KIFAYAT Tahisli Biology - First Edition V3

Students for Students
Presents:
KIFAYAT
Tahsili
Biology
Translated By: 12C

2015 Alumni
Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi

Edited and Compiled By: Habib M. Farooq
First Edition
Introduction:
This book is translated and edited by the 12C students, 2015 Alumni. The book is based on
“KIFAYAT” by Al Babteen Publications. Due to the short time limit in preparing the book,
some minor mistake could be found, so please excuse us.
With regards,
12C
Translators:
1- Abdullah AL Khani
2- Abdullah Al Dogaither
3- Abdulmalik Al Shehri
4- Abdulrahman Al Suliman
5- Ahmad Al Tayeb
6- Anas Al Alwan
7- Ayman Al Zomaili
8- Basheer Al Sanouri
9- Habib Farooq
10- Khalid Al Hamdan
11- Khaled AlShalhoob
12- Mohammad Al Nashwan
13- Mohammad Al Wiizinany
14- Nawaf Al Otaibi
15- Nawaf Al Qayed
16- Saad Al Bawardi
17- Omar Zeitouni
18- Ziyad Al Ghoniem
For any suggestions and information:

s4s.riyadhschools@gmail.com
Translated By: Abdulrahman Al Sulaiman KIFAYAT Tahisili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
• Biology: Science that deals with the origin of life and its history, and the structure of the living organisms,
and how they do there job, and how they communicate with each other.
• Cell: cell is the fundamental unit of life, and that all living things are composed of one or more cells or
the secreted products of those cells
• The main characteristics of the living organisms (organization, growth, organization, reproduction, needs
energy, respond to stimuli, maintain internal equilibrium, adaptation).
• Growth leads to the increase of mass and size of the living organisms, and it gets lots of abilities.
• The response to an internal or external stimulant is called, response
• Adaptation: the act of adapting
• Hypothesis: an idea or explanation that you then test through study and experimentation.
• SI units: meters for length, kilograms for mass, second for time.
• Dependent variable: represents the output or effect, or is tested to see if it is the effect.
• Independent variables: represent the inputs or causes, or are tested to see if they are the cause.
Plant Cell Animal Cell
Nucleus On The Side In The Center
Chloroplast There Is Chloroplast No Chloroplast
Vacuoles Large Small / Distributed
Centriole There Is Centriole No Centriole
Cell Structure Example Function Cell Type
Plant cells, fungi

An inflexible barrier that provides
Cell wall cells, and some
support and protects the plant cell
prokaryotes
Organelles that occur in pairs and are Animal cells and

Centrioles
important for cell division most protist cells
3
A double-membrane organelle with
Plant cells and
Chloroplast thylakoids containing chlorophyll;
some protist cells
where photosynthesis takes place
Projections from cell surfaces that aid in Some animal

Cilia locomotion and feeding; also used to cells, protist cells,
sweep substances along surfaces and prokaryotes
A framework for the cell within the All eukaryotic

Cytoskeleton
cytoplasm cells
Endoplasmic A highly folded membrane that is the All eukaryotic

reticulum site of protein synthesis cells
Some animal
Projections that aid in locomotion and cells, prokaryotes,
Flagella
feeding and some plant
cells
A flattened stack of tubular membranes

All eukaryotic
Golgi apparatus that modifies proteins and packages
cells
them for distribution outside the cell
A vesicle that contains digestive

Animal cells and
Lysosome enzymes for the breakdown of excess or
rare in plant cells
worn-out cellular substances
A membrane-bound organelle that

All eukaryotic
Mitochondrion makes energy available to the rest of the
cells
cell
The control center of the cell that

All eukaryotic
Nucleus contains coded directions for the
cells
production of proteins and cell division
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A flexible boundary that controls the
Plasma
movement of substances into and out of All cells
membrane
the cell
Organelle that is the site of protein

Ribosome All cells
synthesis
Plant cells–one
A membrane-bound vesicle for the large; rarely
Vacuole
temporary storage of materials animal cells–a few
small
• There is two main types of cells : Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic
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• Prokaryote: is a single-celled organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus (karyon), mitochondria, or
any other membrane-bound organelles.
• Eukaryotic: is any organism whose cells contain a nucleus and other organelles enclosed within
membranes.
• Cell membrane or Plasma membrane: allows only selected substances into the cell and keeping
other substances out.
• The plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer
• The cell membrane is like fluid mosaic model
• Cholesterol and transporter proteins helps the cell membrane on its job.
• Ribosomes (builds up proteins), Mitochondria (source of chemical energy).
• the cells of living organisms are composed of organic compounds.
• Organic compounds are the main building unites.
• Biomolecules are composed of smaller organic compounds to form (Polymers). Polymers are of 4 types:
(Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic acids).
Group Example Function
• Store energy
Carbohydrates
• Provide structural support
Bread and grains
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• Store energy
Lipids
• Provide barriers
Bees’ wax
• Transport substances
• Speed reactions
Proteins
• Provide structural support •
Make hormones
Hemoglobin
• Store and communicate

Nucleic acids
genetic information
DNA
• Peptide bond links amino acids to produces proteins
• Nucleotides chains are made of Nucleic acids.
• Enzymes: (are proteins)
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• Carbohydrates: Compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of one oxygen and two
hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom are called carbohydrates. A general formula for carbohydrates is
written as (CH2O)n. Here the subscript n indicates the number of CH2O units in a chain. Biologically
important carbohydrates that have values of n ranging from three to seven are called simple sugars, or
monosaccharides (mah nuh SA kuh ridz). The monosaccharide glucose, plays a central role as an energy
source for organisms.
• Lipids: are molecules made mostly of carbon and hydrogen that make up the fats, oils, and waxes.
o A lipid called a triglyceride (tri GLIH suh rid) is a fat if it is solid at room temperature and an oil if
it is liquid at room temperature.
o Lipids that have tail chains with only single bonds between the carbon atoms are called saturated
fats, Lipids that have at least one double bond between carbon atoms in the tail chain can
accommodate at least one more hydrogen and are called unsaturated fats.
• Phospholipids: A special lipid called a phospholipid, is responsible for the structure and function of the
cell membrane.
o Cholesterol and hormones are steroids and lipids at the same time
• Protein: is a compound made of small carbon compounds called amino acids.
• Amino acids: are small compounds that are made of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and
sometimes sulfur. There are 20 different variable groups, and proteins are made of different combinations
• Enzymes: are the biological catalysts that speed up the rate of chemical reactions in biological processes.
• Nucleic acids: are complex macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information.
o Nucleic acids are made of smaller repeating subunits , called nucleotides.
o There are six major nucleotides, all of which have three units—a phosphate, a nitrogenous base,
and a ribose sugar.
o There are two types of nucleic acids found in living organisms: deoxy ribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA).
o A nucleotide with three phosphate groups is adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
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• When a person is bitten by a venomous snake, enzymes in the venom break down the membranes of that
person’s red blood cells.
• Hard green apples ripen because of the action of enzymes.
• Classification: is a method of scientific taxonomy used to group and categorize organisms hierarchically.
• Current systems of classifying forms of life descend from the thought presented by the Greek philosopher
Aristotle
• Carolus Linnaeus, who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics.
• Binomial nomenclature: is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a
name composed of two parts
Ex, e.g :
Domain —> Eukarya
Kingdom —> Animalia
Phylum —> Chordata
Class —> Mammals
Order —> Carnivores
Family —> Ursidae
Genus —> Ursus
Species —> Ursus arctos
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Translated By: Mohammad Al Nashwan KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
• The Archea Domain and Bacteria Domain contain both bacteria and archaeabacteria.
• The viruses are not included in the systems containing living things, because they are not
alive.
• Runny noses, AIDS, Poliomyelitis, influenza are all examples of viral diseases.
• The virus consists of DNA enclosed by a protein coat.
• Archaeabacteria have a nucleoid- the nucleus is not surrounded by a nuclear envelope.
• Arachabacteria live in extreme conditions like the volcano vents and ocean depths.
• Bacteria have strong cell walls that contain peptidoglycan.
• Some bacteria, such as the cyanobacteria in Figure 1, are photosynthetic.
• Examples of Bacterial diseases:

o Pertussis
o Tuberculosis
o Tetanus
o Syphilis
o Gonorrhea
o Typhoid fever
• The fungus is an organism that is unicellular or multicellular, non-photosynthetic, that has a

cell wall made of chitin.
• Their genes are found on a large, circular chromosome in an area of the cell called the
nucleoid.
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Bacteria
• There is also methanogens from Archaea. These are organisms that use carbon dioxide during
respiration and give off methane as a waste product, found in sewage treatment plants,
swamps, bogs, and near volcanic vents.
• Methanogens even thrive in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and other animals and are
responsible for the gases that are released from the lower digestive tract.
• Bacteria are divided depending on the color of their cell wall by Grams stain into bacteria with
a large amount of peptidoglycan that appear dark purple are called Gram-positive. And
Gram-negative Bacteria with the lipid layer having less peptidoglycan and appearing light
pink.
• Some bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission, and some by conjugation by which two
cells and exchange genetic information.
• When environmental conditions are harsh, bacteria reproduce quickly and mutate or in other
types of bacteria, they produce a structure called an endospore and this is for protection not
for reproduction.
• Some of these bacteria live in soil. These bacteria have enzymes that can convert nitrogen gas
into nitrogen compounds by a process called nitrogen fixation.
• A certain type of bacterium called Escherichia coli (E. coli) lives inside your intestines. In this
symbiotic relationship, it is harmless and make vitamin K, which humans absorb and use in
blood clotting.
• Bacteria can cause tooth cavity because they decompose the sugars on top of the teeth and
produce acids that degrade the tooth.
Virus
• A virus is a nonliving strand of genetic material within a protein coat.
• Most biologists don’t consider viruses living things because they have no organelles to take in
nutrients or use energy, they cannot make proteins, they cannot move, and they cannot
replicate on their own.
• Prion: is a protein that can cause infection or disease is called a.
• Most viruses range in size from 5 to 300 nanometers
• To replicate, a virus must enter a host cell.
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• Some viruses have RNA instead of DNA for their genetic material. This type of virus is called
a retrovirus.
Protista
• Scientists Divided Protists depending on their way to get food: -
a. Animal-Like Protists
b. PlantLike Protists
c. FungusLike Protist
• The sloth spends most of its life hanging upside down. Green algae help the brown sloth blend into the
leaves on the tree, providing camouflage for the sloth.
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• Microsporidia: are microscopic protozoans that cause disease in insects. Some species of microsporidia
can be used as insecticides.
• Paramecia move by Cilia, Amoeba by Pseudopod, Euglena by Flagella, and Apicomplexa by slipping into
the body fluids.
• Ciliates reproduce asexually by binary fission.
• The micronucleus in the paramecium is used for reproduction.
• The process of conjugation for Paramecium is sexual process that undergoes exchange of genetic
information, but it is not considered sexual reproduction because it doesn’t reproduce new organisms.
• Waste products and undigested food particles are excreted by diffusion through the cell membrane into
the surrounding water.
• Plasmodium: These parasites cause malaria in humans and are transmitted to humans by female
Anopheles mosqui- toes.
• Trypanosoma: causes American sleeping sickness and is delivered by the TseTse fly.
• Entameoba histolytica: cause amebic colitis and is delivered by flies, food , or cotaminated vegetables.
• Diatoms: are photosynthetic autotrophs and store their food as

oil instead of as carbohydrates, which makes them floatable on
water.
• The hard silica walls of the diatom and when it dies, they
accumulate on the ocean floor to form sediment known as
diatomaceous earth. The gritty texture of many tooth polishes
and metal polishes
• Dinoflagellates: has the flagella beat, a spinning motion is

created, so dinoflagellates spin as they move through the water.
Other members of this group are bioluminescent, which means
that they emit light.
• Most euglenoids contain chloroplasts and photosynthesize,

which is characteristic of plants. Others can ingest other
organisms such as smaller euglenoids and can split, which is a
characteristic of animals.
• The eyespot is a light-sensitive receptor that helps orient the euglenoid toward light for photosynthesis.
• Golden Algae: brown carotenoids that give them their golden brown color.
• it is from yellow-green Algae
• They reproduce asexually and rarely sexually.
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• Brown Algae: These algae have fucoxanthin dye and example
would be kelp.
• They contain a bladder that is filled with air and keeps the alga
floating near the surface of the water.
• Green algae and plants both contain chlorophyll as a primary

photosynthetic pigment, which gives both groups a green color,
and both groups store their food as carbohydrates.
• An example would be Spirogyra, it is a multicellular green alga

characterized by its long, thin filaments. Also, Volvox, is an
example of an alga that has a colonial growth pattern.
• Red Algae, contain red photosynthetic pigments called phycobilins

that give them a red color - enable the red algae to absorb green,
violet, and blue light that can penetrate water to a depth of 100 m
or more.
• Alternation of generations is a life cycle of algae that takes two generations to complete a life cycle, one
that reproduces sexually and one that reproduces asexually.
• The Algae are important producers of oxygen and food in the aquatic environment.
Fungi
• Fungi are heterotroph organisms , because of the lack of chlorophyll and gain their nutrients by
mutualistic, parasitic, saprophytic means.
• Its cell wall is made of (chitin).
• They are found in the moist shadowy places where the decaying organic material is available.
• Most fungi are able to reproduce sexually and asexually by producing spores.
• Most members of Kingdom Fungi, such as the honey mushroom, are multicellular. Yeasts are unicellular
fungi.
• The cell wall of fungus like Protista doesn’t contain (chitin)
• Aquatic fungi live in water and moist places, as an example downy mildew fungus that attacks the potato.
• Hyphae: is the structural unit in the fungi.
• The hyphae are either separated by cell walls called septa or merged into a single mycelium.
• Fungi reproduce by either asexually by budding as in Unicellular yeast cells or by Fragmentation, which is
a form of asexual reproduction that occurs when the mycelium of a fungus is physically broken apart, or
fragmented.
• The life cycle of most sexual and asexual fungi the production of spores.
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• Lichens: are organisms composed of algae and fungi living mutualistically.
• Puccina trichina attack wheat crops, corn smut attack corn, rhizopus stolonifier moulds bread, downy
mildew fungus attacks potatoes.
• deuteromycetes are named as it is because they lack a stage of reproduction in its life.
• Yeast is used to produce bread, penicillium in the antibiotic penicillin, Lentinus edodes as a food.
Animal Relationship
• Symbiotic: is the close relationship that exists when two or more species live together. There are three
different kinds of symbiosis: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism
o Mutualism: is a relationship in which organisms benefit from each other. This is a positive, positive
relationship.
o Commensalism: is a relationship in which one organism benefits from another organism that is not
affected. This is a positive, neutral relationship.
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o Parasitism: is a relationship in which one organism (the parasite) benefits while the other(the host) is
harmed. This is a positive, negative relationship.
 In the parasitism relationship, if the host dies, the parasite also dies, if another host is not
found.
 There is inner parasitism (endoparasitism) like the worms in the intestines, and there is outer
parasitism (ectoparasitism) like tick and flea. And there is also incubation parasitism like the
brown headed bird which puts it eggs in another birds nest until it hatches.
• Competition: is when organisms compete for the same resources. This is a negative relationship because
both organisms are harming each other.
• Predation: is where one organism hunts and eats the other organism. The organism hunting is called
predator, while the organism being hunted is called prey.
• There are a lot of predator insects like the beatle, mantodea , ladybird.
• They are used by organic gardeners for insect control. Instead of using insecticides, organic gardeners
use beneficial insects to control other insect populations.
• There are animal predating plants like Venus flytrap live in environment with low supplies of Nitrogen.
• Lichens: a mutualistic relationship between fungi and algae at which the algae provide food for the
fungi and the fungi provide the algae with water and salts. Lichens can grow on tree trucks at moist
shady places.
• Some examples on symbiotic relationships (clownfish and sea anemones commensalism, Plover bird
and crocodile, birds and buffalo).
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Translated By: Omar Zeitouni KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
General Animal Properties

• Animals are multicellular heterotrophs that have true nuclei.
• If an animal has an endoskeleton and a backbone, it is called a vertebrate.
• The bodies of many invertebrates are covered with exoskeletons, which are hard or tough outer coverings
that provide a framework of support.
• Most animals reproduce sexually, although some species can reproduce asexually
• Some animals, such as earthworms, are hermaphrodites
• Fertilization can be internal (e.g. cows and sheep) or external (e.g. fish).
• Common methods of asexual reproduction:
• Budding:—an offspring develops as a growth on the body of the parent
• Fragmentation:—the parent breaks into pieces and each piece can develop into an adult animal
• Regeneration:—a new organism can regenerate, or regrow, from the lost body part if the part contains
enough genetic information
• Parthenogenesis: —a female animal produces eggs that develop without being fertilized
In most animals, the zygote undergoes mitosis and a series of cell divisions to form new cells.
Arthropods
• They have segmented bodies, hard, flexible exoskeletons, (made from chitin - a nitrogen-containing
polysaccharide bound with protein) and moveable joints between body segments and between
appendages.
• Their bodies are divided into three parts – head, thorax, and abdomen.
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• Many have antenna – long sensory structures that contain receptors for smell and touch.
• The legs and wings are attached to the thorax
• For them to grow, they have to get rid of their exoskeleton in a process called molting.
• Mandibles in arthropods are adapted to biting, chewing, and stinging.
• Arthropods obtain oxygen by using one of three structures—gills, tracheal tubes, or book lungs.
• Both tracheae and book lungs open to the outside of the body of the arthropod in openings called
spiracles.
• The circulatory system pumps blood through open body spaces.
• In most arthropods, cellular wastes are removed from the blood through Malpighian tubules.
• Some arthropods, such as crayfish, have the thorax region fused with the head into a single structure
called a cephalothorax.
• Many have compound eyes while others have simple eyes.
• Ants communicate with each other by pheromones, chemicals secreted by many animal species that
influence the behavior of other animals of the same species.
• They are able to crawl, run, climb, dig, swim, and fly because of their well-developed muscular systems.
• Most arthropods reproduce sexually. A few are hermaphrodites such as barnacles.
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• All spiders are carnivores. Silk is made from a fluid protein secreted by glands and spun into silk by
structures called spinnerets, located at the end of a spider’s abdomen. They do not have antennae.
• Horseshoe crabs have unsegmented heavy exoskeletons in the shape of a horseshoe. They come to shore
to reproduce at high tide.
• About 80 percent of arthropods are insects. They are the most abundant and widespread of all terrestrial
animals.
• Insect legs are adapted to a variety of functions. (Example flies have walking legs with sticky pads to help
them walk upside down)
• After hatching, most insects undergo metamorphosis, a series of major changes from a larval form to an
adult form.
• There are two types of metamorphosis:
(1) Complete metamorphosis: egglarva pupaadult
(2) Incomplete metamorphosis: eggnymph (several molts)adult
• The honeybee queen is the only reproductive female.
• Insects can be harmful to humans and to the environment. Weevils, cockroaches, ants, and termites cause
property destruction. Others are beneficial and used for biological control such as the ladybird.
• The centipedes of class Chilopoda and the millipedes of class Diplopoda are close relatives of insects.
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Echinoderms
• Echinoderms are marine animals with spiny endoskeletons, water-vascular systems, and tube feet; they
have radial symmetry as adults.
• On the skin are pedicellariae - small pincers that aid in catching food and in removing foreign materials
from the skin.
• The water-vascular system has a strainerlike opening (like a sieve) called the madreporite.
• Their tube feet have muscular sacs in their ends, called the ampullas.
• Many species of sea stars can push their stomachs out of their mouths and onto their prey. They then
spread digestive enzymes over the food and use cilia to bring the digested material to their mouths
• Echinoderms also use their tube feet in respiration. Echinoderms also use their tube feet in respiration
• Most echinoderms reproduce sexually. The females shed eggs and the males shed sperm into the water
where fertilization takes place.
• Many echinoderms can drop off an arm when they are attacked, enabling them to flee while the predator
is distracted. They can then regenerate parts of their body.
• Because of their spiny skin, sea stars usually are not food for other marine predators.
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• Many sea cucumbers have branched tubes, called respiratory trees, through which water passes and
oxygen moves into the body.
• Some of their tube feet are modified to form tentacles that extend from around their mouths to trap
suspended food particles
Invertebrate Chordates
• One example is the lancelet is a small eel-like animal that spends most of its life buried in the sand
filtering the water for food
Chordates:
• They have four distinctive features at some point in their development—a dorsal tubular nerve cord, a
notochord, pharyngeal pouches, and a postanal tail.
• Invertebrate chordates, which belong to two of the subphyla of chordates, Cephalochordata and
Urochordata, also have the above four features, but they don’t have a backbone
• The thyroid gland is a structure that regulates metabolism, growth, and development. Only vertebrate
chordates have a thyroid gland.
• Iodine is concentrated in the endostyle and plays an important role in thyroid gland function. Iodine
is found in fish and vegetables.
• Tunicates live in shallow water; some live in masses on the ocean floor. Tunicates are
hermaphrodites—they produce both eggs and sperm—with external fertilization.
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Vertebrates
• Vertebrates have a vertebral column and specialized cells that develop from the nerve cord.
• Classes of vertebrates include fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
• In most vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by a vertebral column that surrounds and protects the
dorsal nerve cord during embryonic development.
• Cartilage or bone is the building material of most vertebrate endoskeletons.
• A neural crest is a group of cells that develop from the nerve cord in vertebrates during embryonic
development. it is significant in the development of vertebrates because many important vertebrate
features develop from the neural crest. These features include portions of the brain and skull, certain
sense organs, parts of pharyngeal pouches, some nerve fibers, insulation for nerve fibers, and certain
gland cells.
• Fish are vertebrates that have characteristics that enable them to live and reproduce in water.
• Fish that live in the poles have proteins that prevent freezing in their blood.
• Fish have paired fins, jaws, scales, and gills.
• Fish get oxygen from the water via their gills.

