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Introduction To Hydrology (PDFDrive)
Introduction To Hydrology (PDFDrive)
Introduction To Hydrology (PDFDrive)
PREFACE xiii
PART ONE
CYCLE
THE HYDROLOGIC
CHAPTER1
lntroduction
1.1 Hydrology Defined 3
t.2 A Brief History 3
r.3 The Hydrologic Cycle 5
t.4 The Hydrologic Budget 5
1.5 HydrologicModels 11
1.6 HydrologicData 11
I.7 Common Units of Measurement 12
1.8 Application of Hydrology to Environmental Problems t2
CHAPTER2
Precipitation 1 5
2.1 Water Vapor 15
2.2 Precipitation 17
2.3 Distribution of the Precipitation Input
2,4 Point Precipitation 27
2.5 Areal Precipitation 29
2.6 ProbableMaximum Precipitation 34
2.7 Grossand Net PreciPitation 36
vi coNTENTS
CHAPTER3
Interception
and Depression
Storage 40
3.1 Interception 40
3.2 Throughfall 44
3.3 DepressionStorage 45
CHAPTER4
Infiltration 52
4.I MeasuringInfiltration 53
4.2 Calculation of Infiltration 53
4.3 Horton's Infiltration Model 57
4.4 Green-AMPT Model 64
4.5 Huggins-MonkeModel 67
4.6 Holtan Model 68
4.7 Recoveryof Infiltration Capacity 69
4.8 Temporal and Spatial Variability of Infiltration Capacity 70
4.9 SCS Runoff Curve Number Procedure 73
4.10 @Index 76
CHAPTER5
Evaporation
and Transportation 82 "
