh(diesel) /seat/km
for the storage devices have been derived in this
Hybrid paper, but no attempt has been made to match these
(0.5 regen
Diesel efficiency, requirements with the specification of existing stor-
base 0.8 storage Improvement age technology or to model these devices explicitly.
Vehicle case efficiency) (%) There are numerous storage technologies and many
High-speed 0.086 0.061 28
articles reviewing the merits of each technology. Many
Commuter 0.093 0.060 35 technologies are targeted at either the automotive
sector, or at load levelling at electricity substations,
and therefore, would need some further development
6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUDING REMARKS for use in the rail environment. However, on survey-
ing a number of articles, a nickel sodium chloride
Railway transport has enjoyed a reputation for envi- battery could offer a solution for rail where the oper-
ronmental travel for a number of years, but is facing ating characteristics of the battery are more suited
increasing pressure to improve its environmental per- to rail than road [11]. This article has explored the
formance further. As part of this commitment, energy use of hybrid propulsion systems for rail applica-
reduction measures will form a crucial component tions, and from a kinematic point of view there is
of the improvements. This paper has assessed the the potential for energy savings in an optimally con-
potential of a series hybrid configuration to provide figured propulsion system. Table 4 provides some
propulsion to rail vehicles. Hybrid systems allow gen- information regarding the current performance of a
erating sets to operate at an optimum efficiency while number of chemical batteries. In order to design a
the varying load is followed with an energy storage suitably configured system, which satisfies the con-
device which has a high and flat efficiency character- straints of the vehicle, a full optimization procedure
istic. Some diesel powered rail vehicles are currently must be developed taking into account life cycle cost-
propelled using electric transmission and expertise ing and reliability, availability, maintainability, and
existing in the area of power electronics and control sustainability.

Table 4 Characteristics of batteries for use in electric vehicles [20]

Pb-PbO2 Ni-Cd Ni-MH Zn-Br2 Na-NiCl Na-S Li-Ion

Working temperature (◦ C) 0–45 0–50 −40–50 20–40 300–350 300–350 −40–60

Specific energy (Wh/kg) 161 236 300 430 794 795 275
Specific energy (2 h discharge) 20–30 40–55 50–60 50–70 80–100 90–120 90–140
Energy density (Wh/l) 60–80 60–90 100–150 60–70 110–120 120–130 150–200
Specific power (W/kg) 75–100 120–150 140–200 80–100 150–200 150–200 350–400
Cell voltage (V) 2.1 1.35 1.35 1.79 2.58 2.08 3.6

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part F: J. Rail and Rapid Transit JRRT99 © IMechE 2007
 Energy storage devices in hybrid railway vehicles
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to acknowledge the communi-
cations with the Future Rail Research Centre in Impe-
rial College London regarding the vehicle simulation.
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