• Fish have gills composed of thin filaments that are covered with platelike lamellae. ( Extra info: The
lamellae have many blood vessels that can take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide.) Some fish have an
operculum, a moveable flap that covers gills and protects them.
• Some fishes, such as lungfishes, can live out of water for short times by using structures resembling lungs.
Eels can breathe through their moist skin when they are not in water
• Fish have a closed circulatory system. Their hearts are each composed of an atrium and a ventricle. Fish
are ectotherms (cold blooded) because they obtain their body heat from the external environment.
• Fish have a complete digestive system. The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder secrete juices to aid in
digestion
• Fish cannot synthesize amino acids and so they have to obtain them from the food they eat.
• Cellular wastes are filtered from fishes’ blood by organs called kidneys. The main functional unit of the
kidney is the nephron.
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• As in other vertebrates, the nervous system of fish consists of a spinal cord and a brain. The cerebellum is
involved in coordinating movement and controlling balance. Fish have receptors for the sense of smell
that enable them to detect chemicals in the water.
• Fish can detect the slightest movement in the water. Fish can do this because they have special receptors
called the lateral line system which helps to keep them upright and balanced
• The majority of fishes reproduce through external fertilization. Male and female fishes release their
gametes near each other in the water in a process called spawning. Developing embryos get nutrition
from food stored in the yolk of the egg. Some fishes, such as sharks, reproduce through internal
fertilization
• Fish have a swim bladder is a gas-filled space, like a balloon, found in bony fishes that allows a fish to
control its depth
• Fish are classified into three classes:

1. Jawless fish (E.g. Hagfish) have no paired fins, scales, or bony skeleton. Even though they are
almost blind, their keen chemical sense enables them to locate food.
2. Cartilaginous fish (E.g. sharks) have skeletons made from cartilage and calcium carbonate. They
have tough skin with placoid scales
3. Bony fish contains two groups: ray-finned fish (bony endoskeleton and ctenoid or cycloid scales,
an operculum covering the gills, and a swim bladder) and lobe-finned fish (have lungs for gas
exchange and muscular lobes and joints similar to those of land vertebrates.)
• Environmental changes and pollution can negatively affect fish schools.
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Amphibians
• Most amphibians begin life as aquatic organisms and then live on land as adults.
• A tadpole is the limbless, gill-breathing, fishlike larva of a frog. Day by day, the tadpole undergoes
metamorphosis. Hind legs form and grow longer, the tail shortens, gills are replaced by lungs, and
forelimbs sprout. In just a few weeks or months, depending on the species, the tadpole becomes an adult
frog.
• Modern amphibians include frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and legless caecilians
• Most amphibians are characterized by having four legs, moist skin with no scales, gas exchange through
the skin, lungs, a double-loop circulatory system, and aquatic larvae.
• The cloaca is a chamber that receives the digestive wastes, urinary waste, and eggs or sperm before they
leave the body.
• Amphibians filter wastes from the blood through their kidneys and excrete either ammonia or urea as the
waste product of cellular metabolism
• Amphibians have three-chambered hearts. The atrium is completely separated into two atria by tissue.
The ventricle of amphibians remains undivided.
• The nictitating membrane is a transparent eyelid that can move across the eye to protect it underwater
and keep it from drying out on land.
• The tympanic membrane is an eardrum. In frogs, it is a thin external membrane on the side of the head.
Frogs use their tympanic membrane to hear high-pitched sounds and to amplify sounds from the vocal
cords
• Amphibians are ectotherms (cold blooded) because they obtain their body heat from the external
environment.
• Amphibians reproduce externally and their eggs do not have shells or protective coverings to keep them
from drying out. They are covered with sticky, jellylike substance that helps them stay anchored to
vegetation in the water.
• Amphibians are classified into three classes

1. Frogs and toads: They lack tails and have long legs, enabling them to jump. Frogs have moist,
smooth skin, while the skin of toads tends to be bumpy and dry. Another difference is that toads
have kidney-bean-shaped glands near the back of their heads that release a foul-tasting poison.
The poison discourages predators from eating them.
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2. Salamanders and newts: Unlike frogs and toads, salamander and newts have long, slim bodies
with necks and tails. Most salamanders have four legs and thin, moist skin, and they cannot live
far from water. Like frogs, most salamanders lay their eggs in water.
3. Caecilians are different from other amphibians because they are legless and wormlike. They
burrow in the soil and feed on worms and other invertebrates. Skin covers the eyes of many
caecilians, so they might be nearly blind. All caecilians have internal fertilization.
Caecilian
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Translated By: Nawaf Al Qayed KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
• Most amphibians start their lives in the water then move to the land when they are fully-grown.
• Example of amphibians (Frogs, Toads, Salamanders etc…)
• Amphibians have four legs and a moist skin. They exchange air through their skin and lungs and have a
double blood circulation.
• Amphibians have an opening at the end of their bodies called the cloaca which receives the body’s waste,
egg, and semen before leaving the body
• Wastes are filtered from the blood by the kidneys and exit through the urea.
• their hearts are made up of two atriums and one ventricle
• The frog’s eyes are covered with the nictitating membrane which protects them.
• The ears have a tympanic membrane that act as ear drums to help hear loud voices.
• Amphibians are temperature-changing animals.
• Amphibian’s eggs do not have protective layers to protect them from dryness and outer fertilization.
• Amphibians are divided into three parts
1- Tailless:- such as frogs and toads
2- Salamanders and Newts:- such as salamanders
3- Caecilians: - such as Caecilia worms
• Frogs have a soft moist skin while toads have a dry bumpy skin and have glands behind their heads that
secretes a poison with a bad taste to protect it from predators.
• Salamanders have a tail and neck unlike frogs and out their eggs into the water.
• Legless amphibians such as worms burry themselves in the dirt are fertilized from the inside and may be
almost blind because skin covers their eyes. They live in the tropical forests.
• A tadpole is the limbless, gill-breathing, fishlike larva of a frog. Day by day, the tadpole undergoes
metamorphosis(me tuh MOR fuh sihs)—hind legs form and grow lon -ger, the tail shortens, gills are
replaced by lungs, and fore-limbs sprout. In just a few weeks or months, depending on the species, the
tadpole becomes an adult frog.
REPTILES:-
• Their eggs have a protective shell and their bodies are covered with a thick scaly skin.
• Their fetuses have a membrane named amnion filled with a liquid to protect it during its growth.
• The amnion membrane exists with reptiles, birds, and mammals.
• For some reptiles they go through a process called molting to get rid of their hard outer skin and get a
new one.
• Most reptiles depend on lungs for gas exchange except for some aquatic reptiles.
• Their hearts are made up of two atriums and one ventricle except for crocodiles which have four
chambers.
• Snakes can swallow meals bigger than their mouths because their lower and upper jaws are connected to
flexible ligaments which lets them act separately.
• some reptiles have longs tongues which helps them catch insects (eg:- chameleons)
• The kidneys filter the blood then the urine goes to the rectum where the water is reabsorbed then the
waste turns into uric acid then leaves the body as semi hard wastes.
• Eyes sightedness is the main sense for reptiles.
• Snakes put out their tongues to pick up odors by an organ called Jacobson
• Reptiles are temperature-changing animals.
• Reptiles have claws in their fingers which helps some dig, climb, and pull.
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• Reptiles are fertilized from the inside and fetus gets its nutrients from the egg’s yolk.
• Reptiles are divided into four groups
1- Scale reptiles:- snakes and lizards
2- Crocodiles and Alligators
3- Turtles
4- Tuataras:- they look similar to lizards but with bigger heads and a more scaly body.
• some snakes have poisonous venoms which disables its prey while others have strong muscles which help
them squeeze their preys.
• turtles don’t have teeth but have a hard jaw which can cause a powerful bight.
• dinosaurs are reptiles.
BIRDS:-
• their eggs are similar to reptile’s eggs
• they have a constant body temperature of 41 degrees
• they are covered with feathers and have light bones
• Their feathers is made of keratin have two functions which are flying and insulation.
• Feathers that cover the body, wings, and tail of a bird are called contour feathers.
• Down feathers are soft feathers located beneath contour feathers.
• Birds have an preen gland at the base of the tail that secrets an oil to its feathers to make it water-proof.
• The bones of birds are unique because they contain cavities of air.
• Large breast muscles, which can make up 30 percent of a bird’s total weight, provide the power for flight.
• When a bird inhales, oxygenated air moves through the trachea into posterior air sacs,. Other air already
within the respiratory system is drawn out of the lungs, where gas exchange occurs, and into the anterior
air sacs. When a bird exhales, the deoxygenated air in the anterior air sacs is expelled from the respiratory
system and oxygenated air from the posterior air sacs is sent to the lungs. The net result is that only
oxygenated air is moved through the lungs, and it is moved in a single direction relative to blood flow.
• Many birds have a storage chamber, called the crop, at the base of their esophagus. The crop stores food
that the bird is ingesting. From the crop, food moves to the stomach. The posterior end of the stomach is
a thick, muscular sac called the gizzard (GIH zurd). The gizzard often contains small stones that, together
with the muscular action of the gizzard, crush food the birds have swallowed.
• Birds don’t have a bladder so their weight doesn’t increase. They secrete their waste(Uric acid) in the
image of a soft white substance through the cloaca.
• The cerebellum is large because birds need to coordinate movement and balance during flight.
• Birds generally have excellent vision. A pigeon has eyes on the sides of its head. This enables the bird to
see nearly 360 degrees of the space nearby, with each eye focusing on different areas.
• Birds also have a good sense of hearing. Owls can hear the faintest sound of a scurrying mouse in the
night. Even as the mouse runs for cover, the owl can catch it by following just the sound.
• All birds have internal fertilization. Generally, after fertilization, the amniotic egg develops and is encased
within a hard shell while still within the body of the female. After the shell forms, the egg or eggs are
released through the cloaca to a nest, where the male or female or both birds incubate the egg or eggs and
feed the young after hatching. To incubate means to maintain favor-able conditions for hatching. Birds sit
on their eggs to incubate them.
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MAMMALS:-
• Two characteristics that distinguish members of class Mammalia from other vertebrate animals are
mammary glands and hair.
• Functions of the hair are:- camouflage, insulation, waterproofing, sensory devices, signaling, and defense.
+ The hair contains keratin.
• They have a constant temperature.
• Mammals are the only animals that have a diaphragm. A diaphragm is a sheet of muscle located beneath
the lungs that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity where other organs are located.
• small mammals (ex:- mouses) have a high metabolic rate compared to their sizes.
• mammals who cannot sweat put out their tongues as a way of losing water like dogs for instance.
• Mammals are divided into different groups:-
1-onotremes:- are mammals that reproduce by laying eggs.
2-arsupials Pouched: mammals that have a very short gestation period (pregnancy) are marsupials.
3- lacental mammals: Most mammals living today, including humans, are placental mammals.
Placental mammals have a placenta, the organ that provides food and oxygen to and removes waste from
developing young.
• The shortest pregnancy is of the opossum’s (12 days) and longest is the African elephant (660-760 days)
• mammals have a large variety of glands.
• The cerebellum is responsible for balance and coordinating movement.
• Mammals have highly developed brains, especially the cerebrum. The cerebral cortex is the highly folded
outer layer of the cerebrum. The foldings allow the brain to have a larger surface area for nerve
connections while allowing it to still fit inside the skull. The cerebral cortex is responsible for
coordinating conscious activities, memory, and the ability to learn.
• The kidneys of mammals excrete metabolic wastes and maintain the homeostatic balance of body fluids.
Kidneys filter urea, an end product of cellular metabolism, from the blood.
• Mammologists divide mammals into four trophic categories based on what they eat.
1. Insectivores, such as moles and shrews, eat insects and other small invertebrates.
2. Herbivores, such as rabbits and deer, feed on
3. Carnivores, such as foxes and lions, mostly feed on
4. Omnivores, such as raccoons and most primates, feed on both plants and animals.
• Cellulose, a component of the cell walls of plants, can be a source of nutrition and energy. However, the
enzymes in the digestive system of mammals cannot digest cellulose. Instead, some herbivores have
bacteria in the cecum, a pouch where the small intestine meets the large intestine. Other herbivores have
bacteria in their stomachs that break down the cellulose and release nutrients the animals can use. These
mammals, called ruminants, have large, four-chambered stomachs.
• the cheetah is the fastest mammal (110 Km).
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Translated By: Ziyad Al Ghoniem KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
• Blastula: - A fluid-filled ball of cells.

• Gastrula: - A two-cell-layer sac with an opening at one end formed from the Blastula.
• Endoderm: - that the inner layer of cells in the gastrula. The endoderm cells develop
into the digestive organs and the lining of the digestive tract.
• Ectoderm: - The outer layer of cells in the gastrula. The ectoderm cells in the gastrula
continue to grow and become the nervous tissue and skin.
Sponges and Cnidarians: -
Sponges:-
• Sponge is an animal that gets food, digest it, and it can grow and reproduce.
• The support structures of sponges, spicules are small, needlelike structures made of
calcium carbonate, silica, or a tough fibrous protein called spongin.
• Sponges can reproduce asexually by fragmentation, through budding, or by
producing gemmules. Most sponges reproduce sexually. Some sponges have separate
sexes, but most sponges are hermaphrodites.
• Within the jellylike material that lies between the two cell layers of a sponge are
amoeba-like cells—cells
• Sponge gets its food by filtering small particles from water.
• Sponge is one of the filter feeder animals.
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Cnidarians:-
• Cnidarian tentacles are armed with stinging cells called cnidocytes. Cnidocytes
contain nematocysts that shoot to paralyze its prey.
• A cnidarian’s mouth leads directly into its gastrovascular cavity. Because the
digestive
tract has only one opening, wastes are expelled through the mouth.
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Translated By: Ziyadh Al Ghoniem KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
Flatworms :-
• Flatworms are thin, flat, acoelomate animals that can be free-living or parasitic.
• Parasitic flatworms have modified feeding structures called hooks and suckers, which
enable them to stay attached to their hosts.
• Some parasitic flatworms have a reduced digestive system and feed on blood and
other
body tissues. Other parasitic flatworms lack a digestive system.
• On side branches of the excretory tubes are bulblike flame cells lined with cilia sweep
water and excretory substances into tubules.
• Flatworms are hermaphrodites because they produce both eggs and sperm. During
sexual reproduction, two different flatworms exchange sperm, and the eggs are
fertilized internally.
• The three types of flat worms :-
• Turbellarians (e.g. planarians)
• Trematodes (e.g. Flukes)
• Cestodes (e.g. tapeworms)
Planarians
Tapeworm Fluke
Roundworms (nematodes) :-
• Roundworms have muscles that run the length of their bodies. These muscles cause
the worms’ bodies to move in a thrashing manner as one muscle contracts and
another relaxes.
• Roundworms reproduce sexually. The females produce eggs, and the males, which
often are smaller than the females, produce sperm. Fertilization is internal.
• Examples of Roundworms:-
• Trichinella worms :- A disease called trichinosis can be contracted by eating raw or
undercooked pork and pork products.
• Hookworms :- Hookworm infections are common in warm climates when people go
barefoot on contaminated soil.
• Ascarid worms:- Infection can result when unwashed vegetables from contaminated
soil are eaten or when hands contaminated with infected soil are put in the mouth.
• Pinworms :- This infection can spread quickly among children who put toys and
other
objects in their mouths.
• Filarial worms :- A mosquito is the intermediate host of filarial worms.
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Translated By: Ziyadh Al Ghoniem KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
Mollusks :-
• The mantle is a membrane that surrounds the internal organs of the mollusk. In
mollusks with shells, the mantle secretes calcium carbonate to form the shell.
• Many mollusks use a rasping structure called a radula to scrape food into their
mouths. Located in a mollusk’s mouth, a radula is a tonguelike organ with rows of
teeth.
• Most mollusks have respiratory structures called gills.
• Most mollusks have an open circulatory system, in which the blood is pumped out of
vessels into open spaces surrounding the body organs.
• Some mollusks, such as squids, move nutrients and oxygen through a closed
circulatory system.
• Most mollusks get rid of metabolic wastes from cellular processes through structures
called nephridia.
• Mollusks have nervous systems that coordinate their movements and behavior.
• A gastropod moves by sending waves of contractions along its muscular foot.
• Mollusks reproduce sexually, and fertilization is external.
• Examples of Mollusks :-
• Gastropods :- Most species of gastropods have a single shell, like the abalone.
• Bivalves :- One word—slow—best describes most behavior of the class Bivalvia, which
are the two-shelled mollusks.
• Cephalopods :- Quick is a word that best describes some behaviors of the class
Cephalopoda. Cephalopods are the head-footed mollusks, which includes squids,
octopuses, chambered nautiluses, and the cuttlefish.
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Segmented Worms :-
• There are more than 11,000 known species of annelids, most of which live in the
oceans. Most of the remaining species are earthworms.
• Segments can be specialized, and groups of segments might be adapted to a particular
function. For example, some segments might be adapted to sensing, while others are
adapted to reproduction.
• Earthworms have a crop to store food in it then food is passed to the gizzard where it
will be ground.
• Unlike most mollusks, most annelids have a closed circulatory system. In addition,
earthworms have 5 hearts that pump blood throughout their circulatory system.
• Earthworms take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide through their moist skin.
• Cellular waste products are collected in the nephridia and are transported in tubes
through the coelom and out of the body.
• When an earthworm moves, it contracts circular muscles surrounding each segment.
This squeezes the segment and causes the fluid in the coelom to press outward, like
paste in a tube of toothpaste being squeezed.
• Annelids can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most annelids have separate
sexes, but some, such as earthworms and leeches, are hermaphrodites. Some annelids
reproduce asexually by fragmentation. If a worm breaks apart, the missing parts can
be regenerated.
• Examples of Annelids :-
• Earthworms and their relatives :- which belongs to class Oligochaeta. The
oligochaetes includes tubifex worms and lumbriculid worms.
• Marine annelids :- Polychaetes, which belong to class Polychaeta, mainly are marine
animals.
• Leeches :- Leeches in class Hirudinea are external parasites with flattened bodies and
usually have no setae.
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• Mammal Classification :-
• Mammals are classified under three domains depending on their reproduction
method. They are as follows:
• Monotremes :- Monotremes are mammals that reproduce by laying eggs. The only
other living monotremes besides the duck-billed platypus are echidnas. Besides
laying
eggs, other unique features of these mammals include reptilian bone structure in the
shoulder area, lower body temperature than most mammals, and a unique mix of
chromosomes with characteristics similar to both mammals and reptiles.
• Marsupials :- Immediately following birth, the offspring crawl into a pouch made of
skin and hair on the outside of the mother’s body. Within the pouch, the offspring
continue development while being nourished by milk from the mother’s mammary
glands. The only North American marsupial is the opossum. Other marsupials
include the koala, wallaby, kangaroo, and cuscus.
• Placental mammals :- Placental mammals give birth to young that do not need
further development within a pouch. Placental mammals are represented by 18
orders.
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35
Translated By: Basheer Al Sanouri KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
The Skeletal System
• The skeleton provides a structural framework for the body and protects internal organs such as the heart,
lungs, and brain.
• There are 206 bones in the human body
• The human skeleton consists of two divisions—the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
• The axial skeleton includes the skull, the vertebral column, the ribs, and the sternum.
• The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the shoulders, arms, hands, hips, legs, and feet.
• The outer layers of all bones are composed of compact bone. Compact bone is dense and strong.
• Running through the compact bones are tubelike structures called Osteons, or Haversian systems.
• They are found in what are called Long Bones, these include the Arm and leg bones.
• Spongy bone is found in the center of Short bones(wrist bones) or Flat bones(they make up the skull)
and at the end of long bones. It is surrounded by compact bone and does not contain Haversian systems.
• It is less dense and has many cavities that contain bone marrow.
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• There are two types of bone marrow—red and yellow.
• Red and white blood cells and platelets are produced in red bone marrow. Red bone marrow is found in
the humerus bone of the arm, the femur bone of the leg, the sternum and ribs, the vertebrae, and the
pelvis.
• Yellow bone marrow, found in many other bones, consists of stored fat.
• Osteoblasts: are bone-forming cells and they do it through a process known as ossification, they are the
cells responsible for the growth and repair of bones.
• Osteoclasts: cells that break down bone cells, which are then replaced by new bone tissue.
• One growth involves several factors, including nutrition and physical exercise. For example, a person
with insufficient calcium can develop a condition known as osteoporosis that results in weak, fragile
bones that break easily.
• Upon injury, endorphins, chemicals produced in the brain and sometimes called “the body’s natural
painkillers,” flood the area of the injury to reduce the amount of pain temporarily.
• Joints occur where two or more bones meet(Except for the joints in the skull). There are five kinds of
joints:
o ball-and-socket,
o pivot
o hinge
o gliding
o sutures
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• The bones of joints are held together by ligaments.
• Ligaments: are tough bands of connective tissue that attach one bone to another.
• Bone repair requires several steps. First, a mass of clotted blood forms in the space between the broken
bones. Then connective tissue fills the space of the broken bone. Eventually, osteoblasts produce new
bone tissue.
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The Muscular System
• A muscle consists of groups of fibers or muscle cells that are bound together.
• there are three types of muscle: Smooth muscle, Cardiac muscle, and Skeletal muscle.
• Smooth muscle: is called Involuntary muscle because it cannot be controlled consciously.
• Many hollow internal organs such as the stomach, intestines, bladder, and uterus are lined with smooth
muscle.
• Cardiac muscle: muscle cells that are arranged in a network, or web, that allows the heart muscle to
contract efficiently and rhythmically.
• They are the involuntary muscle present only in the heart.
• Skeletal muscle: muscles attached to bones by tendons and when tightened, or contracted, cause
movement.
• Skeletal muscles are Voluntary muscles that are consciously controlled to move bones.
• Most skeletal muscles are arranged in opposing, or antagonistic pairs.
• Muscle fibers consist of many smaller units called myofibrils. Myofibrils consist of even smaller units,
myosin and actin, which are protein filaments.
• Myofibrils are arranged in sections called sarcomeres.
• Sarcomere: is the functional unit of a muscle and the part of the muscle that contracts.
• When the nerve impulse reaches the muscle, calcium is released into the myofibrils causing the myosin
and actin to attach to each other. The actin filaments are pulled toward the center of the sarcomere,
resulting in muscle contraction.
• ATP is necessary for this step of muscle contraction. As the muscle relaxes, the filaments return into their
original positions.
• All muscle cells metabolize Aerobically and Anaerobically.
• Cellular respiration process provides ATP for energy for the contraction and relaxation of muscles.
However after a period of intense exercise, muscles might not get enough oxygen to sustain cellular
respiration. The Muscles, like those of the athlete in, then must rely on the anaerobic process of lactic acid
fermentation for energy. The Athlete then get what is known as a Cramp.
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The Nervous System