5.1 Evaporation 86
5.2 EstimatingEvaporation 86
5.3 EvaporationControl 95
5.4 Transpiration 95
5.5 TranspirationControl 100
5.6 Evapotranspiration 100
5.7 EstimatingEvapotranspiration 103
CHAPTER6
Streamflow 111
6.1 DrainageBasinEffects 111
6.2 The Hydrograph 11,2
6.3 Units of Measurementfor Streamflow 113
6.4 Measuringand RecordingStreamflow 113
6.5 Measurements of Depth and Cross-Sectional Area II4
6.6 Measurementof Velocity lI4
6.7 RelatingPoint Velocity to Cross-SectionalFlow Velocity 115
6.8 The Slope-AreaMethod for DeterminingDischarge II7
oONTENTS Vii
PART TWO
AND MONITORING 121
fT'IEASUREMENTS
HYDROLOGIG
CHAPTER7
DataSources
Hydrologic 123
7.1 GeneralClimatologicalData I23
7.2 Precipitation Data 123
7.3 StreamflowData 124
7.4 Evaporationand TranspirationData I24
CHAPTER8
fnstrumentation126
8.1 Introduction 126
8.2 HYdrologicInstruments 127
8.3 TelemetrySYstems 135
8.4 RemoteSensing 135
CHAPTER9
Networks 144
Monitoring
9.r The Purposeof Monitoring 144
9.2 SpecialConsiderations I45
9.3 Uie of ComPutersin Monitoring I47
9.4 Hydrological-MeteorlogicalNetworks 147
PART THREE
SURFACEWATERHYDROLOGY151
CHAPTER1O
Runoffandthe Catchnient 153
10.1 Catchments,Watersheds,and DrainageBasins 153
tO.2 Basin CharacteristicsAffecting Runoff 155
10.3 RudimentaryPrecipitation-RunoffRelationships 164
IO.4 StreamflowFrequencyAnalysis 166
10.5 StreamflQwForecasting 168
CHAPTER11
Hydrographs 171
11.1 StreamflowHYdrograPhs 171
Il.2 FactorsAffecting HydrographShape 172
11.3 HydrograPhComPonents 174
viii ooNTENTS
lI.4 BaseFlow Separation I77
11.5 HydrographTime Relationships 181
11.6 Time of Concentration I82
Il.7 BasinLae Time I82
CHAPTER12
UnitHydrographs 188
l2.I Unit HydrographDefinition 188
12.2 Derivation of Unit Hydrographsfrom StreamflowData 190
12.3 Unit HydrographApplications by Lagging Methods I94
12.4 S-HydrographMethod 198
12.5 The InstantaneousUnit Hydrograph 201
12.6 SyntheticUnit Hydrographs 205
CHAPTER13
Hydrograph
Routing 234
13.1 HydrologicRiver Routing 235
13.2 HydrologicReservoirRouting 245
13.3 Hydraulic River Routing 248
CHAPTER14
SnowHydrology 265
I4.l Introduction 265
I4.2 Snow Accumulation and Runoff 267
I4.3 Snow Measurementsand Surveys 268
I4.4 Point and Areal Snow Characteristics 269
14.5 The SnowmeltProcess 271.
14.6 SnowmeltRunoff Determinations 284
CHAPTER15
Urbanand SmallWatershedHydrology 309
15.1 Introduction 309
15.2 PeakFlow Formulasfor Urban Watersheds 311
i5.3 PeakFlow Formulasfor Small Rural Watersheds 33I
15.4 Runoff Effects of Urbanization 344
CHAPTER16
Hydrologic
Design 359
16.l Hydrologic DesignProcedures 360
16.2 Data for HydrologicDesign 363
CONTENTS IX
16.3 HydrologicDesign-Frequency Criteria 365
16.4 DesignStorms 373
16.5 Critical EventMethods 391
t6.6 Airport DrainageDesign 400
16.7 Designof Urban Storm Drain Systems 402
16.8 FloodplainAnalysis 409
PART FOUR
GROUNDWATER
HYDROLOGY 425
CHAPTER17
Groundwater,
Soils,and Geology 427
l7.l Introduction 427
I7.2 GroundwaterFlow-General Properties 429
I7.3 SubsurfaceDistribution of Water 429
I7.4 GeologicConsiderations 430
I7.5 Fluctuationsin GroundwaterLevel 433
I7.6 Groundwater-Surface Water Relations 433
CHAPTER 18
Mechanics
of Flow 435
18.1 Hydrostatics 435
t8.2 GroundwaterFlow 436
18.3 Darcy's Law 436
18.4 Permeability 438
18.5 Velocity Potential 440
18.6 HydrodynamicEquations 441
r8.7 ' Flowlines and EquipotentialLines 444
18.8 BoundaryConditions 447
18.9 Flow Nets 449
1 8 . 1 0 VariableHydraulic Conductivity 451
1 8 . 1 1 Anisotropy 452
18.t2 Dupuit's Theory 453
CHAPTER 19
Wellsand Collection
Devices 460
19.1 Flow to Wells 460
19.2 SteadyUnconfinedRadial Flow Toward a Well 461
19.3 SteadyConfined Radial Flow Toward a Well 462
19.4 Well in A Uniform Flow Field 463
19.5 Well Fields 465
X CONTENTS
CHAPTER20
ModelingRegionalGroundwater
Systems 481
20.I RegionalGroundwaterModels 481
20.2 Finite-DifferenceMethods 484
20.3 Finite-ElementMethods 493
20.4 Model Applications 494
20.5 GroundwaterQuality Models 500
PART FIVE
HYDROLOGICMODELING 505
CHAPTER 21
Introduction
to Hydrologic
Modeling 5O7
2l.I HydrologicSimulation 508
2t.2 GroundwaterSimulation 509
21.3 Hydrologic Simulation Protocol 524
21.4 Corps of EngineersSimulation Models 526
CHAPTER22
SyntheticStreamflows 535
22.I SyntheticHydrology 536
22.2 Serially DependentTime SeriesAnalysis 539
CHAPTER23
Continuous
Simulation
Models 548
23.1 ContinuousStreamflowSimulationModels 549
23.2 ContinuousSimulation Model Studies 570
CHAPTER24
Single-Event
Simulation
Models 594
24.1 StormEventSimulation 594
24.2 FederalAgency Single-EventModels 597
24.3 Storm SurgeModeling 625
CONTENTS Xi
CHAPTER25
UrbanRunotfSimulation
Models 630
25.1 Urban StormwaterSystemModels 63I
25.2 Urban Runoff Models Compared 659
25.3 Vendor-DevelopedUrbanStormwaterSoftware 663
PART SIX
METHODS
STATISTICAL 669
CHAPTER26
Probability
and Statistics 671
26.1 RandomVariablesand StatisticalAnalysis 672
26.2 Conceptsof Probability 673
26.3 ProbabilityDistributions 676
26.4 Moments of Distributions 681
26.5 Distribution Characteristics 682
26.6 Types of Probability Distribution Functions 685
26.7 ContinuousProbabilityDistributionFunctions 685
26.8 Bivariate Linear Regressionand Correlation 690
26.9 Fitting RegressionEquations 692
2 6 .r0 Regressionand Correlation Applications 697
CHAPTER27
Frequency
Analysis 708
27.1 FrequencyAnalysis 708
27.2 GraphicalFrequencyAnalysis 709
27.3 FrequencyAnalysis Using FrequencyFactors 7Il
27.4 RegionalFrequencyAnalysis 7I9
27.5 Reliability of FrequencyStudies 730
27.6 FrequencyAnalysis of Partial Duration Series 734
27.7 Flow Duration Analysis 737
APPENDICES 751
INDEX 757
Preface
WarrenViessman.Jr.
Gary L. Lewis
PARTONE
CYCLE
THE HYDROLOGIC
L.
Chapter1
lntroduction
I Prologue
The purPoseof this chaPteris to:
DEFINED
1.1 HYDROLOGY
Hydrologyisanearthscience'Itencompassestheoccuffence'distribution,move-
A knowledgeof hydrologyis funda-
menr, and propertiesof the watersof the earth.
mentaltodecisionmutingp,o.",,e,*he,ewaterisu"ompon"nto.f.th.esystemof
inextricably linked' and it is important
concern.water and environmentalissuesare
toclear$understandhowwaterisaffectedbyandhowwateraffectsecosystem
maniPulations'
1.2 A BRIEFHISTORY
Ancient philosophersfocusedtheir i
flows
Production of surfacewater
oc"ur."n"e of water in variousstag
from the seato the atmosPhereto t
early speculationwas often faulty'l
of large subterraneanreservoirsth
is interestingto note, however'tha
*suoeriornumbersindicatereferencesattheendofthechapter.
CHAPTER1 INTRODUCTION
of
teenth century, much of the effort was empirical in nature. The fundamentals
physicalhydtotogyhad not yet beenwell establishedor widely recognized.In the early
years of tle twJntieth ""niury the inadequaciesof many earlier empirical formula-
to
tions becamewell known. As a result, interestedgovernmentalagenciesbegan
developtheir own programs of hydrologic From
research' about 1930to 1950, rational
analysis began to ieplace empiricism.3 Sherman's unit hydrograph, Horton's
infiltration theory, und Th"it's nonequilibrium-approachto well hydraulicsare out-
standingexamplesof the great progressmade'r2-'o
Since 1930 a theoreiical approachto hydrologicproblemshas largely replaced
permit a
less sophisticatedmethods of ttre past. Advancesin scientific knowledge
and '
better understandingofthe physicaibasisofhydrologic relations,and the advent
continueddevelopnientof high-speeddigital computershavemadepossible,in both -
would
a practical and an economiciense,extensivemathematicalmanipulationsthat
havebeen overwhelming in the past.
For a more compiehensivi historical treatment, the reader is referred to the
works of Meinzer,Jonls, Biswas,and their co-workers'1'2'4'5'15
CYCLE
1 . 3THE HYDROLOGIC
the
The hydrologiccycle is a continuousprocessby which water is transportedfrom
to the landind back to the sea.Many subcycles exist' The
oceansto the atmosphere
evaporationof inlan-dwater and its subsequent precipitation over land beforereturn-
ingio the oceanis one example. The driving force for the global watertransportsystem
is providedby the sun,which furnishes the energy requiredfor evaporation'Note that
the water quality also changes during passage through the cycle; for example,sea
water is convertedto fresh water through evaporation'
The completewater cycle is global in nature. world water problems require
Practical
studieson regional,national,internitional, continental,and global scales.16
significanceof the fact that the total supply of fresh water available to the earth is
has
limited and very small compared with ihe salt water content of the oceans
at the
receivedlittle attention.Thus watersflowing in one country cannotbe available
u's'
same time for use in other regions of the world. Raymond L' Nace of the
GeologicalSurvey has aptly sta=ted thatoowaterresourcesare a global problem with
local roots."tu Mtdern hydrologists are obligated to cope with problems requiring
definition in varying scales of oider of magnitudedifference.In addition, developing
techniquesto contiol weather must receive careful attention, since climatological
changesin one area can profoundly affect the hydrology and therefore the water
resourcesof other regions.
BUDGET
1 . 4 THE HYDROLOGIC
Becausethe total quantity of water availableto the earth is finite and indestructible,
subsys-
the global hydrolojic ,yrt"* may be lookedupon as closed.Open hydrologic
system'
temsare abundantlhowever,and theseare usuallythe type analyzed'For any
'
a water budgetcan be developedto accountfor the hydrologiccomponents'
CHAPTER1 INTRODUCTION
Consumptive
use
*r-d{i; 100bgd
P P P P P P
E E E
t t
E' evaporation;P'
'surfac-e cycle: ?, transpiration;
Figure 1.2 The hydrologic
R, runoff; G, groundwater flow; and I'
p.Sqipi*i"tt
inflltration.
t
Precipitation inPut
(hyetogaph)
'l,r\
t
SSeamflow
(hyclrograPh)
["
Earth's surface
Surface channels
R2
1. Hydrologicbudgetabovethe surface
P+R1 -RrIRr-E"-7,- 1:AS" (1.1)
EXAMPLE 1.1
In a given year,a 10,000-mi2wabrshedreceived20 in. of precipitation.The average
rate of flow measuredin the river drainingthe areawasfound to be 700 cfs (cubicfeet
per second).Make a rough estimateof the combinedamountsof waterevaporatedand
transpiredfrom the region during the year of record.
Solution. Beginningwith the basic hydrologicequation
P - R - G - E - Z : A S (r.4)
and sinceevaporationand transpirationcan be combined,
ET:P-ft-G-AS (1.6)
ET:P_R
1.6 HYDROLOGIC 'I1
DATA
which canbe solveddirectly.First, changeR into inchesper yearsothat the units
are compatible:
_ ft3 1 sec
r \ t - r . , , 6 ^ :R,in.
sec area (m n-l yt II
7 0 0 x 8 6 ; 4 0 0 x 3 6 5 x 1 :2
R _ 0.95in.
104x (5280)'
Therefore,ET : 20 - 0.95 : 19.05in./yr.
The amountof evapotranspirationfor the year in questionis estimatedto
be 19.05in. This is admittedlya crudeapproximationbut could serveasa useful
guide for water resourcesplanning. ll
1.5 HYDROLOGIC
MODELS
Hydrologic systemsare generally analyzedby using mathematicalmodels.'These
modelsmay be empirical, statistical,or foundedon known physicallaws.They may
be usedfor suchsimplepurposesas determiningthe rate of flow that a roadwaygrate
mustbe designedto handle,or they may guidedecisionsaboutthe bestway to develop
a river basinfor a rnultiplicity of objectives.The choiceof the modelshouldbe tailored
to the purposefor which it is to be used.In general,'thesimplestmodel capableof
producinginformation adequateto deal with the issueshouldbe chosen.
Unfortunately,most waterresourcessystemsof practicalconcernhavephysical,
social,political, environmental,andlegaldirnensions;andtheir interactionscannotbe
exactly describedin mathematicalterms. Furthermore,the historical data necessary
for meaningful hydrologic analysesare often lacking or unreliable. And when one
considersthat hydrologic systemsare generallyprobabilistic in nature, it is easyto
understandthat the modeler'stask is not a simpleone.In fact, it is often the casethat
the best that can be hoped for from a model is an enhancedunderstandingof the
systembeing analyzed.But this in itself can be of great value, leading,for example,
to the implementationof datacollectionprogramsthat canultimately supportreliable
modelingefforts.