• Neurons conduct electrical impulses that allow cells, tissues, and organs to detect and respond to stimuli.
• Neurons: are specialized cells that help you gather information about your environment, interpret the
information, and react to it.
• a neuron consists of three main regions: the dendrites, a cell body, and an axon.
• Dendrites: receive signals called impulses from other neurons and conduct the impulses to the cell body.
• An Axon: carries the nerve impulse from the cell body to other neurons
• The nucleus of the neuron and many of the cell organelles are found in the Cell body.
• There are three kinds of neurons: sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.
• Sensory neurons: send impulses from receptors in the skin and sense organs to the brain and spinal cord.
• Sensory neurons signal the Interneurons, which are found in the spinal cord and brain. They carry the
impulse to motor neurons.
• The Motor neurons: carries impulses away from the brain and spinal cord to a gland or muscle.
• A Reflex arc: is a nerve pathway that consists of a sensory neuron, an interneuron, and a motor neuron.
• Nerve impulse: is an electrical charge travel- ing the length of a neuron. An impulse results from a
stimulus, such as a touch or perhaps a loud bang, which causes a person to jump.
• Both Electricity and Chemistry are involved as your Brain or Spinal chord receives a signal from the
nervous system
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• Another name for a nerve impulse is an Action potential.
• Threshold: is the minimum stimulus to cause an action potential to be produced.
• Action potentials are described as being “all or nothing,” meaning that a nerve impulse is either strong
enough to travel along the neuron or it is not strong enough. ( This means that having a stronger
stimulus does not generate a stronger action potential.)
• When a neuron is at rest, there are more sodium ions (Na+) outside the cell than inside the cell. The
reverse is true for potassium ions (K+)—there are more potassium ions inside the cell than outside the
cell.
• Proteins found in the plasma membrane work to counteract the diffusion of the sodium ions and
potassium ions. These proteins, called the sodium potassium pump, actively transport sodium ions out
of the cell and potassium ions into the cell.
• For every two potassium ions pumped into a neuron, three sodium ions are pumped out. This maintains
an unequal distribution of positively charged ions, resulting in a positive charge outside the neuron and a
negatively charged cytoplasm inside the neuron.
• Many axons have a covering of a lipid called myelin, which forms an insulating layer, called a sheath,
around the axon. ( Known as Myelin Sheath)
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• The myelin sheath has many gaps, called nodes, along the length of the axon.
• In the human body, there are neurons that have myelin, and neurons that do not have myelin.
• Neurons with myelin carry impulses that are associated with sharp pain.
• Neurons that lack myelin carry impulses associated with dull, throbbing pain. The action potentials in
these neurons travel much more slowly than they do in neurons with myelin.
• Synapse: a small gap exists between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron.
• Neurotransmitter: is a chemical that diffuses across a synapse and binds to receptors on the dendrite of a
neighboring neuron.
Organization of the Nervous System
• The central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system are the two major divisions of the
nervous system.
• The Central nervous system (CNS): is made up of the interneurons of the brain and the spinal cord.
• The Brain: Over 100 billion neurons are found in the brain. Because the brain maintains homeostasis
and is involved with almost all of the body’s activities, it is sometimes called the control center of the
body.
• The Cerebrum: is the largest part of the brain and is divided into two halves called hemispheres. The two
hemispheres are not independent of each other; they are connected by a bundle of nerves.
• It carries out thought processes involved with learning, memory, language, speech, voluntary body
movements, and sensory perception.
• It controls balance, posture, and coordination, and is located at the back of the brain.
• It is responsible for the smooth and coordinated movement of skeletal muscles and is also involved with
motor skills, such as playing the piano or riding a bike.
• The brain stem connects the brain to the spinal cord and is made up of two regions called the medulla
oblongata and the pons.
• Medulla oblongata: relays signals between the brain and the spinal cord. It also helps control breathing
rate, heart rate, and blood pressure.
• Pons: relays signals between the cerebrum and the cerebellum. The pons also helps control the rate of
breathing.
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• Hypothalamus: regulates body temperature, thirst, appetite, and water balance. It also partially regulates
blood pressure, sleep, aggression, fear, and sexual behavior.
• It is about the size of a fingernail and performs more functions than any other brain region of
comparable size.
• The spinal cord is a nerve column that extends from the brain to the lower back.
• It is protected by the vertebrae. Spinal nerves extend from the spinal cord to parts of the body and
connect them to the central nervous system.
• Reflexes are processed in the spinal cord.
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS): consists of the sensory neurons and motor neurons that carry
information to and from the CNS.
• Many nerves contain both sensory and motor neurons. For example, there are 12 cranial nerves that lead
to and from the brain and 31 spinal nerves that lead to and from the spinal cord.
• This system includes all neurons that are not part of the central nervous system, including sensory
neurons and motor neurons.
• Neurons in the peripheral nervous system can be classified further as being either part of the somatic
nervous system or part of the autonomic nervous system.
• Nerves in the somatic nervous system relay information from external sensory receptors to the central
nervous system.
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• Somatic motor nerves relay: information from the central nervous system to skeletal muscles. Usually,
this is voluntary.
• The autonomic nervous system: carries impulses from the central nervous system to the heart and other
internal organs.
• It is responsible for the body’s involuntary responses
• It is important in two different kinds of situations:

o When you have a night- mare or find yourself in a scary situation, your body responds with what is
known as a fight-or-flight response.
o When everything is calm, your body rests and digests.
• There are two branches of the autonomic nervous system, and they act together:
o The sympathetic nervous system is most active in times of emergency or stress, when the heart rate
and breathing rate increase.
o The parasympathetic nervous system is most active when the body is relaxed. It counterbalances the
effects of the sympathetic system and restores the body to a resting state after a stressful experience.
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Translated By: Abdullah Al Dogaither KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
The Autonomic Nervous System
• Drug: is a substance, natural or artificial, that alters the function of the body.
• Drugs affect a person’s body in many different ways. Drugs that affect the nervous system work in one or
more of the following ways:
o A drug can cause an increase in the amount of a neurotransmitter that is released into a synapse.
o A drug can block a receptor site on a dendrite, preventing a neurotransmitter from binding.
o A drug can prevent a neurotransmitter from leaving a synapse.
o A drug can imitate a neurotransmitter.
• Stimulants: Drugs that increase alertness and physical activity.
• Some examples of stimulants:
1- Nicotine: Nicotine in cigarette and cigar smoke increases the amount of dopamine released into a
synapse.
2- Caffeine: Caffeine works by binding to adenosine receptors on neurons in the brain. Adenosine slows
down neural activity, causing drowsiness. When caffeine binds to these receptors, it has the opposite
effect. It makes users feel awake and alert. Caffeine also temporarily raises epinephrine (adrenaline) levels
in the body, giving a quick burst of energy that soon wears off.
• Depressants: Drugs that tend to slow down the central nervous system.
• These drugs can lower blood pressure, interrupt breathing, and slow the heart rate.
• Inhalants: are chemical fumes that have an influence on the nervous system.
• Independence take place when a person is in a need for more and more drugs to feel satisfied, this will let
him increase the amount of the dose and this will lead later on to addiction.
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• Addiction: The psychological and physiological dependence on a drug.
• Dopamine: is a neurotransmitter found in the brain that is involved with the control of body movements
and other functions. Dopamine also is strongly involved with feelings of pleasure or reward. Dopamine
normally is removed from a synapse by being re absorbed by the neuron that released it. However, some
drugs prevent dopamine from being reabsorbed.
Circulatory System
• Circulatory System: is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as
amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from cells in the
body to nourish it and help to fight diseases, stabilize body temperature and pH, and to maintain
homeostasis.
• The circulatory system consists of blood vessels, the heart, blood, and the lymphatic system.
• Blood Vessels: Blood Vessels has three parts (Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries)
• Arteries: Vessels that carries the oxygenated blood away from the heart
o They have elastic, solid, thick walls
o The walls of the artery consists of three parts:

o Outer layer (connective tissues)
o Middle layer (smooth muscles)
o Inner layer (Endothelium)
o They can tolerate the high pressure of the blood that is pumped by the heart
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• Veins: Vessels that carries deoxygenated blood to the heart
o The endothelial walls of veins are much thinner than the walls of arteries.
o The pressure of the blood decreases when the blood flows through capillaries before it enters the veins.
o Larger veins in the body also have flaps of tissue called valves which prevent blood from flowing
backward
• Capillaries: are microscopic blood vessels where the exchange of important substances and wastes
occurs. (Get rid of wastes)
• Capillary walls are only one cell thick, this permits the easy exchange of materials between the blood and
body cells through the process of diffusion.
• Capillaries are so small that red blood cells move single-file through these vessels.
• Heart: is a muscular organ that is about as large as your fist which tends a little to the left of the center of
the chest.
• The heart is surrounded with a membrane called Pericarditis and this membrane performs two pumping
functions at the same time. It pumps oxygenated blood to the body, and it pumps deoxygenated blood to
the lungs.
• The heart is divided into four compartments called chambers. The two chambers in the top half of the
heart, the right atrium and the left atrium receive blood that is returning to the heart. Below the atria are
the right and left ventricles, which pump blood away from the heart.
• Heart valve: normally allows blood to flow in only one direction through the heart and t prevents the
backflow of the blood.
• The thickness of the ventricle wall is more than the atrium walls because it pumps the blood to a great
extent.
• Pulse: The heart works in a regular rhythm. A group of cells located in the right atrium, called the
pacemaker or sinoatrial (SA) node, send out signals that tell the heart muscle to contract. The SA node
receives internal stimuli about the body’s oxygen needs, and then it responds by adjusting the heart rate.
The signal initiated by the SA node causes both atria to contract. Then the signal travels to another area in
the heart called the atrioventricular (AV) node. The signal moves through fibers, causing both ventricles
to contract. This two-step contraction makes up one complete heartbeat.
• The heart beats almost 70 times/second
• The ideal normal blood-pressure reading for a healthy adult is 120/ 80
• 120 systolic pressure (contraction of the heart) 80 diastolic pressure (relaxation of the heart).
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• Pumping of the blood: The blood travels from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. Then, the
blood is pumped in another loop from the heart through the body and back. The right side of the heart
pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs (dark red), and the left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood
to the rest of the body (light red).
• Blood: blood is made up of four things (plasma, white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.
• Plasma: The clear, yellowish fluid portion of blood is the plasma.
o More than 50 percent of blood is plasma.
o Ninety percent of plasma is water, and nearly 10 percent is dissolved materials.
o There are three groups of plasma proteins that give plasma its yellow color.
1- One group helps to regulate the amount of water in blood.
2- The second group, produced by white blood cells, helps fight disease.
3- The third group helps to form blood clots.
• Red blood cells: carry oxygen to all of the body’s cells.

o Red blood cells resemble discs with pinched-in centers.
o Red blood cells have no nuclei and live for only about 120 days.
o Red blood cells mostly consist of an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin
chemically binds with oxygen molecules and carries oxygen to the body’s cells.
• White blood cells: The body’s disease fighters.
o produced in the red bone marrow
o White blood cells are bigger than red blood cells.
o There are fewer white blood cells—only about one white blood cell for every 500 to 1000 red blood
cells.
o White blood cells have nuclei.
o Most white blood cells live for months or years.
• Platelets: are cell fragments that are important in forming blood clots.
• When a blood vessel is cut, platelets collect and stick to the vessel at the site of the wound. The platelets
then release chemicals that produce a protein called fibrin. Fibrin weaves a network of fibers across the
cut that traps blood platelets and red blood cells. As more and more platelets and blood cells are trapped,
a blood clot forms.
• Blood groups: is a classification of blood based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic
substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs).
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• Another marker found on the surface of red blood cells is called the Rh factor. The blood divided into
RH+ and RH-.
o The Rh factor can cause complications during some pregnancies.
o • A person with A positive blood has A markers and Rh markers on their blood cells. The Rh
marker can cause a problem when an Rh-negative person, someone without the Rh factor,
receives a transfusion of Rh-positive blood that has the Rh marker. This can result in clumping of
red blood cells, because Rh-negative blood contains Rh antibodies against Rh-positive cells. (Rh+
does have the D antigen) (Rh− does not have the D antigen)
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The Respiratory System

• R.S: The respiratory system sustains cellular respiration by supplying oxygen to body cells and removing
carbon dioxide waste from cells. The respiratory system can be divided into two processes: breathing and
respiration. First, air must enter the body through breathing. Breathing is the mechanical movement of
air into and out of your lungs. Second, gases are exchanged in the body. External respiration is the
exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood, which occurs in the lungs. Internal respiration
is the exchange of gases between the blood and the body’s cells.
• Your body’s cells require oxygen. Recall that oxygen and glucose are used by cells to produce energy-rich
ATP molecules needed to maintain cellular metabolism. This process is called cellular respiration. In
addition to releasing energy, cellular respiration releases carbon dioxide and water.
• The Respiratory System consists of (Nose, Pharynx, Epiglottis, Larynx, Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles,
Alveoli).
o Nose: Hairs in the nose filter out dust and other large particles in the air. Hair like structures called
cilia. Cilia trap foreign particles from the air and sweep them toward the throat, so that they do not
enter the lungs. Mucous membranes beneath the cilia warm and moisten the air while trapping
foreign materials.
o Epiglottis: epiglottis, which covers the opening to the larynx, prevents food particles from entering
the respiratory tubes.
o Trachea: The epiglottis allows air to pass from the larynx to a long tube in the chest cavity called the
trachea, or windpipe. The trachea branches into two large tubes, called bronchi (BRAHN ki)
(singular, bronchus), which lead to the lungs.
• Pulmonary membrane is a thin, transparent membrane that surrounds the lungs to protect it.
• Each alveolus has a thin wall—only one cell thick—and is surrounded by very thin capillaries.
• Gas exchange in the lungs Air travels to individual alveoli, where oxygen diffuses across the moist, thin
walls into capillaries and then into red blood cells. The oxygen is then transported to be released to tissue
cells in the body during internal respiration. Meanwhile, carbon dioxide in the blood crosses capillary
walls and diffuses into the alveoli to be returned to the atmosphere during external respiration. Carbon
dioxide in the blood is found as carbonic acid in the red blood cells, dissolved in plasma, and bound to
hemoglobin in plasma.
• The diaphragm and the muscles of the rib cage play an important role in both inhalation and exhalation
• The brain directs the rate of breathing by responding to internal stimuli that indicate how much oxygen
the body needs. When the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood is high, the breathing rate
increases because cells need more oxygen.
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Translated By: Ahmad Al Tayeb KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
Execratory system:
• The kidneys help to maintain the blood PH and homeostasis by getting rid of wastes and extra water.
• The execratory system collects the waste such as carbon dioxide that is produced by metabolism.
• The execratory system is made of the lungs, the skin and the kidneys
• The lungs excrete CO2 and water vapor, the skin gets rid of the minerals and excess water, and the
kidneys are the main execratory organs in the body.
The kidneys:
• Looks like beans, and it filters water, minerals and wastes from the blood.
• Its made of two layers, the cortex (outer) and the medulla (inner)
• The area in the middle of the kidney is called the pelvis and it contains all operating systems.
• Each kidney contains one million filtering units called nephrons
• The blood enters the nephrons through a long tube surrounded by a ball of called capillaries called the
glomerulus. The glomerulus is surrounded by a structure called bowman’s capsule
• The renal artery transports blood, nutrients and wastes to the kidney. It then branches into smaller and
smaller capillaries until it reaches the glomerulus.
• The walls of the capillaries are so thin and under high pressure, as a result, the nitrogenous substances
dissolved in water, called urea, will pass to Bowman’s capsule and bigger substances such as proteins and
blood cells will remain in the blood.
• The convolved tube leads to the loop of Henle and later to the collecting tube where the useful materials
such as glucose are retained to the blood stream.
• The urine moves from the collecting tube to the ureters and then to the bladder and finally to the urethra.
• In an adult person, each kidney filters 180L of blood daily, yet only produces 1.5L of urine.
• Kidneys use 20-25% of the Oxygen in the body.
Diseases:
• Nephritis: inflammation of the glomeruli that could lead to a kidney failure
• Kidneys stones: Hard deposits in the kidney. They might block urine that could lead to an infection.
• Urinary tract blockage: malformations present at birth that blocks urine flow. It could lead to permanent
damage of the kidney.
• Polycystic kidney disease: A genetic mutation that causes the growth of many fluids in the kidney. It
could also lead to permanent failure.
• Kidney cancer: Uncontrolled growth of cells, this can lead to blood in the urine or mass kidney, it can
also affect other organs and cause death.
Treatments
• Dialysis: The blood is filtered by an artificial kidney
• Kidneys transplant: a kidney is transferred from a person to another
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Digestive System
• Digestive system: digests food into smaller pieces so that the body could use it.
• Functions: breaking food, digestion, absorption and getting rid of wastes.
• Mouth: it breaks food mechanically by breaking it into smaller pieces, and it breaks food chemically by
the enzyme amylase that breaks carbs and sugars.
• Esophagus: a muscular tube that connects the throat to the stomach. It contracts and relaxes to move
food down to the stomach
• Stomach: a muscular sac made of three layers
• Sphincter foadia: a muscle between the esophagus and the stomach
• Sphincter pylori: a stomach at the end of the stomach
• Chime: is the digested food, a thick fluid that moves down to the small intestine.
• The stomach contains HCL with a PH of 2. As well, it contains the enzyme pepsin that helps digest
proteins.
• The stomachs wall is aligned with mucus that protects the wall from the acid
• Some substances such as alcohol and aspirin are absorbed by the stomach cells
• An empty stomach has a volume of 50 ML and could expand to 2-4L
Small intestines
• 7m tall
• 2.5cm diameter
• The longest part of the DS
• Contains smooth muscles
• Digest food by a contractions and relaxations of muscles
The Liver:
• Produce bile that dissolves 1L of the fats in the body daily
• Some gallstones might form in the gallbladder
• After digestion, most of the foods are absorbed through villi
Large intestines
• 1.5m length
• Contains the colon, the rectum and the appendix that doesn’t has a function and could be removed by a
surgery
• Some bacteria live in the colon and help producing Vitamin B and K
• The colon absorbs water from chime and turns it to a solid waste that is later then eliminated through the
rectum
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Nutrition
• Food provides us with the basic units and energy to keep our body mass
• A calorie is used to measure the amount of energy in the food
• Calorie: the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of water by one Celsius degree
• Carbohydrates: found in corn, macaroni, potato and rice
• Glucose, sucrose and fructose are simple carbs found in sweets and fruits
• Complex carbs such as starch break down into simpler starches in the digestive system and produces
energy
• Excess glucose is stored in the liver and in the muscles in the form of glycogen
• Cellulose (fibers) is found in plants and is necessary to the movement of food in the small intestine
• Lipids: the biggest source of energy in the body
• It provides protection to the body organs
• It helps in storing and transporting vitamins
• Saturated fats: are usually solid in room temp such as butter
• Unsaturated fats: are usually liquid in room temperature such as olive oil.
• Saturated fats raise the cholesterol level in blood
• Fats are digested in the small intestine and produce fatty acids and glycerol
• Proteins: the main build units in all cells
• Proteins are made of amino acids
• Enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters and membrane receptors are all made of proteins
• The body needs 20 amino acids to make proteins and only 12 of them are made in the body
• The other 8 amino acids are found in some foods like fish, meat, chicken, egg and diary products
• Beans and rice supply the body with some amino acids
• Food pyramid: the old food pyramid used since 1992 with a new food pyramid called (the personal food
pyramid)
• The personal food pyramid states that the person needs more vegetables and seeds more than meats and
lipids
• Vitamins and minerals:
• Vitamins: organic compounds
• The body needs vitamins in small portions to complete its metabolic reactions
• Eating too much vitamins might harm the body
• Minerals: organic compounds not used by the body, but its important for the metabolic reactions in the
body
• Fe: important to build up hemoglobin
• Ca: important to build up bones and teeth
• Ca: important to build up muscles and neurons
• I: important for the hormones, especially the thyroid gland, to complete their functions
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Translated By: Saad Al Bawardi KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
The Endocrine System
• The endocrine system is composed of glands and functions as a communication system.

• Endocrine glands produce hormones, which are released into the bloodstream and distributed to body
cells.
• A hormone : is a substance that acts on certain target cells and tissues to produce a specific response.
• Hormones are classified based on their structure and mechanism of action into two groups
• Steroid hormones :
o Estrogen and testosterone are two examples of steroid hormones. Both of these hormones affect
the human reproductive system.
o All steroid hormones work by causing the target cells to initiate protein synthesis.
o Steroid hormones are soluble in lipids and therefore can diffuse through the plasma membrane of
a target cell.
o Once inside a target cell, they bind to a receptor in the cell. The hormone and the receptor that
are bound together bind to DNA in the nucleus, which activates specific genes to build proteins.
• 2- Amino acid hormones (nonsteroid)

o Insulin and growth hormones are two examples of nonsteroid, or amino acid, hormones.
o They cannot diffuse through the plasma membrane, so they bind to receptors found on the
plasma membrane of a target cell. Once the hormone binds to the receptor, the receptor activates
an enzyme found on the inside of the membrane. This usually initiates a biochemical pathway,
eventually causing the cell to produce the desired response.
• Negative Feedback: it returns a system to a set point once it deviates sufficiently from that set point. As a
consequence, the system varies within a particular range.
• The endocrine system includes all the glands that secrete hormones, including :
1- Pituitary gland: This gland is sometimes called the “master gland” because it regulates so many body
functions.
o The pituitary gland is situated at the base of the brain, despite its small size, it is the most
important endocrine gland.
o A few pituitary hormones act on tissues rather than on specific organs.
o Secretes Human growth hormone (hGH) regulates the body’s physical growth by
stimulating cell division in muscle and bone tissue. This hormone is especially active
during childhood and adolescence.
o Also regulates other endocrine glands, such as the thyroid gland, the adrenal glands, the
testes, and the ovaries.
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2- Thyroid gland: is found in the neck, below the thyroid cartilage (or "Adam's apple").
o Consists of two connected lobes.
o Secretes thyroxine which causes cells of the body to have a higher rate of metabolism.
o Secretes Calcitonin, a hormone that is partly responsible for the regulation of calcium by lowering
blood calcium levels by signaling bones to increase calcium absorption and also signaling the
kidneys to excrete more calcium.
3-parathyroid gland: near the thyroid gland
o Four small bodies on the edges of thyroid gland
o Secretes Parathyroid hormone which increases blood calcium levels by stimulating the bones to
release calcium. The action of this hormone also causes the kidneys to reabsorb more calcium and
the intestines to absorb more calcium from food.
4-Pancreas: has a crucial role in the production of enzymes that digest carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The
pancreas also secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon.
o When blood glucose levels are high, the pancreas releases insulin. Insulin signals body cells,
especially liver and muscle cells, to accelerate the conversion of glucose to glycogen, which is
stored in the liver.
o When blood glucose levels are low, glucagon is released from the pancreas. Glucagon binds to
liver cells, signaling them to convert glycogen to glucose and release the glucose into the blood.
5- Adrenal glands: are located just above the kidneys.
o 2 parts : Cortex-outer part, and medulla-inner part.
o Cortex secretes two steroidal hormones : Aldosterone and Cortisol
o Aldosterone primarily affects the kidneys and is important for reabsorbing sodium.
o Cortisol raises blood glucose levels and also reduces inflammation.
o medulla secretes two hormones epinephrine, also called adrenaline, and norepinephrine.
Together, these hormones increase heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, and blood sugar
levels, all of which are important in increasing the activity of body cells.
o This response is called “fight or flight response.”
Link to the Nervous System

• The nervous and endocrine systems both are involved in regulating the activities of the body and
maintaining homeostasis.
• The hypothalamus produces two hormones, oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH). These
hormones are transported through axons and stored in axon endings located in the pituitary gland.
• The antidiuretic hormone (ADH) functions in homeostasis by regulating water balance. ADH affects
portions of the kidneys called the collecting tubules. which causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water and
decrease the amount of water in the urine, increasing the water level in the blood, if the body felt that it is
losing water.
• If there is too much water in a person’s blood, the hypothalamus decreases the release of ADH, and the
urine tends to be more dilute.
• ADH production is stimulated by nausea and vomiting, both of which cause dehydration. Blood loss of
15 or 20 percent by hemorrhage results in the release of ADH.
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Reproductive Systems
• Hormones regulate human reproductive systems, including the production of gametes.
• Reproduction is necessary to ensure continuation of a species.
• The result of the human reproductive process is the union of an egg cell and a sperm cell, development of
the fetus, and the birth of an infant.
1- Male Reproductive System:

• The male reproductive glands are called the testes and are located outside of the body cavity in a pouch
called the scrotum. A temperature lower than 37°C—the average body temperature—is required for the
development of sperm.
• The male reproductive cells, called sperm cells, are developed in the testes in the seminiferous tubules.
These tubules produce 100–200 million sperm each day.
• Sperm travel to the epididymis, a structure located on top of each testis where sperm mature and are
stored.
• When the sperm are released from the body, they travel through the vas deferens ,a duct leading away
from the testis. There are two vas deferens, one leading away from each testis. The two vas deferens join
together and enter the urethra, the tube that carries both semen and urine outside of the body through
the penis.
• Sperm require a nourishing fluid to survive long enough to fertilize an egg. Semen refers to the fluid that
contains sperm, the nourishment, and other fluids from the male reproductive glands. The seminal
vesicles contribute over half of the semen and secrete sugar into the fluid, which provides energy, other
nutrients, proteins, and enzymes for the sperm.
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• The prostate gland and bulbourethral glands contribute an alkaline solution to the fluid to neutralize
acidic conditions that sperm might encounter in the urethra and the female reproductive tract.
Male hormones:
• Testosterone: which is made in the testes, is a steroid hormone that is necessary for the production of
sperm. It also influences the development of male secondary sex characteristics that begin to appear at
puberty.
• These characteristics include hair on the face and chest, broader shoulders, increased muscle
development, and a deeper voice.
• Hypothalamus produces hormone, which acts on the anterior pituitary gland to release follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Both FSH and LH travel from the anterior
pituitary gland through the bloodstream and to the testes. In the testes, FSH promotes the production of
sperm and LH stimulates the production and secretion of testosterone.
• Levels of the male hormones are regulated by a negative feedback system
2- Female Reproductive System:

• A female’s reproductive system is specialized to produce egg cells, receive sperm, and provide an
environment that is right for fertilization of an egg and the development of an embryo.
• Inside each ovary are oocytes, which are immature eggs. Approximately once every 28 days, oocyte
development is stimulated and an egg, called an ovum, is formed. The ovum is surrounded by follicle
cells that provide protection and nourishment.
• After the egg is released from the ovary, it travels through an oviduct, a tube that connects to the uterus.
The uterus, or womb, is about the size of an average human fist and is where a baby develops before birth.
• The cervix, at the lower end of the uterus, has a narrow opening into the vagina, which leads to the
outside of the female’s body.
Female Hormones:
• Estrogen and progesterone are steroid hormones made by cells in the ovaries.
• A female’s anterior pituitary gland also produces LH and FSH, which influence estrogen and
progesterone levels in a negative feedback loop.
• Effects of LH and FSH are different in males and females.
• During puberty, an increase in estrogen levels causes a female’s breasts to develop, her hips to widen, and
her amount of fat tissue to increase.
• Menstrual cycle: is the events that take place each month in the human female to help prepare the female
body for pregnancy.
• The length of the menstrual cycle can vary from 23 to 35 days, but it typically lasts around 28 days. The
entire menstrual cycle can be divided into three phases: the flow phase, the follicular phase, and the
luteal phase.
a) Flow phase: Day one of the menstrual cycle is when menstrual flow begins. It takes 3-5 days. Menstrual
flow is the shedding of blood, tissue fluid, mucus, and epithelial cells from the endometrium—the tissue
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that lines the uterus. after it finishes, repair of the endometrial lining begins, and it becomes thicker as the
cycle continues.
b) Follicular phase:
o At the beginning of a menstrual cycle, when estrogen levels are low, the anterior pituitary begins
to increase production of LH and FSH to stimulates a few follicles to begin to mature in the ovary.
o Cells in the follicles then begin to produce estrogen and a small amount of progesterone.Inside
each follicle is an immature egg, the oocyte.
o After about a week, usually only one of the growing follicles remains. This remaining follicle
continues to grow and secrete estrogen, which keeps levels of LH and FSH low, an example of
negative feedback.
o On about day 12, the high level of estrogen causes the anterior pituitary gland to release a surge of
LH. This rapid release of a large quantity of LH causes the follicle to rupture, and ovulation
occurs.
c) Luteal phase:
o After ovulation, the cells of the follicle change, and the follicle is transformed into a
structure called the corpus luteum, which slowly degenerates as the menstrual cycle
continues, and produces high amounts of progesterone and some estrogen, which keep
levels of LH and FSH low through negative feedback. This prevents new follicles from
maturing.
o If the egg is fertilized, a new menstrual cycle does not begin. The progesterone levels
remain high and increase the blood supply to the endometrium. The endometrium
accumulates lipids and begins secreting a fluid rich in nutrients for the developing
embryo.
Sex Cell Production:

• sex cells are called gametes, and are produced in testes or ovaries.
• In the human male, sperm are produced daily from primary spermatocytes.
• A female is born with all of her eggs already beginning to develop.
• The genetic material has replicated in primary oocytes before birth, and the process of meiosis stops
before the first meiotic division is completed. Then, once each menstrual cycle during the reproductive
years, meiosis continues for a single developing oocyte. The resulting structures at the end of the first
meiotic division of the oocyte are of unequal size. The smaller of the two structures is called a polar body.
The chromosomes have segregated, but there is an unequal division of the cytoplasm. Most of the
cytoplasm from the original cell goes to the cell that eventually will become the egg, and the polar body
disintegrates.
• During the second meiotic division, a similar process takes place. During metaphase of the second
meiotic division, an egg ruptures through the ovary wall in a process called ovulation. The second meiotic
division is completed only if fertilization takes place. Then, the zygote and the second polar body are
formed. The second polar body also disintegrates.
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Translated By: Habib M Farooq KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
Embryo Development Stages: (Human Development Before Birth)
• Fertilization: Happens when the egg and sperm fuse together at the top of the oviduct (fallopian tube).
• The sperm and egg are haploid. Each of them have 23 chromosomes. After the fertilization, the zygote will
become diploid and the number of chromosomes will become 46 chromosomes.
• The sperm can survive in the female reproductive system to 48 hours. However, the unfertilized egg cannot
survive for more than 24 hours, so the fertilization can only occur in the period before the ovulation, by some
days, and after the ovulation by one day.
• Only hundreds from the 300 million sperms that where ejaculated in the vagina can reach the egg, but only
one sperm can fertilize the egg.
• The acrosome, which is located at the tip of the sperm’s head, produces digestive enzymes that weakens the
plasma membrane of the egg, so it allows for only one sperm to penetrate it.
• After the sperm penetrates the egg, the egg forms a barrier that prevents other sperms from penetrating it.
First stages of embryo development: (Early Development)

• The fertilized egg, which is called a zygote, moves through the oviduct propelled by involuntary smooth
muscle contractions and by the cilia lining the oviduct. Around 30 hours after fertilization, the zygote
undergoes its first mitosis and cell division.
• The third day, the embryo leaves the oviduct and enters the uterus. At this point, the embryo is described
as a morula, a solid ball of cells.
• By the fifth day, the morula has developed into a blastocyst, which can be described as a hollow ball of
cells. The blastocyst attaches to the endometrium (inner membrane of the uterus) around the sixth day
and is fully implanted by day 10.
• The blastocyst is not completely hollow. Inside the blastocyst is a group of cells called the inner cell mass.
The inner cell mass eventually will become the embryo. Sometimes, the inner cell mass splits, and
identical twins might form.
Extraembryonic Membranes:
• There are 4 membranes that surround the embryo ( the amnion, the chorion, the yolk sac, and the
allantois)
• The embryo is surrounded by an amniotic fluid, which protects, cushions, and insulates the embryo.
• The chorion, which, together with the allantois, contributes to the formation of the placenta. The yolk sac
in humans does not contain any yolk but serves as the first site of red blood cell formation for the embryo.
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• The placenta provides food and oxygen and also removes waste. The umbilical cord, a tube containing
blood vessels, serves as the connection between the fetus and the mother
• Hormonal regulation during pregnancy: During the first week of development, the embryo begins to
secrete a hormone, called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which keeps the corpus luteum from
degenerating. If the corpus luteum remains active, progesterone levels, and to a lesser extent estrogen
levels, remain high which prevents the formation of a new menstrual cycle.
• On average, human development takes around 266 days from fertilization to birth, or it takes 280 days
from the last menstrual cycle.
• During this time, many events take place. The zygote grows from a single cell into a baby that has trillions
of cells. These cells develop into tissues and organs with specialized functions.
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The Immune System:
• The immune system is divided to categories: non-specific and specific immunity.
Firstly: non-specific immunity:

At the time of birth, the body has a number of defenses in the immune system that fight off pathogens. These
defenses are nonspecific because they are not aimed at a specific pathogen. Nonspecific immunity is the first line
of defense. It includes: barriers, cellular defense, Interferon, Inflammatory response.
• Barriers:
1- Skin Barrier:
• The first major line of defense is the unbroken skin and its secretions, which protects the body against
invasion by microorganisms.
• The dead skin plays an important role in the body protection against microorganism.
• Many of the bacteria that live symbiotically on the skin digest skin oils to produce acids that inhibit many
pathogens.
2- Chemical Barriers:
• Saliva, tears, and nasal secretions contain the enzyme lysozyme. Lysozyme breaks down bacterial cell
walls, which kills pathogens.
• Another chemical defense is mucus, which is secreted by many inner surfaces of the body. Also, Cilia line
the airway. Their beating motion sends any bacteria caught in the mucus away from the lungs.
• A third chemical defense is the hydrochloric acid secreted in your stomach. In addition to digestion,
stomach acid kills many microorganisms found in food that could cause disease.
• Cellular Defense:
1- Phagocytosis:
White blood cells, especially neutrophils and macro phages, surround and internalize the foreign
microorganisms. The phagocytes then release digestive enzymes and other harmful chemicals from
their lysosomes, destroying the microorganism.
2- A series of about 20 proteins that are found in the blood plasma are called complement proteins,
which enhances phagocytosis.
• Interferon: Virus-infected cells secrete a protein called interferon. Interferon binds to neighboring cells
and stimulates these cells to produce antiviral proteins which can prevent viral replication in these cells.
• Inflammatory Response: When pathogens damage tissue, chemicals are released by both the invader and
cells of the body. These chemicals attract phagocytes to the area, increase blood flow to the infected area,
and make blood vessels more permeable to allow white blood cells to escape into the infected area. This
response aids in the accumulation of white blood cells in the area. Some of the pain, heat, and redness
experienced during an infectious disease are the result of the inflammatory response.
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Secondly: Specific Immunity:

The body has a second line of defense that attacks these pathogens. Specific immunity is more effective, but takes
time to develop. This specific response involves the tissues and organs found in the lymphatic system.
Lymphatic System:
• Lymph: is the fluid that leaks out of capillaries to bathe body cells. This fluid circulates among the tissue
cells, is collected by lymphatic vessels, and is returned to the veins near the heart.
• Lymphatic Organs: The organs of the lymphatic system contain lymphatic tissue, lymph nodes, tonsils,
spleen, thymus gland, and diffused lymphatic tissue found in mucous membranes of the intestinal,
respiratory, urinary, and genital tracts.
• Lymphocytes: are a type of white blood cell that is produced in red bone marrow.
• Lymph Nodes: filter the lymph and remove foreign materials from the lymph.
• Tonsils (Lymph Node): form a protective ring of lymphatic tissue between the nasal and oral cavities.
This helps protect against bacteria and other harmful materials in the nose and mouth.
• Spleen (Lymph Node): stores blood and destroys damaged red blood cells.
• Thymus (Lymph Node): which is located above the heart, plays a role in activating a special kind of
lymphocyte called T cells. T cells are produced in the bone marrow, but they mature in the thymus gland.
It is also called Childhood gland because it disappears during adolescence.
B Cell Response:
• Antibodies: are proteins produced by B lymphocytes that specifically react with a foreign antigen.
• Antigen: is a substance foreign to the body that causes an immune response; it can bind to an antibody or
T cell.
• B Lymphocytes (B Cells): are located in all lymphatic tissues and can be thought of as antibody factories.
When a macrophage surrounds, internalizes, and digests a pathogen, it takes a piece of the pathogen,
which is called a processed antigen, and displays it on its membrane.
• In the lymphatic tissues, such as the lymph nodes, the macrophage, with the processed antigen on its
surface, binds to a type of lymphocyte called a helper T cell. This process activates the helper T cell.
• This lymphocyte is called a “helper” because it activates antibody secretion in B cells and another type of
T cell that aids in killing microorganisms.
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• B cells make many combinations of antibodies by using DNA that codes for the production of various
heavy and light protein chains that make up antibodies. Any heavy chain can combine with any light
chain.
• For Example: If a B cell can make 16,000 different kinds of heavy chains and 1200 kinds oflight chains, it
can make 19,200,000 different types of antibodies (1200 × 16,000).
T Cell Response:
Once helper T cells are activated by the presentation of an antigen by macrophages, helper T cells can also
bind to and activate a group of lymphocytes called cytotoxic T cells. Activated cytotoxic T cells destroy
pathogens and release chemicals called cytokines. Cytokines stimulate the cells of the immune system to
divide and recruit immune cells to an area of infection.
Passive and Active Immunity:
• Primary Response: The body’s first response to an invasion by a pathogen.
• One result of the specific immune response is the production of memory B and T cells. Memory cells are
long-living cells that are exposed to the antigen during the primary immune response. These cells are
ready to respond rapidly if the body encounters the same pathogen later.
• Passive Immunity: antibodies are made by other people or animals and are transferred or injected into
the body.
• These antibodies can protect the child until the infant’s immune system matures.
• Passive immune therapy is available for people who have been exposed to hepatitis A and B, tetanus, and
rabies. Antibodies also are available to inactivate snake and scorpion venoms.
• Active Immunity: occurs after the immune system is exposed to disease antigens and memory cells are
produced.
• Active immunity can result from having an infectious disease or immunization. Immunization, also
called vaccination, is the deliberate exposure of the body to an antigen so that a primary response and
immune memory cells will develop. Immunizations contain killed or weakened pathogens, which are
incapable of causing the disease.
• Secondary Immune Response: The characteristics of the secondary immune response, which is the
response to a second exposure to an antigen, enable immunizations to be effective in preventing disease.
Note that the secondary response to the antigen has a number of different characteristics. First, the
response is more rapid than the primary response, as shown by the greater steepness in the portion of the
curves plotted in red. Second, the overall response, both B and T cell response, is greater during the
second exposure. Lastly, the overall memory lasts longer after the second exposure.
• Immune System Failure: Defects in the immune system can result in an increased likelihood of
developing infectious diseases and certain types of viruses as well as certain types of cancers.
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• Some diseases can affect the immune system’s effectiveness. One such disease called acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) results from an infection by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
• HIV infects mainly helper T cells, also called CD4+ cells because these cells have a receptor on the outside
of their plasma membrane.
• HIV is an RNA virus that infects helper T cells.
• The helper T cells become HIV factories, producing new viruses that are released and infect other helper
T cells. Over time, the number of helper T cells in an infected person decreases, making the person less
able to fight disease.
• The patient suffers symptoms such as night sweats and fever.
• The patient can pass the infection through sexual intercourse or blood transfusion.
• The treatment for HIV is expensive, and it might last for the entire life of the patient. Current antiviral
drug therapy is aimed at controlling the replication of HIV in the body.
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Translated By: Anas Al Alwan KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
• Nonvascular Plants
Nonvascular plants
Usually are small, which enables most materials to move within them easily. These plants often are found
growing in damp, shady areas—environments that provide the water needed by nonvascular plants for
nutrient transport and reproduction.
• Division Bryophyta :The most familiar bryophytes are the mosses.