For the most part, mathematicalmodels are designedto describethe way a
system'selementsrespondto sometype of stimulus(input). For example,a model of
'a groundwater
systemmight be developedto demonstratethe effectson groundwater
storageof various schemesfor pumping. Equations 1.1 and L2 are mathematical
modelsof the hydrologicbudget,and Figure 1.3 can be considereda pictorial model
of the rainfall-runoff process.In later chapters,a variety of hydrologicmodelswill be
presentedand discussed.Thesemodelsprovidethe basisfor informed watermanage-
ment decisions.
DATA
1.6 HYDROLOGIC
Hydrologic dataarc neededto describeprecipitation; streamflows;evaporation;soil
moisture; snow fields; sedimentation;transpiration;infiltration; water quality; air,
s9i!, and water temperatures;and other variablesor componentsof hydrologicsys-
12 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
tems. Sources of data are numerous,with the U.S. Geological Survey being the
primary one for streamflow and groundwaterfacts. The National Weather Service
(NOAA or National Oceanicand AtmosphericAdministration)is the major collector
of meterologicdata.Many other federal,state,and local agenciesand other organiza-
tions also compile hydrologicdata. For a completelisting of theseorganizationssee
Refs.3 and 17.
1 . 7 COMMONUNITSOF MEASUREMENT
It is true that humanscannot exist without water; it is also true that water, misman-
aged,or during times of deficiency(droughts),or times of surplus(floods),can be life
threatening.Furthermore,there is no aspectof environmentalconcernthat doesnot
relate in someway to water. Land, air, and water are all interrelatedas are water and
all life forms. Accordingly, the spectrum of issuesrequiring an understandingof
hydrologicprocessesis almost unlimited.
As waterbecomesmore scarceand as competition for its useexpands,the need
for improved water managementwill grow. And to provide water for the world's
expandingpopulation, new industrial developments,food production, recreational
demands,and for the preservationand protection of natural systemsand other pur-
poses,it will becomeincreasinglyimportant for us to achievea thoroughunderstand-
ing of the underlyinghydrologicprocesseswith which we must contend.This is the
challengeto hydrologists,waterresourcesengineers,planners,policymakers,lawyers,
economists,and others who must strive to see that future allocationsof water are
sufficient to meet the needsof human and natural svstems.
PROBLEMS 13
r summary
distribution' move-
Hydrology is the scienceof water. It embracesthe occurrence,
sense,an account-
-"nt, urii propertiesof the watersof the earth. In a mathematical
sothat a history
ing may be madeof the inputs,outputs,and waterStofagesof a region
of water movementfor the region can be estimated'
the hydrologic
After reading this chapter you should be able to understand
You shouldalso
budgetand make a simpleu".ouniing of water transportin a region'
be used facilitate
to
have gained an undersiandingof trow hydrologic analysescan
designand managementprocessesfor water resourcessystems'
PROBLEMS
of 50 mi2.Convertthis
1.1.. One-half inch of runoff resultsfrom a stormon a drainagearea
amount to acre-feetand cubic meters.
surfacearea of
t.2. Assume you afe dealing with a vertical walled reservoir having a will it take to
of 1.0 m3/sec occurs: How many hours
500,000 m' and that anlnflow
raise the reservoirlevel bY 30 cm?
time is 15 acre-ft and
1.3. consider that the storageexistingin a river reachat a reference
tie reach is 500 cfs and the outflow from the reachis
at the sametime the inflow to
650cfs.onehourlater,theinflowis550cfsandtheoutflowis630cfs.Findthe
meters'
changein storageduring the hour in acre-feetand in cubic
walled reservoir was
t.4. During a24-hr time period, the inflow to a 500-acre vertical
the same interval, evaporation was 1 in. was there a rise or fall in
100 cfs. During
in inches and centimeters'
surfacewaterelevation?How muchwasit? Give the answer
areais 3000 acres'
1.5. The annualevaporationfrom a lake is 50 in. If the lake's surface
daity evaporation rate in acre-feet and in centimeters?
what would beiire
time requiredto raise
1.6. A flow of 10 cfs entersa 1-mi2vertical walledreservoir.Find the
the reservoirlevelbY 6 in.
t.7. Adrainagebasinhasan areaof4511mi2. Iftheaverageannualrunoffis5l02cfsand
lossesfor the areain
the averalerainfall is 42.5 in.,estimatethe evaportranspiration
1 year. Iiow reliable do you think this estimate is?
Determinethe storage
1.8. The storagein a reachof a river is 16.0acre-ft at a given time.
(u"r"-f""tj t hr later if the averagerates of inflow and outflow during the hour are
700 and 650 cfs, resPectivelY.
areafor 3 days' (a)
L.9. Rain falls atataverage irrtensity of 0.4 in./hr over a 600-acfe the 3-day
feet per second; (b) determine
Determinethe averagerate ofrainfau in cubic
volumeofrainfallinacre-feet;and(c)determinethe3-dayvolumeofrainfallininches
of equivalentdepth over the 600-acrearea'
100 acre-ft/day'Deter-
1.10. The evaporationrate from the surfaceof a 3650-acrelake is
(feet) in the lake during a 365-dayyear ifthe inflow to the lake
mine the depthchange
is25.2cfs.1s the changein lake depth an increaseor a decrease?
acre-feetif the drainage
1.11. One and one-half inchesof runoff areequivalentto how many
areais 25-mi2?lNote: I acte : 43,560 ft"')
of how many cubic feet
L.12. one-half inch of rain per day is equivalentto an averagerate
many metersper second?
p". ,".ona if the areais 500 acrei?How
14 cHAPTER1 INTRoDUCTIoN
REFERENCES
1. P. B. Jones,G. D. Walker,R. W. Harden,and L. L. McDaniels,"The Developmentof the
Scienceof Hydrology," Circ. No. 60-03, TexasWater Commission,Apr. 1963.