o Although they do not have true leaves, mosses have structures that are similar to leaves. Their
photosynthetic, leaf like structures usually consist of a layer of cells that is only one cell thick.
o Mosses produce rootlike, multicellular rhizoids that anchor them to soil or another surface
o Although mosses have some tissue that transports water and food, these plants do not have true
vascular tissues.
o Water and other substances move throughout moss by osmosis and diffusion.
o Mosses exhibit variety in structure and growth. Some mosses have stems that grow upright, and
others have trailing, vine like stems.
o Over time, Sphagnum (a type of moss) and other plant matter accumulate, decay, and form deep
deposits called peat. Peat can be cut into blocks and burned as a fuel. Gardeners and florists often
add peat moss to soil to help it retain moisture.
o Many mosses grow in temperate regions and freeze and thaw without damage. Others can
survive an extreme loss of water
• Division Anthocerophyta: Anthocerophytes are called hornworts because of their hornlike sporophytes.
o An identifying feature of these plants is the presence of one large chloroplast in each cell of the
gametophyte and sporophyte. This feature can be observed under a microscope.
o the spaces around cells are filled with mucilage, or slime, rather than air. Cyanobacteria in the
genus Nostoc often grow in this slime. The cyanobacteria and hornwort exhibit mutualism.
• Division Hepaticophyta: Because of their appearance and use as a medicine to treat liver ailments during
medieval times, hepaticophytes are referred to as liverworts.
o Liverworts tend to grow close to the ground and in areas where moisture is plentiful, such as in
damp soil, near water, or on damp, decaying logs. A few species can even survive in relatively dry
areas.
o Liverworts are classified as either thallose (THAL lohs) or leafy.
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o Thallose liverwort has a body that resembles a fleshy, lobed structure. Leafy liverworts have
stems with flat, thin leaflike structures arranged in three rows—a row on each side of the stem
and a row of smaller leaves on the undersurface. Liverworts have unicellular rhizoids, unlike
mosses, which have multicellular rhizoids.
o Liverworts lack DNA sequences that most other land plants contain. This suggests that liverworts
are the most primitive of land plants.
• Seedless Vascular Plants

o Club mosses, also known as spike mosses, and the fern group make up the seedless vascular plant
group.
o This plant group is one of the three plant groups with vascular tissues. Seed less vascular plants
exhibit a great diversity of form and size.
o A strobilus is an adaptation seen in some seedless vascular, and it is a compact cluster of spore-
bearing structures. The tiny spores produced in the strobilus often are carried by the wind. If a
spore lands in a favorable environment, it can grow to form a gametophyte.
• Division Lycophyta
o Unlike true mosses, the sporophyte generation of lycophytes is dominant. They resemble moss
gametophytes, and their reproductive structures that produce spores are club-shaped or spike-
shaped.
o Lycophytes have roots, stems, and small, scaly, leaf like structures.
o Another name for some lycophytes is ground pines because they resemble miniature pine trees.
o Their stems are either branched or unbranched and either grow upright or creep along the soil’s
surface
o Most of the club mosses belong to two genera—Lycopodium and Selaginella
o Many tropical lycophyte species are epiphytes. An epiphyte is a plant that lives anchored to an
object or another plant.
• Division Pterophyta : This plant division includes ferns and horsetails.
o Fern gametophyte and sporophyte, is tiny, thin structure is smaller than a pin. It grows from a
spore and has male and female reproductive structures. Following fertilization, the sporophyte
grows from and is briefly dependent on the gametophyte.
o Although ferns are most common in moist environments, they can survive dry conditions. When
water is scarce, the life processes of some ferns slow so much that the ferns appear to be lifeless.
When water becomes available, the ferns resume growth.
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o One adaptation of some ferns that live in dry areas is that they can produce sporophytes without
fertilization.
o Eventually, the sporophyte produces roots and a thick underground stem called a rhizome. The
rhizome is a food-storage organ.
o The familiar parts of a fern are its photosynthetic leafy structures, or fronds. The frond is part of
the sporophyte generation of ferns. Fronds have branched vascular tissue and vary greatly in size.
o Fern spores form in a structure called a sporangium (plural, sporangia), and clusters of sporangia
form a sorus (plural, sori). Sori usually are located on the undersides of fronds.
o The typical structure of horsetails—ribbed, hollow stems with circles of scalelike leaves. Like
lycophytes, horsetails produce spores in strobili at the tips of reproductive stems. When they are
released into a favorable environment, horsetail spores can develop into gametophytes.
o Horsetails contain a scratchy substance called silica. You can feel it when you rub your finger
along a horsetail stem.
The aquatic fern Azolla is

mutualistic with a cyanobacterium.
Horsetail
Hawaii is the only U.S. state to which

tree ferns are native in tropical
forests.
Dryopteris grows best in shady, dry environments.
The staghorn fern grows as an epiphyte.
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Vascular Seed Plants

Vascular seed plants produce seeds.
• Each seed usually contains a tiny sporophyte surrounded by protective tissue.
• Seeds have one or more cotyledons (kah tuh LEE dunz)—structures that either store food or help absorb
food for the tiny sporophyte.
• Plants whose seeds are part of fruits are called angiosperms. Those plants whose seeds are not part of
fruits are called gymnosperms.
• Seed plants have a variety of adaptations for the dispersal or scattering of their seeds throughout their
environments. Dispersal is important because it limits competition between the new plant and its parent
and other offspring.
• The sporophyte is dominant in seed plants and produces spores.
• These spores divide by meiosis to form male gametophytes (pollen grains) and female gametophytes.
Each female gametophyte consists of one or more eggs surrounded by protective tissues. Both
gametophytes are dependent on the sporophyte generation for their survival.
• Most seed plants do not require a film of water for a sperm to reach an egg.
• Division Cycadophyta:
o Plants with cones—the gymnosperms—evolved before plants with flowers—the angiosperms. A

cone is a structure that contains the male or female reproductive structures of cycads and other
gymnosperm plants.
o A male cone produces clouds of pollen grains that produce male gametophytes. Female cones
contain female gametophytes.
o Male and female cones grow on separate cycad plants.
o Because cycads have large divided leaves and some grow more than18 m tall
o While cycads might resemble woody trees, they actually have soft stems or trunks consisting
mostly of storage tissue.
• Division Gnetophyta:
o Plants in division Gnetophyta can live as

o Long as 1500–2000 years. There are just three genera of gnetophytes,and each exhibits unusual
structural adaptations to its environment.
o Plants in division Gnetophyta can live as
o long as 1500–2000 years.
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o There are just three genera of gnetophytes,and each exhibits unusual structural adaptations to its
environment.
o It has a large storage root and two continuously growing leaves that eventually can exceed6 m in
length. Welwitschia takes in available moisture from fog, dew,or
rain through its two leaves.
• Division Ginkgophyta; Only one living species, Ginkgo biloba,

represents division Ginkgophyta.
o This distinctive tree has small, fan-shaped leaves.
o Like cycads,male and female reproductive systems are on separate

plants. The male tree produces pollen grains in strobiluslike cones
growing from the bases of leaf clusters
o The female tree produces cones which, when fertilized, develop foul-
smelling, fleshy seed coats. Because they tolerate smog and pollution,
ginkgoes are popular with gardeners and urban landscapers.
o However, male trees usually are favored because they do not produce
foul-smelling fleshy cones.
• Division Coniferophyta:
o Conifers range in size from low-growing shrubs that are several centimeters tall to towering trees over
50 m in height.
o Pines, firs, cypresses, and redwoods are examples of conifers. Conifers are the most economically
important gymnosperms. They are sources of lumber, paper pulp, and the resins used to make
turpentine, rosin, and other products.
o Reproductive structures of most conifers develop in cones. Most conifers have male and female cones
on different branches of the same tree or shrub. The small male cones produce pollen. Larger female
cones remain on the plants until the seeds have matured.
o Most conifers have drooping branches and many conifers grow in snowy climates, and they also
adapt to the environment by having a waxlike coating called cutin that covers conifers’ needlelike or
scalelike leaves and reduces water loss.
o Evergreen plant as one with some green leaves throughout the year.
o A plant that loses its leaves at the end of the growing season or when moisture is scarce is called
deciduous, such as larches and bald cypresses.
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• Division Anthophyta:
o Flowering plants, also known as anthophytes or angiosperms, are the most widely distributed plants
because of adaptations that enable them to grow in terrestrial and aquatic environments, and they
make up more than 75 percent of the plant kingdom.
o Traditionally, botanists classified anthophytes as monocots or dicots. However, botanists now classify
dicots as eudicots, based on the structure of their pollen.
o a monocot has one seed leaf, and a dicot has two seed leaves.
• Life spans
* An annual plant completes its life span—sprouts from a seed, grows,

pro duces new seeds, and dies—in one growing season or less. This group
includes many garden plants and most weeds.
* A biennial plant’s life spans two years.
* Perennial plants can live for several years and usually produce
flowers and seeds yearly.
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• Plant Cells and Tissues
• You can identify a typical plant cell, like the one in Figure 1, by the presence of a cell wall and large
central vacuole. Also, plant cells can have chloroplasts.
• However, there are many different types of plant cells—each with one or more adaptations that
enable it to carry out a specific function. Three types of plant cells form most plant tissues. Together
they provide storage and food production, strength, flexibility, and support.
• Parenchyma cells
• Most flexible, thin-walled cells found throughout a plant are parenchyma (puh RENG kuh muh) cells.
They are the basis for many plant structures and are capable of a wide range of functions, including
storage, photosynthesis, gas exchange, and protection.
• These cells are spherical in shape and their cell walls flatten when they are packed tightly together
• An important trait of parenchyma cells is that they can undergo cell division when mature.
• When a plant is damaged, parenchyma cells divide to help repair it.
• Depending on their function, parenchyma cells can have special features. Some parenchyma cells
have many chloroplasts These cells often are found in leaves and green stems and can carry on
photosynthesis, producing glucose. Some paren chyma cells, such as those found in roots and fruits,
have large central vacuoles that can store substances such as starch, water, or oils.
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• Collenchyma cells:
o Are plant cells that often are elongated and occur in long strands or cylinders that provide support for
the surrounding cells.
o As a collenchyma cell grows, the thinner portions of its cell wall can expand. Because of this growth
pattern, collenchyma cells are flexible and can stretch, which enables plants to bend without breaking.
o Like parenchyma cells, collenchyma cells retain the ability to undergo cell division when mature.
• Sclerenchyma cells:
o Unlike parenchyma and collenchyma cells, sclerenchyma (skle RENG kuh muh) cells are plant cells
that lack cytoplasm and other living components when they mature, but their thick, rigid cell walls
remain.
o These cells provide support for a plant, and some are used for transporting materials within the plant.
o Sclerenchyma cells make up most of the wood we use for shelter, fuel, and paper products.
o There are two types of sclerenchyma cells, sclereids and fibers.
o Sclereids: are also called stone cells and can be distributed randomly throughout a plant. They are
shorter than fibers and are somewhat irregularly shaped. The toughness of seed coats and nut shells
results from the presence of sclereids. Sclereids also function in transport.
o Fiber cell: is needle-shaped, has a thick cell wall, and has a small interior space. When stacked end-to-
end, fibers form a tough, elastic tissue. Humans have used these fibers for making ropes, linen,
canvas, and other textiles for centuries
Plant Tissues
Tissue is a group of cells that work together to perform a function.
o There are four different tissue types found in plants—meristematic, dermal, vascular, and
ground.
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• Meristematic tissue
o Meristematic tissues make up meristems, regions of rapidly dividing cells.

o Cells in meristems have large nuclei and small vacuoles or, in some cases, no vacuoles at all. As
these cells mature, they can develop into many different kinds of plant cells.
Apical meristems:
Meristematic tissues at the tips of roots and stems, which produce cells that result in an
increase in length, are apical (AY pih kul) meristems.
Intercalary meristems:
o This meristem is found in one or more locations along the stems of many monocots.
o Intercalary meristem produces new cells that result in an increase in stem or leaf length,
like grass.
Lateral meristems:
o Increases in root and stem diameters result from secondary growth produced by two
types of lateral meristems.
o Only nonflowering seed plants, eudicots, and a few monocots have secondary growth.
o The vascular cambium is a thin cylinder of meristematic tissue that can run the entire
length of roots and stems. It produces new transport cells in some roots and stems.
o In some plants, another lateral meristem, the cork cambium, produces cells that develop
tough cell walls. These cells form a protective outside layer on stems and roots.
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o Cork tissues make up the outer bark on a woody plant like an oak tree.
• Dermal tissue—the epidermis:
The layer of cells that makes up the outer covering on a plant is dermal tissue, also called the
epidermis.
o Cells of the epidermis resemble pieces of a jigsaw puzzle with interlocking ridges and dips
o Most epidermal cells can secrete a fatty substance that forms the cuticle. You might recall
that the cuticle helps reduce water loss from plants by slowing evaporation.
o The cuticle also can help prevent bacteria and other disease-causing organisms from
entering a plant.
Stomata
o Small openings through which carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, and other gases pass.
o The two cells that form a stoma are guard cells.
o Changes in the shapes of guard cells result in the opening and closing of stomata
Trichomes
o Some epidermal cells on leaves and stems produce hairlike projections called trichomes.
o Trichomes can give leaves a fuzzy appearance and can help protect the plant from insect
and animal predators. Some trichomes even release toxic substances when touched.
Trichomes help keep some plants cool by reflecting light.
Root hairs
o Fragile extensions of root epidermal cells.
o It increase a root’s surface area and enable the root to take in a greater volume of
materials.
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• Vascular tissues
The transportation of water, food, and dissolved substances is the main function of two types of
vascular tissue—xylem and phloem.
Xylem
o is the water-carrying vascular tissue composed of specialized cells called vessel elements
and tracheids
o The water with dissolved minerals is transported throughout a plant within a system of
xylem that flows continuously from the roots to the leaves.
o When mature, each vessel element and tracheid consists of just its cell wall. This lack of
cytoplasm at maturity allows water to flow freely through these cells.
o Vessel elements: are tubular cells that are stacked end-to-end, forming strands of xylem
called vessels.
o Tracheids: are long, cylindrical cells with pitted ends. The cells are found end-to-end and
form a tube-like strand.
Phloem
o It transports dissolved sugars and other organic compounds throughout a plant.
o The main food-carrying tissue is phloem
o Phloem consists of two types of cells, sieve tube members and companion cells.
o sieve tube member contains cytoplasm but lacks a nucleus and ribosomes when it is
mature.
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Translated By: Khalid Al Shalhoob KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
• In flowering plants, structures called sieve plates are at the end of the sieve tube members. The sieve plates
have large pores through which dissolved substance can flow.
• Some of the glucose produced in leaves and other photosynthetic tissue is metabolized by the plants.
However, some is converted to other carbohydrates and transported and stored in regions of the plant
called sinks.
• Companion cells: they are next to sieve tube members. Scientists hypothesize that it support sieve tube
member with energy.
• Ground tissues: consist of parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma cells and have divers functions,
including photosynthesis, storage and support.
• The ground tissue of leaves and green stems contains cells with numerous chloroplasts that produce
glucose for the plant.
• In some stems, roots and seeds cells of ground tissue have a large vacuoles that store sugars, starch, oil or
other substance.
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Plant Hormones and Their Responses
• Hormones are organic compounds that are made in one part of an organism, and then are transported to
another parts where they have an effect.
• Plant hormones can effect cell division and growth.
• Hormones work by chemically binding to plasma membrane at specific sites called receptor proteins.
• These receptors can effect the expression of a gene, the activity of enzymes or the permeability of the
plasma membrane.
Auxin
• One of the first plant hormones to be identified was auxin.
• Auxin is produced in apical meristems, buds, young leaves, and other rapidly growing tissues.
• It moves throughout a plant from one parenchyma cell to the next by a type of active transport.
• The rate of this movement has been measured at 1 cm per hour. Also, am auxin moves in only one
direction- away from where it was produced.
• Auxin usually stimulates the lengthening or elongation of cells.
• Auxin promotes a flow of hydrogen ions through proton pumps from the cytoplasm into the cell wall.
• The combination of weakened cell walls and increased internal pressure result in cell elongation.
• The effect of auxin varies greatly depending on its concentration and location.
• for example, in some plants the concentration of auxin that promotes stem growth can inhabit root
growth. Low concentration of auxin usually stimulates cell elongation. However, at higher concentration,
auxin can have the revers effect, the presence of other hormones can modify the effect of an auxin.
• The group of plant hormones called gibberellins causes cell elongation, stimulates cell division, and
affects seed growth. Gibberellins are transported in vascular tissue.
• Dwarf plants often lack either the genes for gibberellins production or the genes for gibberellins protein
receptors.
• Applying gibberellins to a plant can cause an increase in height.
• The only known gaseous hormone is ethylene, a simple compound composed of two carbon and four
hydrogen atoms. Ethylene is found in plant tissues such as ripening fruits, dying leaves, and flowers.
• It primarily affects the ripening of fruits.
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Cytokinins
• Cytokinins are produced in rapidly in dividing cells. They travel to other parts of plants within xylem.
• Cytokinins promotes cell division by stimulating the production of proteins needed for mitosis and
cytokinesis.
• Because cytokinins increase the rate of growth, they are often added to the growth media used for plant
tissue culture—a laboratory technique for growing plants from pieces of plant tissues.
Plant responses
• A plant response that causes movement that is not dependent on the direction of the stimulus is a nastic
response. It is not a growth response, is reversible, and can be repeated.
• An example of a nastic response is the opening of leaves during the day and the closing of leaves at night
to conserve heat, or the movement of Mimosa pudica leaflets when they are touched.
• Tropism: is a plant’s growth response to an external stimulus.
• If resulting plant growth is toward the stimulus, it is called a positive tropism. If the resulting plant
growth is away from the stimulus, it is called a negative tropism.
• There are several different types of tropisms, including phototropism, gravitropism, and
thigmotropism.
• Phototropism: is a plant growth response to light caused by an unequal distribution of auxin.
• There is less auxin on the side of the plant toward the light source and more auxin on the side away from
the light source. Because auxin can cause cell elongation, the cells on the side away from the light
elongate, making that side of the stem longer. This results in the stem the direction of the light.
• Gravitropism: is a plant growth response to gravity.
• Thigmotropism: is the growth response to mechanical stimuli, such as contact with an object, another
organism, or even wind.
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Flower Organs
• flowers have four main organs: sepals, petals, stamens, and one or more pistils.
1- Sepals protect the flower bud and can look like small leaves or even resemble the flower’s petals.
2-Petals usually are colorful structures that can both attract pollinators and provide them with a landing
platform.
3-stamens: the male reproductive organs. A stamen is composed of two parts—the filament and the
anther. The filament, or stalk, supports the anther. Inside the anther are cells that undergo meiosis and
then mitotic cell divisions, forming pollen grains. Two sperm eventually form inside each pollen grain.
4-pistil: is the female reproductive organ of a flower. In the center of a flower is one or more pistils. A
pistil usually has three parts—the stigma, the style, and the ovary. The stigma is the tip of the pistil and is
where pollination occurs.
Structural differences
• Complete flowers: are the flowers that have sepals, petals, stamens, and one or more pistils.
• If a flower is missing one or more of these organs, it is an incomplete flower. For example, wild ginger
flowers are called incomplete because they have no petals.
• Perfect flowers: are the Flowers that have both stamens and pistils.
• The number of each flower organ varies from species to species. However, the number of flower organs
distinguishes eudicots from monocots.
• Eudicot plant: When the petal number for a flower is a multiple of four or five.
• Monocots: generally have flower organs in multiples of three.
Pollination mechanisms
• Self-pollinating flowers can pollinate themselves or another flower on the same plant.
• Cross-pollinated flowers receive pollen from another plant.
Animal pollination:
many animal-pollinated flowers are brightly colored, have strong scents, or produce a sweet liquid called nectar.
When insects and other small animals move from flower to flower searching for nectar, they can carry pollen
from one flower to another flower. Other insects collect pollen for food.
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Wind pollination:
They produce huge amounts of lightweight pollen. This helps to ensure that some pollen grains will land on the
stigma of a flower of the same species. Also, the stamens of wind-pollinated flowers often hang below the petals,
exposing them to the wind. The stigma of a wind-pollinated flower is often large, which helps to ensure that a
pollen grain might land on it.
Photoperiodism
• After noticing that certain plants only flowered at certain times of the year, plant biologists conducted
experiments to explain this observation. Researchers discovered that the critical factor that influenced
flowering was the number of hours of uninterrupted darkness, not the number of hours of daylight. This
flowering response is known as photoperiodism.
• Short-day plants flower during the winter, spring, or fall, when the number of hours of darkness is
greater than the number of hours of light.
• A long-day plant flowers when the number of hours of darkness is less than its critical period. These
plants flower during the summer.
• as long as the number of hours of darkness is neither too great nor too few it is called intermediate-day
plants
• Some plants will flower regardless of the number of hours of darkness as long as they receive enough
light for photosynthesis that supports growth. A plant that flowers over a range in the number of hours
of darkness is a day-neutral plant.
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Flowering Plants
• Anthophytes: are the most diverse and widespread group of plants.
• They are unique because they have flowers.
Gametophyte development:
• In anthophytes, the development of male and female gametophytes begins in an undeveloped

flower. Anthophytes are heterosporous—pistils produce megaspores, and stamens produce microspores.
A specialized cell in the ovule of a pistil’s ovary undergoes meiosis, producing four megaspores. Usually,
three of these megaspores disintegrate and
disappear.
• The nucleus of the functional megaspore undergoes mitosis. Mitotic division continues and the
megaspore grows until there is one large cell with eight nuclei. As shown in Figure 12, two nuclei migrate
toward the center and membranes form around the other six nuclei. The result is three nuclei at each end
of the cell and two nuclei in the center called polar nuclei. One of the three nuclei at the end closest to the
micropyle becomes the egg. The cell that contains the egg and seven nuclei is the female gametophyte.
• The development of the female gametophyte and the male gametophyte might or might not occur at the
same time. Within the anther, specialized cells undergo meiosis and produce microspores. the nucleus in
each microspore undergoes mitosis that forms two nuclei called the tube nucleus and the generative
nucleus. A thick, protective cell wall forms around a microspore. At this point, the microspore is an
immature male gametophyte, or pollen grain.
Pollination and fertilization
• Once pollination occurs, the pollen grain can form a pollen tube, which is an extension of the pollen
grain.
• Usually, the pollen tube grows down through the style to the ovary and the two nuclei travel in the pollen
tube toward the ovule.
• The length of a pollen tube depends on the length of the pistil.
• The pollen grain is now a mature male gametophyte. When the pollen tube reaches the ovule, it grows
through the micropyle and releases the two sperm nuclei.
• One sperm nucleus fuses with the egg, forming the zygote—the new sporophyte.
• The other sperm nucleus and the two polar nuclei in the center of the ovule fuse, forming a triploid or 3n
cell.
• Because two fertilizations occur in an anthophyte egg, this is called double fertilization.
• After fertilization, the ovule and the ovary begin to develop into the seed and fruit, respectively.
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Results of Reproduction
Seed and fruit development:
• The sporophyte begins as a zygote, or a 2n cell. Numerous cell divisions produce a cluster of cells that
eventually develops into an elongated embryo with one cotyledon in monocots or two cotyledons in
eudicots. The 3n cell formed as a result of double fertilization undergoes cell divisions.
• A tissue called the endosperm forms as a result of these divisions
• As the endosperm matures, cell walls form. In some monocots, the endosperm is the major component
of the seed and makes up most of the seed’s mass.
• In eudicots, the cotyledons absorb most of the endosperm tissue as the seed matures. Therefore, the
cotyledons of eudicot seeds provide much of the nourishment for the embryo.
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Translated By: Ayman Al Zomaili KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
Table 1 Types of Fruit Concepts in Motion Interactive Table
Fruit Type Example of Flower and Fruit Description
Simple fleshy fruits Peach Simple fleshy fruits can contain one or
more seeds. Apples, peaches, grapes,
oranges, tomatoes, and pumpkins are
simple fleshy fruits.
Aggregate fruits Raspberry Aggregate fruits form from flowers with

multiple female organs that fuse as the
fruits ripen. Strawberries, raspberries, and
blackberries are examples of aggregate
fruits.
Multiple fruits Pineapple Multiple fruits form from many flowers

that fuse as the fruits ripen. Figs,
pineapples, mulberries, and osage oranges
are examples of multiple fruits.
Dry fruits Redbud When mature, these fruits are dry.

Examples of dry fruits include pods, nuts,
and grains.
• Seed dispersal: In addition to providing some protection for seeds, fruits also help disperse seeds.
• When many plants are growing in one area, there is competition for light, water, and soil nutrients.
• Fruits that are attractive to animals can be transported great distances away from the parent plant.
• Animals that gather and bury or store fruits usually do not recover all of them, so the seeds might
sprout.
• Some seeds have structural modifications that enable them to be transported by water, animals, or
wind.
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• Germination: is the process in which the embryo in a seed starts to grow.
• There are a number of factors that affect germination, including the presence of either water or
oxygen (or both), and temperature.
• Germination begins when a seed absorbs water, either as a liquid or gas. As cells take in water, the
seed swells; this can break the seed coat.
• Radicle: is the first part of the embryo to appear outside the seed.
• Hypocotyl: is the region of the stem nearest the seed and, in many plants it is the first part of the
seedling to appear above the soil.
• In some eudicots, as the hypocotyl grows, it pulls the cotyledons and the embryonic leaves out of the
soil.
• In monocots, seedling growth is slightly different because the cotyledon usually stays in the ground
when the stem emerges from the soil.
• Some seeds can survive harsh environmental conditions, such as drought and cold.
• Some maple seeds must germinate within two weeks after dispersal or they will not germinate at all.
• Most seeds produced at the end of a growing season enter dormancy, a period of little or no growth.
• Dormancy: is an adaptation that increases the survival rate of seeds exposed to harsh conditions. The
length of dormancy varies from species to species.
Cell chemistry
• Cells are made up of many organic compounds that are mainly made up of carbon.
• A carbon atom can make four covalent bonds with other atoms because carbon has four free electrons
in the outer-shell.
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• Long carbon compounds are called polymers which in turn are made up of monomers bound
together covalently.
• Biological macromolecules are organized into four major categories:

o Carbohydrates
o lipids
o proteins
o nucleic acids
• Cellular activities require energy—the ability to do work.
• Energy can be converted from one form to another, but it cannot be created nor destroyed. The
energy that is “lost” is generally converted to thermal energy.
• Directly or indirectly, nearly all the energy for life comes from the Sun. Some organisms make their
own food, while others must obtain it from other organisms.
• Autotrophs: are organisms that make their own food.
• Some autotrophs, called chemoautotrophs, use inorganic substances such as hydrogen sulfide as a
source of energy. Other autotrophs, such as plants, convert light energy from the Sun into chemical
energy.
• Heterotrophs: such as the aphids and the ladybugs, are organisms that need to ingest food to obtain
energy.
• Metabolism: all of the chemical reactions in a cell.
• Metabolic pathway: is a series of chemical reactions in which the product of one reaction is the
substrate for the next reaction.
• Metabolic pathways include two broad types: catabolic (ka tuh BAH lik) pathways and anabolic (a
nuh BAH lik) pathways.
• Catabolic pathways: release energy by breaking down larger molecules into smaller molecules.
• Anabolic pathways: use the energy released by catabolic pathways to build larger molecules from
smaller molecules.
• The relationship of anabolic and catabolic pathways results in the continual flow of energy within an
organism.
• Photosynthesis: is the anabolic pathway in which light energy from the Sun is converted to chemical
energy for use by the cell. In this reaction, autotrophs use light energy, carbon dioxide, and water to
form glucose and oxygen.
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• Cellular respiration: is the catabolic pathway in which organic molecules are broken down to release
energy for use by a cell. In cellular respiration, oxygen is used to break down organic molecules,
resulting in the production of carbon dioxide and water.
• Adenosine triphosphate—ATP—: is the most important biological molecule that provides chemical
energy.
• ATP is the most abundant energy carrier molecule in cells and is found in all types of organisms. ATP
is a nucleotide made of an adenine base, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups.
• ATP releases energy when the bond between the second and third phosphate groups is broken,
forming a molecule called adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a free phosphate group.
• Energy is stored in the phosphate bond formed when ADP receives a phosphate group and becomes
ATP.
• Sometimes ADP becomes adenosine monophosphate (AMP) by losing an additional phosphate

group.
• Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
• Photosynthesis occurs in two phases:
1. In phase One, Light Reactions: the light-dependent reactions, light energy is absorbed and then
converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. Chloroplasts are disk-shaped
organelles that contain two main compartments essential to photo synthesis:
a. The first compartment is called the thylakoid (THI la koyd). Thylakoids: are flattened,
saclike membranes that are arranged in stacks. These stacks are called grana (singular,
granum).
• Light-dependent reactions take place within the thylakoids. Light-absorbing
colored molecules called pigments are found in the thylakoid membranes of
chloroplasts.
• The major light-absorbing pigments in plants are chlorophylls. There are several
types of chlorophylls, but the most common two are chlorophyll a and
chlorophyll b.
• In general, chlorophylls absorb most strongly in the violet- blue region of the
visible light spectrum and reflect light in the green region of the spectrum.
• The structure of the thylakoid membrane is the key to efficient energy transfer
during electron transport.
• Thylakoid membranes have a large surface area, which provides the space needed
to hold large numbers of electron-transporting molecules and two types of
protein complexes called photosystems. Photosystem I and photosystem II
contain light-absorbing pigments and proteins that play important roles in the
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light reactions. Ferrodoxin transfers the electrons to the electron carrier NADP+,
forming the energy-storage molecule NADPH.
• ATP is produced in conjunction with electron transport by the process of

chemiosmosis—the mechanism by which ATP is produced as a result of the flow
of electrons down a concentration gradient.
• As a result of a high concentration of H+ in the thylakoid interior and a low

concentration of H+ in the stroma, H+ protons diffuse down their concentration
gradient out of the thylakoid interior into the stroma through ion channels
spanning the membrane. These channels are enzymes called ATP synthases. As
H+ moves through ATP synthases, ATP is formed in the stroma.
b. The second important compartment is called the stroma, the fluid-filled space that is
outside the grana. This is the location of the light-independent reactions in phase two of
photosynthesis.
2. In phase two, the light-independent reactions, the ATP and NADPH that were formed in phase
one are used to make glucose.
• The second phase of photosynthesis called the Calvin cycle, in which energy is stored in
organic molecules such as glucose. The reactions of the Calvin cycle are also referred to as
the light-independent reactions. The enzyme rubisco converts inorganic carbon dioxide
molecules into organic molecules that can be used by the cell.
• Plants use the sugars formed during the Calvin cycle both as a source of energy and as
building blocks for complex carbohydrates, including cellulose, which provides structural
support for plants
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• One adaptive pathway that helps plants maintain photosynthesis while minimizing water loss is called
the C4 pathway. The C4 pathway occurs in plants such as sugarcane and corn. These plants are called
C4 plants because they fix carbon dioxide into four-carbon compounds instead of three-carbon
molecules during the Calvin cycle. C4 plants also have significant structural modifications in the
arrangement of cells in the leaves. In general, C4 plants keep their stomata (plant cell pores) closed
during hot days, while the four carbon compound are transferred to special cells where CO2 enters the
Calvin cycle. This allows for sufficient carbon dioxide uptake, while simultaneously minimizing water
loss.
• Another adaptive pathway used by some plants to maximize photosynthetic activity is called
crassulacean (KRAH soo lay shun) acid metabolism (CAM photosynthesis).
• The CAM pathway occurs in water-conserving plants that live in deserts, salt marshes, and other
environments where access to water is limited. CAM plants, such as cacti, orchids, and the pineapple,
allow carbon dioxide to enter the leaves only at night, when the atmosphere is cooler and more humid.
Cellular Respiration
• Organisms obtain energy in a process called cellular respiration. The function of cellular respiration is
to harvest electrons from carbon compounds, such as glucose, and use that energy to make ATP. ATP
is used to provide energy for cells to do work.
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
• The equation for cellular respiration is the opposite of the equation for photosynthesis.
• Cellular respiration occurs in two main parts: glycolysis and aerobic respiration.
• The first stage, glycolysis, is an anaerobic process. Anaerobic processes do not require oxygen.
• The second stage, Aerobic respiration includes the Krebs cycle and electron transport and is an
aerobic process. Aerobic processes require oxygen.
• Glycolysis: the process in which glucose is broken down in the cytoplasm. Two molecules of ATP and
two molecules of NADH are formed for each molecule of glucose that is broken down.
• Pyruvate is broken down into carbon dioxide during the Krebs cycle inside the mitochondria of cells.
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• In aerobic respiration, electron transport is the final step in the breakdown of glucose. It also is the
point at which most of the ATP is produced. High-energy electrons and hydrogen ions from NADH
an FADH2 produced in the Krebs cycle are used to convert ADP to ATP. Electron transport occurs
along the mitochondrial membrane.
• Fermentation: occurs in the cytoplasm and regenerates the cell’s supply of NAD+ while producing a
small amount of ATP.
• The two main types of fermentation are lactic acid fermentation and alcohol fermentation.
• Skeletal muscles produce lactic acid when the body cannot supply enough oxygen, such as during
periods of strenuous exercise. When lactic acid builds up in muscle cells, muscles become fatigued
and might feel sore.
• Alcohol fermentation: occurs in yeast and some bacteria. When pyruvate is converted to ethyl alcohol
and carbon dioxide. Similar to lactic acid fermentation, NADH donates electrons during this reaction
and NAD+ is regenerated.
• The products of photosynthesis are oxygen and glucose, the reactants needed for cellular respiration.
The products of cellular respiration, which are carbon dioxide and water, are the reactants for
photosynthesis.
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Translated By: Mohammad Al Wiizinani KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
Cell cycle:
• Cell cycle: cells reproduce by a cycle of growing and dividing.
• Each time a cell goes through one complete cycle, it becomes two cells.
• There are three main stages of the cell cycle:-

1- Interphase: is the stage during which the cell grows, carries out cellular functions, and replicates, or
makes copies of its DNA in preparation for the next stage of the cycle.
o Interphase is divided into three sub stages:

A- G 1: cell grows and performs normal functions.
B- S: DNA is replicated.
C- G 2: cell prepares for mitosis.
2- Mitosis: is the stage of the cell cycle during which the cell’s nucleus and nuclear material divide. the
process of mitosis increases the number of cells and replace damaged cells.
o Mitosis is divided into four sub stages:

A- Prophase: longest phase.
B- Metaphase: one of the shortest phases.
C- Anaphase
D- Telophase
3- Cytokinesis: is the method by which a cell’s cytoplasm divides, creating a new cell.
• The duration of the cell cycle varies, depending on the cell that is dividing. Some eukaryotic cells might
complete the cycle in as few as eight minutes, while other cells might take up to one year. For most nor-
mal, actively dividing animal cells, the cell cycle takes approximately 12–24 hours. When you consider all
that takes place during the cell cycle, you might find it amazing that most of your cells complete the cell
cycle in about a day.
• Chromosomes: are the structures that contain the genetic material that is passed from generation to gen-
eration of cells.
• Chromatin: is the relaxed form of DNA in the cell’s nucleus.
• Centromere: structure at the center of the chromosome where the sister chromatids are attached.
• In animal cells, cytokinesis is accomplished by using microfilaments to constrict, or pinch, the cyto-
plasm.
• Prokaryotic cells is reproduce by a method called binary fission.
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Regulating cell cycle:

• Proteins called cyclins bind to enzymes called cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) in the stages of inter-
phase and mitosis to start the various activities that take place in the cell cycle. Different cyclin/CDK
combinations signal other activities, including DNA replication, protein synthesis, and nuclear division
throughout the cell cycle.
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Cancer:
• When cells do not respond to the normal cell cycle control mechanisms, a condition called cancer can
result.
• Cancer: which is an uncontrolled growth and division of cells—a failure in the regulation of the cell cy-
cle.
• When unchecked, cancer cells can kill an organism by crowding out normal cells, resulting in the loss of
tissue function.
• Cancer cells spend less time in interphase than do normal cells, which means cancer cells grow and divide
unrestrained as long as they are supplied with essential nutrients.
• Carcinogens: substances and agents that are known to cause cancer.
• Examples of carcinogens: all kinds of Tobacco, radiations such as; ultraviolet and X-Ray, and some
chemicals.
• Cancer genetics: More than one change in DNA is required to change an abnormal cell into a cancer cell.
Over time, there might be many changes in DNA. This might explain why the risk of cancer increases
with age. An individual who inherits one or more changes from a parent is at a higher risk for developing
cancer than someone who does not inherit these changes.
Death program:
• Not every cell is destined to survive. Some cells go through a process called apoptosis, or programmed cell
death. Cells going through apoptosis actually shrink and shrivel in a controlled process. All animal cells appear
to have a “death program” that can be activated.
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Stem cells:
• Stem Cells: are unspecialized cells that can develop into specialized cells under the right conditions.
• Stem cells can remain in an organism for many years while undergoing cell division.
• There are two basic types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells.
• Stem cells might be able to develop into different kinds of cells, providing new treatments for many dis-
eases and conditions.
Meiosis:
• The instructions for each trait are located on chromosomes, which are found in the nucleus of cells.
The DNA on chromosomes is arranged in segments called genes that control the production of pro-
teins.
• Each parent contributes 23 chromosomes, resulting in 23 pairs of chromosomes.
• Homologous chromosomes: chromosomes that make up a pair, one chromosome from each parent.
• Gametes: are sex cells that have half the number of chromosomes.
• Haploid cell: A cell with n=23 number of chromosomes.
• Fertilization: the process by which one haploid gamete combines with another haploid gamete.
• Diploid cell: A cell that contains 2n number of chromosomes.
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• Meiosis: a process in which gametes are formed.
• Meiosis occurs in the reproductive structures of organisms that reproduce sexually.
• Meiosis involves two consecutive cell divisions called meiosis I and meiosis II.
• Crossing over: is a process during which chromosomal segments are exchanged between a pair of
homologous chromosomes.
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Mendelian genetics
• Genetics: is the science of heredity.
• Mendel: is the first scientist that studies genetics.
• Mendel chose pea plants in his study because it can be planted easily, cross-pollinated by hand, and
different traits could be observed easily.
• When Mendel grew the seeds from the cross between the green-seed and yellow-seed plants, all of the
resulting offspring had yellow seeds.
• Mendel called the form of the trait that appeared in the F1 generation dominant and the form of the
trait that was masked in the F1 generation recessive.
• Allele: is defined as an alternative form of a single gene passed from generation to generation.
• An organism with two of the same alleles for a particular trait is homozygous for that trait.
• Homozygous, yellow-seed plants are YY and green-seed plants are yy.
• An organism with two different alleles for a particular trait is heterozygous for that trait, in this case Yy.
• When alleles are present in the heterozygous state, the dominant trait will be observed.
• Genotype: The organism’s allele pairs.
• Phenotype: is the observable characteristic or outward expression of an allele pair.
• Mendel’s law of segregation: states that the two alleles for each trait separate during meiosis. During
fertilization, two alleles for that trait unite.
• Hybrids: are Heterozygous organisms.
• (Y) x (y) —> results in the following genotypes (YY, Yy, Yy, or y) the genotypic ratio is 1:2:1, and the
phenotypic ratio is 3:1—yellow seeds to green seeds.
• In garden peas, round seeds (R) are dominant to wrinkled seeds (r), and yellow seeds (Y) are dominant
to green seeds (y). If Mendel crossed homozygous yellow, round-seed pea plants with homozygous
green, wrinkle-seed pea plants, the P cross could be represented by YYRR x yyrr. The F1 generation
genotype would be YyRr—yellow, round-seed plants.
• These F1-generation plants are called dihybrids because they are heterozygous for both traits.
• Law of independent assortment: which states that a random distribution of alleles occurs during gam-
ete formation.
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• Random assortment of alleles results in four possible gametes: (YR, Yr, yR or yr), each of which is
equally likely to occur.
• The results of Mendel’s dihybrid cross included nine different genotypes: (YYRR, YYRr, YYrr, YyRR,
YyRr, Yyrr, yyRR, yyRr, and yyrr).These results represent a phenotypic ratio of approximately
(9:3:3:1).
Punnett square
• Punnett Square: Predicts the possible offspring of a cross between two known genotypes.
• Punnett squares make it easier to keep track of the possible genotypes involved in a cross.
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Translated By: Abdulmalek Al Shehri KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
• Dihybrid cross:
Gene linkage and Polyploidy:
• The crossing over of linked genes is a source of genetic vibration.
• Genetic recombination: is the new combination of genes produced by crossing over and independent
assortment. It can be calculated using the formula 2n, where n is the number of chromosome pairs.
• For example, pea plants have seven pairs of chromosomes. Therefore, the possible combinations are 2^7,
or 128 combinations. Because any possible male gamete can fertilize any possible female gamete, the
number of possible combinations after fertilization is 16,384 (128 × 128).
• In humans, the possible number of combinations after fertilization would be 223 × 223, or more than 70
trillion.
• linked genes: are genes that are located close to each other on the same chromosome, and usually they
travel together during gamete formation.
• The linkage of genes on a chromosome results in an exception to Mendel’s law of independent