2. W. D. Mead, Noteson Hydrology. Chicago:D. W. Mead, 1904.
3. Ven Te Chow (ed)., Handbook of Applied Hydrology. New York: McGraw-Hill,1964.
4. O. E. Meinzer,Hydrology,Vol. 9 of Physicsof the Earth.New York: McGraw-Hlll, 1942.
Reprintedby Dover, New York, 1949.
5. P. D. Krynine, "On the Antiquity of Sedimentationand Hydrology," Bull. Geol. Soc.
Am. 70. l7 2I - l7 26(1960\.
6. RaphaelG. Kazmann,Modern Hydrology.New York: Harper & Row, 1965.
7. H. Pazwoshand G. Mavrigian, "A Historical Jewelpiece-Discovery of the Millennium
Hydrologic Works of Karaji," WaterResourcesBull. 16(6), 1094-1096(Dec. 1980),
8. Hunter Rouseand Simon Ince, History of Hydraulics, Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Re- :.
search,State University of Iowa, 1957.
9. G. H. L. Hagen, "Ueber die Bewegungdes Wassersin engen cylindrischenRohren,"
Poggendorfs Ann. Phys. Chem.16, 423- 442(1839).
10. Henri Darcy, Les fontaines publiques de la ville de Dijon. Paris:.V. Dalmont, 1856.
11. J. Dupuit, Etudesthdoriqueset practiques sur le mouvementdes eaux dans les canauxs
dtcouvertset d travers les terrainspermdables,2nded. Paris:Dunod, 1863.
12. L. K. Sherman,"Stream Flow from Rainfall by the Unit-Graph Method," Eng. News-
Rec.108(1932).
13. R. E. Horton, "The Role of Infiltration in the Hydrologic Cycle," Trans.Am. Geophys.
Union 14, 446- 460(1933).
14. C. V. Theis,"The RelationBetweenthe Lowering of the PiezometricSurfaceand the Rate l
and Duration of a Well Using Ground WaterRecharge,"Trans.Am. Geophys.Union 16,
519-524(1935\.
15. Asit K. Biswas,"Hydrologic EngineeringPrior to 600 s.c.," Proc. ASCE J. Hyd. Div.,
Proc. Paper5431,Vol. 93, No. HY5 (Sept.1967).
16. RaymondL. Nace,"WaterResources:A GlobalProblemwith Local Roots,"Environ. Sci.
Technol.1(7) (July i967).
17. D. K. Todd (ed.), The WaterEncylopedia.New York: Water Information Center, 1970.
Chapter2
Precipitation
r Prologue
The purposeof this chapteris to:
' Define precipitation, discussits forms, and describeits spatial and temporal
attributes.
' Illustrate techniquesfor estimatingareal precipitation amountsfor specific
storm eventsand for maximum precipitation-generatingconditions.
2.1 WATERVAPOR
The fraction of watervapor in the atmosphereis very small comparedto quantitiesof
other gasespresent,but it is exceedinglyimportant to our way of life. Precipitationis
derived from this atmosphericwater. The moisture centent of the air is also a
significantfactor in local evaporationprocesses.Thus it is necessaryfor a hydrologist
to be acquaintedwith waysfor evaluatingthe atmosphericwatervapor contentand to
understandthe thermodynamiceffects of atmosphericmoisture.l
16 CHAPTER2 PRECIPITATION
Geographicand TemporalVariations
The quantity of atmosphericwater vapor varieswith location and time. Thesevaria-
tions may be attributed mainly to temperatureand sourceof supply considerations.
The greatestconcentrationscan be found near the ocean surfacein the tropics, the
2.2 PRECIPITATION 17
Sault Ste.Mtrie
Portled
0;7
VCT
-NJ
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.8 b.z
o.d1'o
1.1
r.2
t.J Bromsville
2.2 PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is the primary input vector of the hydrologiccycle. Its forms are rain,
snow,andhail andvariationsof thesesuchasdrizzle and sleet.Precipitationis derived
from atmosphericwater, its form and quantity thus being influencedby the action of
other climatic factors such as wind, temperature,and atmosphericpressure.Atmo-
sphericmoistureis a necessarybut not sufficient condition for precipitation. Conti-
nental air massesare usuallyvery dry sothat mostprecipitationis derivedfrom moist
maritime air that originatesoverthe oceans.In North America about50 percentof the
evaporatedwater is taken up by continental air and movesback againto the sea.
18 CHAPTER2 PRECIPITATION
Formationof PreciPitation
Two processesare consideredto be capableof supportingthe growth of dropletsof
sufficient mass(dropletsfrom about 500 to 4000 p'min diameter)to overcomeair
resistanceand consequentlyfall to the earth asprecipitation.Theseare known as the
ice crystalprocessand the coalescence process'
The c^oalescence process is one by which the small cloud dropletsincreasetheir
size due to contact with other droplets through collision. Water droplets may be
consideredas falling bodies that are subjected to both gravitationaland air resistance
effects. Fall velocities at equilibrium (terminal velocities) are proportional to the
squareof the radius of the droplet; thus the larger droplets will descendmore quickly
than the smaller ones. As a result, smaller droplets are often overtakenby larger
droplets,and the resulting collisions tend to unite the drops, producing increasingly
largir particles.Very large drops (order of 7 mm in diameter) break up into small-
dropletsthat repeatitre coalescence process and produce somewhat of a chain effect.
In this *unn"r, sufficiently large raindrops may be produced to generate significant
precipitation. This processis ionsidered to be particularly important in tropical
regionsor in warm clouds.
An important type of growth is known to occurif ice crystalsand waterdroplets
-40'C- Under
are found toexist togetherat subfreezingtemperaturesdown to about
theseconditions,certain particles t
saltsserveasfreezingnucleisothat
theseconditionsis higher over the t
condensationoccurson the surface
unevenparticle sizedistributionsde'
with otherparticles.This is considet
mechanism.
The artificial inducementof precipitation has been studied extensively,and
thesestudiesare continuing.It has been demonstratedthat condensationnuclei sup-
plied to cloudscan induceprecipitation.The ability of humansto ensurethe produc-
iion of precipitation or to control its geographiclocation or timing has not yet been
attained,however'
Many legal as well as technologicalproblemsare associatedwith the prospects
of ..rain-makiig" processes. Of interesthereis the impacton hydrologicestimatesthat
uncontrolled oi onty partially controlled artificial precipitation might have. Many
naturally occurring Lydrologic variables are consideredas statisticalvariatesthat are
either randomty distrlUuted or distributed with a random component.If the distribu-
tion or time seiiesof the variable can be modeled, an inferenceasto the frequencyof
occurrenceof significant hydrologic events of a given magnitude(suchas precipita-
tion) can be made. If, however, artificial controls are used and if the effectsof these
cannot be reliably predicted, frequency analyses may prove to be totally unreliable
tools.
PrecipitationTyPes
Dynamic or adiabaticcoolingis the primary causeof condensationand is responsible
for most rainfall. Thus it can be seen that vertical transport of air massesis a
requirementfor precipitation.Precipitationmay be classifiedaccordingto the condi-
'1
2.2 PRECIPITATIOI'|9
tions that generatevertical air motion. In this respect,the three major categoriesof
precipitation type are convective,orographic, and cyclonic.
El
o
F
PrecipitationData
Considerabledata on precipitation are available in publications of the National
WeatherService.a'sOther sourcesincludevariousstateand federal agenciesengaged
in water resourceswork. For critical regional studiesit is recommendedthat all
possibledata be compiled; often the establishmentof a gauging network will be
necessary(seealso Chapters7-9).
Precipitation VariabiIity
Precipitationvariesgeographically,temporally, and seasonally.Figure 2.4 indrcates
the mean annualprecipitation for the continentalUnited States,while Fig. 2.5 gives
an exampleof seasonaldifferences.It should be understoodthat both regional and
temporal variationsin precipitation are very important in water resourcesplanning
and hydrologicstudies.For example,it may be very important to know that the cycle
of minimum precipitationcoincideswith the peakgrowing seasonin a particular atea,
or that the periodofheaviestrainfall shouldbe avoidedin schedulingcertainconstruc-
tion activities.
Precipitation amounts sometimesvary considerablywithin short distances.
Recordshaveshowndifferencesof 20 percentor more in the catchof rain gaugesless
that2Oft apart.Precipitationis usuallymeasuredwith a rain gaugeplacedin the open
so that no obstacleprojects within the inverted conical surfacehavingthe top of the
gaugeas its apexand a slopeof45'. The catchofa gaugeis influencedby the wind,
which usually causeslow readings.Variousdevicessuchas Nipher and Alter shields
havebeendesignedto minimize this error in measurement.Precipitationgaugesmay
be of the recording or nonrecordingtype. The former are requiredif the time distri-
bution of precipitation is to be known. Information about the featuresof gaugesis
readily available.3
Becauseprecipitationvariesspatially,it is usuallynecessaryto usethe datafrom
severalgaugesto estimatethe averageprecipitation for an area and to evaluateits
reliability (seeChapter27). This is especiallyimportant in forestedareaswhere the
variation tendsto be large.
Time variations in rainfall intensity are extremely important in the rainfall-
runoff process,particularly in urban areas(seeFi g. 2.6a). The arealdistributionis also
significantandhighly correlatedwith the time history of outflow (seeFig. 2.6b).These
considerationsare discussedin greaterdetail in following chapters.
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CHAPTER2 PRECIPITATION
- 3
5 6 ' 7 8 9
Time(x 102sec)
(a)
-/'?:;" Isohyets-lines of
equal rainfall depth
-"@l5
E [u Y.s. I o R.H.R.
i 3.50
t.e+
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^ 1<
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Mechanics
of surface
runoff
(c)
2.4 POINTPRECIPITATION
Precipitation eventsare recordedby gaugesat specificlocations.The resulting data
p"rmit determinationof the frequency and charactei of precipitation eventsin the
vicinity of the site. Point precipitation data are used collectively to estimateareal
variability ofrain and snowand are alsousedindividually for developingdesignstorm
characteristicsfor small urban er other watersheds.Design storms are discussedin
detail in Chapter 16.
Point rainfall data are usedto deriveintensity-duration-frequencycurvessuch
as those shown in Fig. 2.8. Such curves are used in the rational method for urban
storm drainagedesign(Chapter 25); thek constructionis discussedin Chapter27 'ln
applyingthe rational method,a rainfall intensityis usedwhich representsthe average
intensity of a storm of given frequencyfor a selectedduration.The frequencychosen
should reflect the economics of flood damage reduction. Frequenciesof up to
100 yearsare commonlyusedwhereresidentialareasare to be protected.For higher-
valuedistricts and critical facilities,up to 500 yearsor higherreturn periodsare often
selected.Local conditionsand practicenormally dictatethe selectionof thesedesign
criteria. (ExecutiveOrder 11988,Floodplain Management,I97 7).