assortment because linked genes usually do not segregate independently.
• Scientists concluded that linked genes can separate during crossing over.
• Crossing over occurs more frequently between genes that are far apart than those that are close together.
• Chromosome map: is a drawing that shows the sequence of genes on a chromosome and can be created
by using crossover data. The very first chromosome maps were published in 1913 using data from
thousands of fruit fly crosses.
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• In a cross, the exchange of genes is directly related to the crossover frequency between them. This
frequency correlates with the relative distance between the two genes. Genes that are farther apart would
have a greater frequency of crossing over.
• Most species have diploid cells, but some have polyploid cells.
• Polyploidy: is the occurrence of one or more extra sets of all chromosomes in an organism. A triploid
organism would be designated 3n.
• Polyploidy rarely occurs in animals. In humans, polyploidy is always lethal. However, sometimes it occurs
in animals such as Earthworms and Golden Fish.
• Roughly one in three species of known flowering plants are polyploid. Polyploid plants are selected by
plant growers for their desirable characteristics. Commercially grown bread wheat (6n), oats (6n), and
sugar cane (8n) are polyploid crop plants. Polyploid plants often have increased vigor and size.
Basic Patterns of Human Inheritance:
• The inheritance of a trait over several generations can be shown in a pedigree.
• A recessive trait is expressed when the individual is homozygous recessive for that trait.
• Therefore, those with at least one dominant allele will not express the recessive trait.
• Carrier: is an individual who is heterozygous for a recessive disorder.
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• Pedigree: is a diagram that traces the inheritance of a particular trait through several generations. A
pedigree uses symbols to illustrate inheritance of the trait, as shown in the bottom figure.
• Genetic disorders can either happen by dominant or recessive allele.
• Cystic Fibrosis: is a genetic disorder affects secreting mucus and sweat, and deficiency of chloride ions in
the cells.
• People infected by Albinism have no color in the skin, eyes and hair.
• The dominant genetic disorder Huntington’s disease affects the nervous system.
• Achondroplasia is the most common form of dwarfism.
• Pedigree is used:
o To infer genotypes from the observation of phenotypes.
o To tell whether inheritance patterns are dominant or recessive.
o To predict the disorders for future off springs.
Complex patterns of inheritance
• Complex inheritance of traits does not follow inheritance patterns described by Mendel.
• Incomplete dominance: It occurs when the heterozygous phenotype is an intermediate phenotype

between the two homozygous phenotypes.
• When the heterozygous F1 generation snapdragon plants are allowed to self-fertilize, as shown in the
bottom, the flowers are red, pink, and white in a 1:2:1 ratio, respectively.
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• Codominance: It occurs when both alleles are expressed in the heterozygous condition. Sickle-cell disease
is an example.
• Sickle-cell disease affects red blood cells and their ability to transport oxygen. Changes in hemoglobin—
the protein in red blood cells—cause those blood cells to change to a sickle, or C-shape.
• Those who are heterozygous for the trait have both normal and sickle-shaped cells. These individuals can
lead relatively normal lives, as the normal blood cells compensate for the sickle-shaped cells.
• Multiple alleles: They are forms of inheritance which are

determined by more than two alleles. An example of such a
trait is human blood group.
• Blood groups in humans:-

a) The ABO blood group, shown in the right, has three
forms of alleles.
b) IA is blood type A, IB is blood type B, and i is blood type
O.
c) Allele i is recessive to IA and IB. However, IA and IB are
codominant; blood type AB results from both IA and IB
alleles.
d) The Rh blood group includes Rh factors, inherited from
each parent. Rh factors are either positive or negative
(Rh+ or Rh–); Rh+ is dominant. The Rh factor is a blood
protein named after the Rhesus.
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• Coat color of rabbits: Multiple alleles can demonstrate a hierarchy of dominance. In rabbits, four alleles
code for coat color:
a) Allele C is dominant to the other alleles.
b) Allele c is recessive and results in an albino phenotype when the genotype is homozygous
recessive.
c) Allele cch is dominant to ch.
d) Allele ch is dominant to c
• Full color is dominant over chinchilla, which is dominant over Himalayan, which is dominant over
albino.
• The presence of multiple alleles increases the possible number of genotypes and phenotypes.
• Epistasis: Coat color in Labrador retrievers (specific type of dogs) can vary from yellow to black. This
variety is the result of one allele hiding the effects of another allele, an interaction called epistasis.
• A Labrador’s coat color is controlled by two sets of alleles. The dominant allele E determines whether the
fur will have dark pigment. The fur of a dog with genotype ee will not have any pigment. The dominant B
allele determines how dark the pigment will be.
• If the dog’s genotype is EEbb or Eebb, the dog’s fur will be chocolate brown.
• Genotypes eebb, eeBb, and eeBB will produce a yellow coat, because the e allele masks the effects of the
dominant B allele.
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Sex Determination
• Each cell in your body contains 46 chromosomes, or 23 pairs of chromosomes. One pair of these
chromosomes, the sex chromosomes, determines an individual’s gender.
• There are two types of sex chromosomes—X and Y. Individuals with two X chromosomes are female, and
individuals with an X and a Y chromosome are male. The offspring’s gender is determined by the
combination of sex chromosomes in the egg and sperm cell.
• The other 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes, body chromosomes.
Dosage Compensation:
• X chromosome is larger than the Y chromosome. The X chromosome carries a variety of genes that are
necessary for the development of both females and males. The Y chromosome mainly has genes that
relate to the development of male characteristics.
• Because females have two X chromosomes, it seems as though females get two doses of the X
chromosome and males get only one dose. To balance the difference in the dose of X-related genes, one of
the X chromosomes stops working in each of the female’s body cells. This often is called dosage
compensation or X-inactivation. Which X chromosome stops working in each body cell is a completely
random event. Dosage compensation occurs in all mammals.
Chromosome inactivation:
• The coat colors of the calico cat shown in the figure are caused by
the random inactivation of a particular X chromosome. The
resulting colors depend on the X chromosome that is activated. The
orange patches are formed by the inactivation of the X chromosome
carrying the allele for black coat color.
• The black patches are a result of the inactivation of the X

chromosome carrying the allele for orange coat color.
• Barr Bodies: are inactivated X chromosomes in the cells of a female.

They are darkly colored and found in nuclei.
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Sex-Linked Traits
• Traits controlled by genes located on the X chromosome.
• Because males have only one X chromosome, they are affected by recessive X-linked traits more often
than are females. Females are less likely to express a recessive X-linked trait because the other X
chromosome may mask the effect of the trait.
• For example, the allele for baldness is recessive in females but dominant in males.
• Red-green color blindness:

1) The trait for red-green color blindness is a recessive X-linked trait.
2) Infected person views red and green as shades of gray.
3) The mother is a carrier for color blindness because she has the recessive
allele for color blindness on one of her X chromosomes.
4) Rare females are infected.
• Hemophilia: is a recessive sex-linked disorder characterized by delayed clotting

of the blood. It is more common in males than in females.
• Polygenic Traits: They arise from the interaction of multiple pairs of genes, such as skin color, height, eye
color, and fingerprint pattern.
• Environmental Influences: The environment has an effect on phenotype of the organism, such as
sunlight, water and temperature.
• The gene that codes for production of the color pigment in the Siamese cat’s body functions only under
cooler conditions. Therefore, the cooler regions are darker; and the warmer regions, where pigment
production is inhibited by temperature, are lighter.
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Twins Studies:
• Identical twins are genetically the same.
• Traits that appear frequently in identical twins are at least partially controlled by heredity. A large
difference between fraternal twins and identical twins shows a strong genetic influence.
• Concordance rate: is the percentage of twins who both express a given trait is called a.
Chromosomes and Human Heredity
Karyotypes Studying:
• Chromosomes can be studied using images of chromosome which called Karyotype.
• Notice that the 22 autosomes are matched together with one pair of nonmatching sex chromosomes.
• Scientists have found that chromosomes end in protective caps called telomeres. They consist of DNA
associated with proteins. Their function is to protect chromosomes.
• Scientists have discovered that telomeres also might be involved in both aging and cancer.
Nondisjunction:
• During cell division, the chromosomes separate, with one of each of the sister chromatids going to
opposite poles of the cell. Therefore, each new cell has the correct number of chromosomes.
• Cell division during which sister chromatids fail to separate properly, which does happen occasionally is
called nondisjunction. Therefore, the resulting gametes will not have the correct number of
chromosomes, as well as, the resulting gametes of the off spring.
• Trisomy: is having a set of three chromosomes of one kind.
• Monosomy: is having only one of a particular type of chromosome.
• In humans, alterations of chromosome numbers are associated with serious human dis orders, which are
often are fatal.
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Translated By: Abdullah Al Khani KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
• Down syndrome: It is the error in chromosomes that is formed by adding a
single chromosome to a pair of chromosomes (no.21) where it is the third
in that group of chromosomes. The infected individuals usually have
special characteristics like specific features in the face, shortness, mental
retardation, and cardiac disturbances.
• In the body and sex chromosomes, the division might not occur.
• An example of failure of division in the sex chromosomes is when the individual infected by (Turner
Syndrome) has only one sex chromosome. As a result, a fertilized gamete will not contain the X
chromosome.
Hereditary or genetic Substance DNA

• The scientist Griffith performed his first experiment in 1928 which resulted in the DNA discovery as a
hereditary substance.
• The scientists Hershey and Chase in 1952 recorded that the DNA instead of proteins is the genetic
substance that can be transferred from a generation to the other.
• The chemist Levin was able to find the original formula for the nucleotides that form DNA which is also
the building unit of nucleic acid. It consists of 5- carbon sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
• The two nucleic acid present in living cells are RNA and DNA.
• The nucleotides In the DNA consist of Deoxy ribose sugar, phosphate group, and one of the nitrogenous
bases (Adenine – Guanine – Cytosine – Thymine).
• The nucleotides in the RNA consist of Ribose sugar, phosphate group, and one of the nitrogenous bases
(Adenine – Guanine – Cytosine – Uracil).
• Guanine (G) and Adenine (A) are bases with double rings called Purines whereas Cytosine (C), Uracil
(U), and Thymine (T) are bases with one ring called pyrimidine.
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• The scientist Chargaff founded that the quantity of (G) is equal to the quantity of (C) and that of (A) is
equal to (T) almost in the same type and called it Chargaff rule (A=T, G=C).
• Watson and Crick created a model for the DNA as partially helical pair (double helix) or as a bended
ladder and that is based on the following:-
o Two external strands that consists of deoxy ribose sugar and phosphate alternately.
o Cytosine and Guanine are bonded together by a triple hydrogen bond.
o Thymine and Adenine are bonded together by a double hydrogen bond.
• The DNA part in (Prokaryotes) in living organisms is in the cytoplasm and is formed primarily from a
DNA ring while binding with proteins. However, in the Eukaryotic living organisms, the DNA is
presented as a single chromosome.
• In humans, the chromosome is made up of 51million to 245 million base pairs.
• For a DNA to be prepared inside the nucleus of a Eukaryotic cell, it should go around a group of proteins
called (Histones).
• The DNA surrounds the histones to form small nucleic bodies called (nucleosomes) then turn itself to
form fiber chromatins which turn furiously to form chromosomes.
DNA replication
• The DNA replicates by forming a new chain completing the original one.
• The process occurs at the period half or equal division.
• During semi - conservative replication, the DNA chains split to work as the building unit of the new
chain.
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• The semi – conservative replication consists of three stages (1- Breaking up 2- Bonding of nitrogenous
bases as pairs 3- reformation of the strands).
• Helicase: is The enzyme responsible for breaking up of the DNA.
• When the double helix strands split, the hydrogen bonds between the bases break which causes the single
DNA strands.
• DNA polymerase is the enzyme that adds the correct nucleotide to the new DNA chain.
• Each base pair binds with the complementary base like (A) with (T) which results in identical copies of
the original DNA strands.
• The original strand will be produced regularly whereas the other strand of DNA, called the lagging
strand, elongates away from the replication fork.
• It is synthesized discontinuously into small segments, (Okazaki fragements)
• The following enzymes (Helicase, DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase, Ligase) are essential in DNA
replication.
• The DNA sequence is copied into RNA to control protein production.
• The mechanism of reading the sequence starts from DNA to RNA to proteins. This occurs in all living
organisms and is called the basic principles’ in biology.
RNA strands
• Nucleic acid containing ribose sugar, a nitrogenous base (uracil) instead of Thymine found in the DNA,
and it is a single stranded with three parts:-
o Messenger RNA: carries the genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to be directed to a
specific protein in the cytoplasm.
o Ribosomal RNA: Binds with the proteins to produce ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
o Transport RNA: small substances that carry amino acid to ribosomes.
• Transcription process: Is when an mRNA strand is produced from a DNA strand.
• RNA Polymerase enzyme: It is the enzyme that directs the building of RNA by binding in specific
locations.
• Scientist discovered that the mRNA sequence is shorter than the DNA sequence. In addition, they
discovered that the DNA sequence contains chain organized parts that are not found in the final RNA;
these parts are called (introns) or intervening sequences whereas The coding sequences that remain in the
final mRNA are called exons or the sequenced segments.
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• Other processing of the pre-mRNA includes adding a protective cap on the 5' end and adding a tail of
many adenine nucleotides, called the poly-A tail, to the 3' end of the mRNA. Research shows that the cap
aids in ribosome recognition, though the significance of the poly-A tail remains unknown. The mRNA
that reaches the ribosome has been processed.
The Codon
• Codon: is the three-base code in DNA or mRNA.
• Each of the three bases of a codon in the DNA is transcribed into the mRNA code.
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Translation
• The code is read and translated to make a protein through a process called translation.
• In translation, tRNA molecules act as the interpreters of the mRNA codon sequence.
The role of ribosomes

• When the mRNA leaves the nucleus, the two parts of the ribosome come together and attach to the
mRNA to complete the ribosome.
• Once the mRNA is associated with the ribosome, a tRNA with the anticodon CAU carrying a methionine
will move in and bind to the mRNA start codon—AUG—on the 5' end of the mRNA.
• A second tRNA moves into a second groove in the ribosome, called the A site, and corresponds to the
next codon of the mRNA. The next codon is UUU, so a tRNA with the anticodon AAA moves in,
carrying the amino acid phenylalanine.
• The process of linking amino acids by sequencing continues till the synthesis of a protein.
Gene Regulation and Mutation

• Gene expression is regulated by the cell, and mutations can affect this expression.
• Gene regulation: is the ability of an organism to control which genes are transcribed in response to the
environment.
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• In prokaryotes, an operon often controls the transcription of genes in response to changes in the
environment.
• Operon: is a section of DNA that contains the genes for the proteins needed for a specific metabolic
pathway. The parts of an operon include an operator, promoter, regulatory gene, and the genes coding for
proteins. The operator is a segment of DNA that acts as an on/off switch for transcription. A second
segment of DNA, called the promoter, is where the RNA polymerase first binds to the DNA.
Controlling Transcription
• Transcription factors ensure that a gene is used at the right time and that proteins are made in the right
amounts.
• There are two main sets of transcription factors. One set of transcription factors forms complexes that
guide and stabilize the binding of the RNA polymerase to a promoter. The other set includes regulatory
proteins that help control the rate of transcription.
• Another method to control the genes in Eukaryotes is by RNA interference (RNAi).
• Small pieces of double-stranded RNA in the cytoplasm of the cell are cut by an enzyme called dicer. The
resulting double-stranded segments are called small interfering RNA. They bind to a protein complex
that degrades one strand of the RNA. The resulting single-stranded small interfering RNA and protein
complex bind to sequence-specific sections of mRNA in the cytoplasm, causing the mRNA in this region
to be cut and thus preventing its translation.
Mutations
• A mutation is a permanent change that occurs in a cell’s DNA ranging from changes in a single base pair
in the coding sequence of DNA to the deletions of large pieces of chromosomes.
• Cells sometimes make mistakes during replication. However, these mistakes are rare, and the cell has
repair mechanisms that can repair some damage.
• Because the mutation in the gene causes a change in the protein that is made, the enzyme is
nonfunctional.
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Types of mutations
• Point mutations: involve a chemical change in just one base pair and can be enough to cause a genetic
disorder. A point mutation in which one base is exchanged for another is called a substitution. Most
substitutions are missense mutations, where the DNA code is altered so that it codes for the wrong amino
acid.
• Other substitutions, called nonsense mutations, change the codon for an amino acid to a stop codon.
Nonsense mutations cause translation to terminate early. Nearly all nonsense mutations lead to proteins
that cannot function normally.
• Another type of mutation that can occur involves the gain or loss of a nucleotide in the DNA sequence.
Insertions are additions of a nucleotide to the DNA sequence, and the loss of a nucleotide is called a
deletion.
• Both of these mutations change the multiples of three, from the point of the insertion or deletion. These
are called frameshift mutations because they change the “frame” of the amino acid sequence.
• Sometimes mutations are associated with diseases and disorders. One example is alkaptonuria. Patients
with this disorder have a mutation in their DNA coding for an enzyme involved in digesting the amino
acid phenylalanine. This mutation results in the black-colored homogentisic acid that discolors the urine.
• Large portions of DNA can also be involved in a mutation. A piece of an individual chromosome
containing one or more genes can be deleted or moved to a different location on the chromosome, or
even to a different chromosome.
• A new kind of mutation was discovered that involves an increase in the number of copies of repeated
codons, called tandem repeats. The increase in repeated sequences seems to be involved in a number of
inherited disorders. The first known example was fragile X syndrome—a syndrome that results in a
number of mental and behavioral impairments.
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Causes of Mutations ( Some by chemicals and other by radiations)
• Some chemicals affect DNA by changing the chemical structure of the bases. Often these changes cause
bases to mispair, or bond, with the wrong base. Other chemical mutagens have chemical structures that
resemble nucleotides so closely that they can substitute for them. Once these imposter bases are
incorporated into the DNA, it cannot replicate properly.
• This type of chemical has become useful medically, especially in the treatment of HIV—the virus that
causes AIDS. Many drugs used to treat HIV and other viral infections mimic various nucleotides. Once
the drug is incorporated in the viral DNA, the DNA cannot copy itself properly.
• High-energy forms of radiation like X-rays and gamma rays, are highly mutagenic.
• UV radiation can cause adjacent thymine bases to bind to each other, disrupting the structure of DNA.
Genetic Engineering
• Selective breeding: is the process by which desired traits of certain plants and animals are selected and
passed on to their future generations.
• technology that involves manipulating the DNA of one organism in order to insert exogenous DNA (the
DNA of another organism).
• Modified Animal Genes: like chicken and fish where they are resistant to diseases, grow faster, and give
much more meat and milk.
Transgenic Plants
• Many species of plants have been genetically engineered to be more resistant to insect or viral pests and
produce much more crops, corn, cotton, and other nutrients.
Transgenic Bacteria
• Insulin, growth hormones, and substances that dissolve blood clots are made by transgenic bacteria.
Transgenic bacteria also slow the formation of ice crystals on crops to protect them from frost damage,
clean up oil spills more efficiently, and decompose garbage.
The Human Genome Project