\
00-yr frequency
50-yr frequency
\ \ I
-20-yr frequencyf-
t\ , 10-yrfrequency
B. \ 7 ,
5-Yr,frequencl
\
a
\ \1 tl=.t
Y
120
Duration (min)
B r.60 4 2 20 50 80.0
C 1.80 1 6 37 27.O 48.6
D 1.50 3 2 1,3 76.9 115.4
E 2.00 3 3 18 55.6 111,.2
F r . 7 0 2 ? 8 125.0 2t2.5
Sums ,TT3 567.7
*Note.'Estimatedprecipitation(P) at A = 567.7/334.5; P = 1.70 in.
_l
29
PRECIPITATION
2.5 AREAL
precipitation to one with no records.This is consideredto be the most logical proce-
dure for handlingthis unusualcase.7The estimatedresult will alwaysbe lessthan the
greatestand greaterthan the smallestsurroundingprecipitation. For specialeffects
suchas mountain influences,an adjustmentprocedurecan be applied.
2.5 AREALPRECIPITATION
For most hydrologicanalyses,it is important to know the areal distributionof precip-
itation. Usually, averagedepths for representativeportions of the watershedare
determinedand used for this pwpose. The most direct approachis to use the arith-
metic averageof gaugedquantities.This procedureis satisfactoryif gaugesare uni-
formily distributedand the topographyis flat. Other commonly usedmethodsare the
isohyetalmethodand the Thiessenmethod.The reliability of rainfall measuredat one
gaugein representingthe averagedepth over a surroundingareais a function of (1)
the distancefrom the gaugeto the centerof the representativearea,(2) the sizeof the
area,(3) topography,(4) the natureofthe rainfall ofconcern (e.g.,stormeventversus
meanmonthly), and (5) local stormpatterncharacteristics.8 For more information on
errorsof estimation,the readershouldconsultRefs.7 and 8. Chapter27 alsocontains
a discussionof areal variability of precipitation.
Figures 2.10 and 2.11 illustrate how the measuredrainfall at a single gauge
relatesto the averagerainfall over a watershedwith changein ( 1) the relativeposition
of the gaugein the watershedand (2) the time period over which the averageis
calculated.In the first caseit is clearthat the more centralthe gaugelocation,the more
closely its observationswill match the averagefor a representativearea, providing
that the regionis not too large.Figure 2.11 shows,not surprisingly,that areal averages
o
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> ? > a
€ J
o o
2, *, b 9
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3.= B.E
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k l
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1 2 3 1 2 3
Storm rainfall at one gauge in inches Stormrainfall at one gaugein inches
(a) (b)
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lsohyetalMethod
are the isohyetal
The two principal methodsfor determiningareal averagesof rainfall
based on interpolation
method and the Thiessenmethod. The isohyetal method is
in surveyingand
between gauges.It closely resemblesthe calculation of contours
to plot the^rain gauge
-upptng."Tf" first step in developingan isohye?1..-up is
(Fig' 2'I2)' Next' an
locationson a suitablemap and to reJord the rainfall amounts
at selected incre-
interpolation betweengaugesis performed and rainfall amounts
connectedto form
mentsare plotted.tdenticaldepthsfrom eachinterpolationare then
the weighted averageof
isohyets(lines of equal rainfall depth)' The areafaverageis
isohyets' The isohyetal
depthsbetweenisohyets,that is, the meanvaluebetweenthe
precipitation over an
method is the most accurateapproachfor determiningaverage
attention to topographic
area,but its proper oserequir#a skilled analystand careful
the represen-
and other tactori that impact on areal variability. Figure 2. 13 illustrates
tationofamajorstormeventinNorthCarolinabyanisohyetalmap.
ThiessenMethod
is theThiessenmethod'In this
Anothermethodof calculatingarealrainfallaverages
intopolygonalsubareas usingraingauges ascenters'
theareais subdivided
procedure
Thesubareasareusedasweightsin estimitingthewatershed averagedepth'Thiessen
as shownin Fig. i.t+. fnis procedureis not suitablefor
diagramsare constructed
2.5 AREAL PRECIPITATION 31
Average
precipitation
for area A4
is 4.25 in.
----x------* -*!fl1
A2 Average preciPitation = 2 A i P i
\ i
--^ 3 in' for entire basin
(c)
network is fixed
mountainousareasbecauseof orographicinfluences'The Thiessen
if any gaugesare
io, u glu"o gaugeconfiguation, and polygonsmustbe reconstructed
relocated.
AccuracY
locatior\of the
Irrespectiveof the methodusedfor estimatingareal precipitation,the
guu* orra in derivingthe estimaterelative tothe point of application of the estimate
lbcattieso vertical distances may be
mustbe takeninto consideration.In mountainous
For gentle landscapbs, horizontal spacings are
-ft" irnpottant than horizontal ones.
32 CHAPTER
2 PRECIPITATION
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e-H
TH
Averagedepthoverentirewatershed
=
+t
Figure 2.14 Constructionofa Thiessendiagram:(a) connectrain gaugelocations;(b)
draw perpendicularbisectors;and (c) calculate Thiessenweights l,er, ,qr, A3). (d)
A
completednetwork.