• The goal of the HGP was to determine the sequence of the approximately three billion nucleotides that
make up human DNA and to identify all of the human genes. completed in 2003. A genome is the
complete genetic information in a cell.
• Scientists observed that less than two percent of all of the nucleotides in the human genome code for all
the proteins in the body. That is, the genome is filled with long stretches of repeated sequences that have
no direct function. These regions are called noncoding sequences.
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Translated By: Nawaf Al Otaibi KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
Flow of Energy in an Ecosystem
• Green plants: primary producers hat produce their own food through photosynthesis.
• Herbivores: is an organism that eats only plants.
• Carnivores: is an organism that prey on other organisms.
• Omnivores: are organisms that eat both plants and animals

like (bears).
• Detritivores: eat fragments of dead matter in an ecosystem

like (insects).
• Decomposers and detritivores organisms play an important

role in the ecosystem because they break down dead
organisms and they get rid of the wastes and organic
materials.
• Food chain: is a simple model that shows how energy flows

through an ecosystem.
• Food web: is a model representing the many interconnected food chains and pathways in which energy
flows through a group of organisms.
• Ecological pyramid: is a diagram that can show the relative amounts of energy, biomass, or numbers of
organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem.
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Cycling of Matter
• The main nutrients are cycled using the biogeochemical cycle.
• Nutrient: is a chemical substance that an organism must obtain from its environment to sustain life and
to undergo life processes.
• Biogeochemical cycle: is the exchange of matter through the biosphere is called the.
• Water is evaporating from bodies of water by sunlight.
• Clouds form and water vapor condenses into droplets.
• Water falls in the form of rain, sleet, snow, or hail.
• Freshwater constitutes only about 3 percent of all water on Earth.
• Water available for living organisms is about 31 percent of freshwater.
• 69 percent of freshwater is frozen and found in ice caps and glaciers, which makes it unavailable for use
by living organisms.
Carbon and oxygen cycles

• Carbon and oxygen often make up molecules essential for life. All living things are composed of
molecules that contain carbon.
• During photosynthesis, green plants and algae convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and
release oxygen back into the air.
• Carbon enters a long-term cycle when organic matter is buried underground and converted to peat, coal,
oil, or gas deposits. The carbon might remain as fossil fuel then released from fossil fuels when they are
burned.
• Carbon and oxygen can enter a long-term cycle also when they combine with calcium and create calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) which found in coral, clams, and oysters.
• Carbon dioxide is recycled when autotrophs and heterotrophs release it back into the air during cellular
respiration.
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Nitrogen cycle
• Nitrogen: is an element found in proteins. The largest concentration of nitrogen is found in the
atmosphere.
• Nitrogen gas is captured from the air by species of bacteria that live in water, the soil, or grow on the
roots of some plants.
• Nitrogen fixation: is the process of capture and conversion of nitrogen into a form that is usable by
plants.
• When organisms die, decomposers transform the nitrogen in proteins and other compounds into
ammonia. Organisms in the soil convert ammonia into nitrogen compounds that can be used by plants.
• Denitrification: Some soil bacteria convert fixed nitrogen compounds back into nitrogen gas, which
returns it to the atmosphere.
The phosphorus cycle

• Phosphorus: is an element that is essential for the growth and development of organisms. It has two
cycles a short-term and long-term cycle.
• In the short-term cycle, phosphorus in phosphates in solution, is cycled from the soil to producers and
then from the producers to consumers. When organisms die or produce waste products, decomposers
return the phosphorus to the soil.
• In the long-term cycle, weathering or erosion of rocks that contain phosphorus slowly adds phosphorus
to the cycle.
Community Ecology
• Limiting factor: Any abiotic factor or biotic factor that restricts the numbers, reproduction, or
distribution of organisms.
• Tolerance: The ability of any organism to survive when subjected to abiotic factors or biotic factors.
• Cactus plant has the ability to preserve water and enduring the dry desert conditions.
• Steelhead trout can live in temperature between 13°C and 21°C. However, steelhead trout can survive
water temperatures from 9°C to 25°C. At these temperatures, steelhead trout experience physiological
stress, such as inability to grow or reproduce. They will die if the water temperature goes beyond the
upper and lower limits.
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• Ecological succession: The change in an ecosystem that happens when one community replaces another
because of changing abiotic and biotic factors.
• Forest fires can be good and even necessary for the forest community. Forest fires return nutrients to the
soil.
• Some plants, such as fireweed, have seeds that will not sprout until they are heated by fire.
• There are two types of ecological succession :

o Primary succession: The establishment of a community in an area of exposed rock that does not
have any topsoil.
The first organisms to appear, pioneer species, help to create soil by secreting acids that
help to break down rocks.
o Secondary succession: is the orderly and predictable change that takes place after a community of
organisms has been removed but the soil has remained intact.
• Pioneer species: mainly plants that begin to grow in the disturbed area—are the first species to start
secondary succession. While in the primary, the pioneer species are Lichens and mosses.
• Climax community: The stable, mature community that results when there is little change in the
composition of species.
Terrestrial Biomes
• Latitude effect on the biomes depends on
the angle at which the light rays reach earth.
• Light from the Sun strikes Earth more

directly at the equator than at the poles.
• Weather: is the condition of the atmosphere

at a specific place and time.
• Climate: The average weather conditions in

an area for a long period of time.
• There are ways humans might be affecting climate, through the hole in the ozone layer and through the
global warming.
• Ozone: The ozone layer (O3) is a protective layer in the atmosphere that absorbs most of the harmful UV
radiation from the Sun.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) contribute to a seasonal reduction in ozone concentration.
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• The ozone hole is concentrated more at the Antarctic zone.
• Greenhouse effect: a result of the global warming at which carbon dioxide and methane gas are the causes
of this phenomena.
• Tundra: Arctic area on earth (Extending in a band below the polar ice caps across northern Europe,
North America, and Siberia in Asia). Thick ice covers it along the year.
• This biome does not contain trees and some shallow-rooted plants grows there. The average temperature
at winter is -30 Co.
• Some animals live in tundra. For example: (polar bears, wolves, owl, reindeer, and penguins).
• Boreal forest: also called northern coniferous forest, or taiga. It is a dense evergreen forest. Like
Cupressus trees.
• Jungles: are places at which bushes are dense.
• Examples on animals: (beavers, moose, and wolverines).
• Temperate forest: summers are hot, and winters are cold.
• Composed mostly of broad-leaved, deciduous trees—trees that shed their leaves in autumn to conserve
water. There are many trees in this biome like oak and beech trees, and some animals like squirrels,
rabbits, birds, and foxes.
Temperate Woodland and Shrubland

• Found in areas with less annual rainfall like the areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, on the western
coasts of North and South America, in South Africa, and Australia. Summers are very hot and dry;
winters are cool and wet. It contain trees like evergreen oak and animals like foxes, snakes, and rabbits.
• Temperate grassland: A biome that is characterized by fertile soils that are able to support a thick cover
of grasses. They are called steppes in Asia, prairies in North America, pampas and Llanos in South
America, and savannas in Africa.
• It has many grasses, herbs, and animals like gazelles, horses, and snakes.
• Desert: Deserts exist on every continent except (Europe).
• There are few amounts of water and plants in desert but it is full of sand dunes.
• Many spiny with few leaves and squeezers plants can be found in desert like cacti and Joshua tree.
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• It has a varying temperature, low rainfall.

• Animals like lizards, tortoises, and rats.
• The most dominant biome in Saudi Arabia is the desert.
• Tropical savanna: characterized by grasses and scattered trees and less rainfall. Tropical savanna biomes
occur in Africa and South America. It has many species of animals like elephants, lions, zebras, hyenas,
birds, and insects. Summers are hot and rainy, and winters are cool and dry.
• Tropical seasonal forest: also called tropical dry forests. Almost all of the trees, like mosses, drop their
leaves to conserve water. Many animals live there like tigers, monkeys, and elephants. It is in the areas of
Africa, Asia, and Australia.
• Tropical rain forest: characterized by the Warm temperatures and large amounts of rainfall throughout
the year. It is found in the areas of Central, South America, and west central Africa. It has many trees like
broadleaf evergreens, bamboo, ferns, orchids as well as many animals like chimpanzees, sloths, bats, and
tigers.
• Mountains: Temperature decreases and climate change as the elevation increases. The variation in the
height of the mountain lead to variation on not only the temperature but also the rainfall rate. As a result,
variation in communities will exist.
Aquatic Ecosystems
• The currents and turbulence of fast-moving rivers and streams prevent much accumulation of organic
materials and sediment. For this reason, there are usually fewer species living in rapid waters.
• Sediment: is material that is deposited by water, wind, or glaciers.
• In slow-moving water, insect larvae are the primary food source for many fish.
• An inland body of standing water is called a lake or a pond.
• Plankton: are free-floating photosynthetic autotrophs that live in freshwater or marine ecosystems.
• In the summer, the warmer water on top is less dense than the colder water at the bottom.
• The reaction between the wind and water will move the surface water that will add more oxygen. In
addition, the interaction between water and land will lead to erosion and supplies of nutrients and change
of the river’s direction.
• Nutrient-poor lakes: also called oligotrophic are often are found high in the mountains. Few plant and
animal species are present because of small amounts of organic matter and nutrients.
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• Nutrient-rich lakes: also called eutrophic usually are found at lower altitudes. Many plant and animal
species are present because of organic matter and plentiful nutrients, which come from agricultural and
urban activities.
• Lakes and ponds are divided into three zones based on the amount of sunlight that penetrates the water :-
(littoral zone, limnetic zone, profundal zone).
• Littoral zone: The water in this zone is shallow, which allows sunlight to reach the bottom. Many
producers, such as aquatic plants and algae, live in these shallow waters.
• Limnetic zone: is the open water area that is well lit and is dominated by plankton. Many species of
freshwater fish live in the limnetic zone because food is readily available.
• Profundal zone: Minimal light is able to penetrate through the limnetic zone into the deepest areas of a
large lake, so it is much colder and lower in oxygen. A limited number of species live in this harsh
environment.
• Wetlands: Areas of land such as marshes and swamps that are rich with water and salts. They are
classified as a transitional aquatic ecosystem. Many mosses are found there as well as many animals like
ducks and herons and plants like pond lilies, mangroves, and willows.
• Estuaries: an important transitional ecosystem. They are among the most diverse ecosystems. It is formed
where freshwater from a river or stream merges with salt water from the ocean. Many animals, including
a variety of worms, oysters, crabs, Waterfowl, such as ducks and geese, can be found in this ecosystem.
• Oceans: it has the highest percentage of earth’s water.
• Abyssal zone: The deepest region of the ocean which is dark and has a very cold water.
• Intertidal zone: is a narrow band where the ocean meets land.
• Divided to spray zone (dry), high-tide zone (more plants and animals are able to live there), mid-tide
zone (undergoes severe disruption twice a day as the tides cover and uncover the shoreline with water,
and the low-tide zone (covered with water and the most populated area).
• Species diversity tends to decrease with depth and many species of fishes, octopuses, and squids live in the
benthic zone.
• Benthic zone: consists of sand, silt, and dead organisms.
• Scientists have found bacterial communities existing in these locations that can use the sulfide molecules
for energy.
• Coastal ocean and coral reefs: Corals are soft-bodied invertebrates that live in the stone like structures.
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• Coral polyps have a symbiotic relationship with algae called Zooxanthellae. They provide corals with
food, and in turn, the coral provides protection.
• Other coral reef animals include species of octopuses, sea urchins, and sea stars.
• Freshwater ecosystems include ponds, lakes, streams, and rivers.
Population Dynamics
• All species occur in groups called populations.
• Population density: the number of organisms per unit area.
• Dispersion: the pattern of spacing of a population within an area.
• There are three kinds of distributions:

o Uniform, like spiny-tailed lizards (‫)ﺿب‬, clumped groups like camel, and random like Sterna
birds.
o Some species like peregrine falcon (‫ )ﺷﺎھﯾن‬spreads widely in Saudi Arabia and can be found in all
the continents except Antarctica.
o Species might not be able to expand its population range because it cannot survive the abiotic
conditions found in the expanded region.
Population-Limiting Factors:
• ( a-fire, b-human alterations of the landscape, c-climate changes, d- food resources).
• If the food supply increases, a larger population might result, and if the food supply decreases, a smaller
population might result.
• Weather events that limit populations include (drought or flooding, extreme heat or cold, tornadoes, and
hurricanes).
• Fires may destroy communities in the woods by burning the trees, small plants, birds, animals and
worms.
• Populations can be limited by the unintended results of human alterations of the landscape by building
dams, water diversions, water barriers, changing the flow direction, as well as air, land, and water
pollution.
• These factors usually are abiotic and they (does not depend on the number of members in a population
per unit area).
• Density-dependent factors are often biotic factors such as predation, disease, parasites, and competition.
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• Outbreaks of disease tend to occur when population size has increased and population density is high.
• Competition between organisms also increases when density increases. As the population size decreases,
competition becomes less severe.
• The number of organisms in a population can identify parasites.
• One of the Characteristics of the population ecologists must know, or at least estimate, is natality. The
natality of a population is the birthrate, or the number of individuals born in a given time period. There is
also the mortality—the number of deaths that occur in the population during a given time period.
• Emigration: the number of individuals moving away from a population.
• Immigration: the number of individuals moving into a population.
• The population grows slowly at first in a slow growth period called (lag phase) until the total number of
organisms that are able to reproduce has increased.
• The increase of the population will cease when the mortality is higher than natality or when the
Emigration rate is higher than immigration rate.
• Carrying capacity: The maximum number of individuals in a species that an environment can support
for the long term. It is limited by the energy, water, oxygen, and nutrients available. When there is an
environment with plentiful of resources, there are more births than deaths that lead the population soon
to reaches or passes the carrying capacity. When the population reaches carrying capacity, resources
become limited.
• Population reaches equilibrium at the carrying capacity.
• (Reproduction rate strategies) between elephants, flies, and locust(grasshopper):-
Whence Elephants Flies and grasshoppers

Period between
pregnancy and birth or Long Short
hatchling.
Life cycle Long Short
Number of offspring Few Plentiful
Care and attention
exist Does not exist.
toward the offspring
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Translated By: Khalid Al Hamdan KIFAYAT Tahsili Biology Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi
• Demography: is the study of human population size, density, distribution, movement, and birth and
death rates
• Demographic transition: is the change in a population from high birth and death rates to low birth and
death rates.
• Zero population growth (ZPG): occurs when births plus immigration equals deaths plus emigration.
• A population’s age structure: is the number of males and females in each of three age groups: pre-
reproductive stage ,reproductive stage, and post-reproductive stage
Biodiversity
• Extinction: Entire species permanently disappear from the biosphere when the last member of the species
dies. As species become extinct, the variety of species in the biosphere decreases, which decreases the
health of the biosphere.
• Biodiversity: is the variety of life in an area that is determined by the number of different species in that
area .
• Biodiversity increases the stability of an ecosystem and contributes to the health of the biosphere. There
are three types of biodiversity to consider : genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity
Pollution
• Pollution and atmospheric changes threaten biodiversity and global stability. Pollution changes the
composition of air, soil, and water.
• Biological magnification: is the increasing concentration of toxic substances in organisms as trophic

levels increase in a food chain or food web
• Acid rain: When fossil fuels are burned, sulfur dioxide is released into the atmosphere. In addition, the
burning of fossil fuels in automobile engines releases nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere .
• These compounds react with water and other substances in the air to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid
Conserving Biodiversity
• The biosphere currently supplies the basic needs for more than six billion-humans in the form of natural
resources. The human population continues to grow, and the growth is not evenly distributed
throughout the world. An increase in human population growth increases the need for natural resources
to supply the basic needs of the population
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• Renewable resources: resources that are replaced by natural processes faster than they are consumed.
• Nonrenewable resources: resources that are found on Earth in limited amounts or that are replaced by
natural processes over extremely long periods of time.
• Sustainable use: using resources at a rate at which they can be replaced or recycled while preserving the
long-term environmental health of the biosphere
• Bioremediation: is the use of living organisms, such as prokaryotes, fungi, or plants, to detoxify a
polluted area.
• Biological augmentation: Adding natural predators to a degraded ecosystem.
Legally Protecting Biodiversity

During the 1970s, a great deal of attention was focused on destruction of the environment and maintaining
biodiversity.
Basic Behaviors
• Behavior: is the way an animal responds to a stimulus.
• Stimulus: is an environmental change that directly influences the activity of an organism comes from
outside the body. An external stimulus could be the smell a stimulus of food, someone calling your name,
or the sight of a predator.
• Innate behaviors: are behaviors that are genetically based and not linked to past experiences.
• Fixed action pattern: when an animal carries out a specific set of actions in sequence, in response to a
stimulus.
• Learned behaviors result from an interaction between innate behaviors and past experiences within a
particular environment.
• Habituation: is a decrease in an animal’s response after repeatedly being exposed to a stimulus that has
no positive or negative effects.
• Classical conditioning: occurs when an association is made between two different kinds of stimuli
• In operant conditioning: an animal learns to associate its response to a stimulus with a reward or a
punishment
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• Imprinting: is the learning that can only occur within a specific time period in an animal’s life and is
permanent.
• Cognitive behaviors: are thinking, reasoning, and processing information to understand complex
concepts and solve problems.
Ecological behaviors
• Animals that engage in complex behaviors survive and reproduce because they have inherited genes that
allow them to be successful in a particular environment.
• Competitive behaviors: Competition for food, space, mates, and other resources occurs between
individuals within a population
• Agonistic: is the Threatening or combative interaction between two individuals of the same species
• Dominance hierarchies: in which a top-ranked animal has access to resources without conflict from
other animals in the group.
• This ranking system helps reduce hostile behaviors among animals
• Territorial behaviors: are attempts to adopt and control a physical area against the other animals of the
same species
• Biological rhythms: Many animals, including humans, repeat behaviors in a rhythmic cycle.
• Circadian Rhythm: is a cycle, such as sleeping and waking, that occurs daily.
• Other biological cycles are seasonal or yearly. These cycles are influenced by environmental factors such
as temperature changes, the increase or decrease of daylight hours, and the availability of food and water.
• Animal communication: dogs bark, birds chirp, wolves howl, and lions roar. These are all examples of
Wolves howl to communicate information over long distances, including letting other wolves know their
location, attracting mates, and signaling the presence of a predator. Such communication behaviors are
critical to the survival and reproductive success of animals. Animals have several types of communication
behaviors.
• Pheromones: Some animals communicate by spreading highly specific chemicals.
• An animal engages in courting behaviors in order to attract a mate
• Nurturing behaviors: when parents provide care to their offspring in the early stages of development.
• Altruistic behavior: Sometimes an animal will perform an action that benefits another individual at a cost
to itself.
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KIFAYAT Tahisli Biology - First Edition V3

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Students for Students

Translated By: 12C

Supervised By: Teacher Saleem Al Faloogi

For any suggestions and information:

• The response to an internal or external stimulant is called, response

• Adaptation: the act of adapting

Plant Cell Animal Cell

Nucleus On The Side In The Center

Chloroplast There Is Chloroplast No Chloroplast

Vacuoles Large Small / Distributed

Centriole There Is Centriole No Centriole

Cell Structure Example Function Cell Type

Plant cells, fungi

Organelles that occur in pairs and are Animal cells and

Projections from cell surfaces that aid in Some animal

A framework for the cell within the All eukaryotic

Endoplasmic A highly folded membrane that is the All eukaryotic

A flattened stack of tubular membranes

A vesicle that contains digestive

A membrane-bound organelle that

The control center of the cell that

Organelle that is the site of protein

• There is two main types of cells : Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic

• The plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer

• The cell membrane is like fluid mosaic model

• Ribosomes (builds up proteins), Mitochondria (source of chemical energy).

• the cells of living organisms are composed of organic compounds.

• Organic compounds are the main building unites.

Group Example Function

Bread and grains

• Store and communicate

• Peptide bond links amino acids to produces proteins

• Nucleotides chains are made of Nucleic acids.

• Enzymes: (are proteins)

• Protein: is a compound made of small carbon compounds called amino acids.

o Nucleic acids are made of smaller repeating subunits , called nucleotides.

o A nucleotide with three phosphate groups is adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

• Hard green apples ripen because of the action of enzymes.

• Carolus Linnaeus, who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics.

Domain —> Eukarya

Kingdom —> Animalia

Phylum —> Chordata

Class —> Mammals

Order —> Carnivores

Family —> Ursidae

Genus —> Ursus

Species —> Ursus arctos

• The virus consists of DNA enclosed by a protein coat.

• Archaeabacteria have a nucleoid- the nucleus is not surrounded by a nuclear envelope.

• Bacteria have strong cell walls that contain peptidoglycan.

• Some bacteria, such as the cyanobacteria in Figure 1, are photosynthetic.

• Examples of Bacterial diseases:

• The fungus is an organism that is unicellular or multicellular, non-photosynthetic, that has a

• A virus is a nonliving strand of genetic material within a protein coat.

• Prion: is a protein that can cause infection or disease is called a.

• Most viruses range in size from 5 to 300 nanometers

• To replicate, a virus must enter a host cell.