EXAMPLE 2.1
$yen 1rrcdrainagearea of Fig. 2.r5 and the rainfall data displayedin column 3 of
Table2.2, calculatethe averagerainfall over the areausing tne arithmetic mean,
1aj
and (b) the Thiessenpolygonweighting system.
1.56 0.08
2 4 2.95 0.12
3 3 3.44 0.10
t5 2.91 0.44
ll 4.17 0.46
6 19 4.21 0.80
7 4 2.'| 0.11
8 7 2.45 0.17
9 21 3.88 0.81
10 6 3.98 0.24
ll 5 2.51 0.13
Solution.
a. Identify thosegaugesfalling within the areaboundary.They includegauges
1, 4 through 6, 8, and 9. Averagingthe valuesfor thesesix gaugesyields an
estimatedmean areal rainfall of 3.20 inches.
b. Followine the Thiessen method as described in Section 2.5, construct
polygonsusingtrianglesto connectgaugepoints. Thesepolygonsare shown
on Fig. 2.15. Calculatethe percentof the total area associated with each
gaugeandrecord asin column2 of Table2.2.The Thiessenweightedaverage
is obtainedby multiplying the valuesin column 2by the yaluesin column 3.
The Thiessenaverageis computedas 3.45 inchesof rainfall. The use of a
spreadsheet(Table 2.2) facilitates computations and aids in organizing
data. lr
2.6 PROBABLEMAXIMUMPRECIPITATION
The probablemaximum precipitation (PMP) is the critical depth-duration-arearain-
fall relation for a given areaand seasonwhich would result from a storm containing
the most critical meteorologicalconditionsconsideredprobable.eSuch storm events
are used in flood flow estimatesby the U.S. Corps of Engineersand other water
resourcesagencies.The critical meteorologicalconditions are basedon analysesof
air-mass properties(effectiveprecipitablewater,depthof inffow layer,wind, temper-
ature, and other factors),synoptic situationsduring recorded stormsin the region,
topography,season,and locationofthe area.The rainfall derivedistermedprobable
maximumprecipitation sinceit is subjectto limitations of meteorologicaltheory and
data and is basedon the most e_ffectiwcqmbination of factors controlling rainfall
)
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36 CHAPTER2 PRECIPITATION
1000
800
600
400
$ zoo
9?
E 1oo
st r o9u 9
4 4 0
20
10
l0 20 30 40 50 6Q 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Percentageof 200 miz, 24-hr values
Figure 2.17 Seasonal variation, depth-area-duration relations;
percentage to be applied to 200 ni2-24 hr probable maximum
precipitation values for August in Zone 6. (U.S. Department of
Commerce,National WeatherService.)
P":P.-Ilosses (2.2)
r Summary
precipitation is the sourceof fresh waterreplenishmentfor the planetEarth. Too much
or too little canmeanthe differencebetweenprosperityand disaster.In betweenthese
extremesare the normal precipitation eventsthat are experiencedwith a frequency
and intensity relatedmainly to geographicposition and topographicfeatures'
After reading this chaptei you should understandthat both the timing and
consid-
amountof precipitition occuiring over anareaareimportant and that thereis
areal
erable g"olrapttic variability in precipitation. You should be able to estimate
precipiLtiin amountsfrom gaugedata and conceptualizesimplehydrologic process
shed
models.It shouldbe recognizedihataveragevaluesofprecipitation for a region
uses,
some light on the quantiiy of water that might be made availablefor various
are
while a i<nowledgeof tne time-aistribution and time-dispositionof precipitation
requisitesfor developingmanagementplans for periods of excessand shortage'
PROBLEMS
2.1.
0.30
o.25 Aus. l 0
0.20
0.15
0.10 / Ais..I7
d
0.05
0
Midnight 6 a.m. 6 p.m. Midnight 6 a.m. Noon 6 p.m. Midnight
Time
2.6. Refer to the chart of Problem 2.5. Calculate the rainfall intensity for the period
between6.q..1u.and noon on August 11. Would you considerthis to be a period of
intenserainfall?
2.7. Use the map of Fig. 2.6 andfrom it constructa setof Thiessenpolygons.Using these,
estimatethe mean rainfall for the region.
2.8. A meandraft of 100mgd is producedfrom a drainageareaof 200 mi2.At the flow line
the reservoiris estimatedto cover 4000 acres.The annualrainfall is 37 in., the mean
annualrunoff is l0 in., and the mean annual lake evaporationis 30 in. Find the net
gain or lossin storage.Computethe volume of water evaporated.How significantis
this amount?
2.9. A meandraft of 380,000m3/dayis producedfrom a drainageareaof 330 km2.At the
flow line, the reservoiris estimatedto cover about 1600hectares.The annualrainfall
is 96.5 cm, the meanannualrunoff is 22.8 cm, and the meanannuallake evaporation
is 77.1 cm. Find the net gain or loss in storageand compute the volume of water
evaporated. Calculatevolumesin m3.
2.10. Drainage areas within each of the isohyetal lines for a storm are tabulated for a
watershed.Use the isohyetal method to determinethe averageprecipitation depth
within the basin for the storm. Make a conceptualsketch.
2.11. ReworkProblem2.10 if the valuesin the secondcolumn of the table are2,500, 2,100
1,200, and 300, respectively,
REFERENCES 39
2.12. Discusshow you would go about collectingdata for analysisof the water budgetof a
region.What agencieswould you contact?What other sourcesof information would
you seekout?
2.13. For an areaof your choice,plot the meanmonthly precipitation versustime. Explain
how this fits the pattern of seasonalwater usesfor the area.Will the form of precip-
itation be an important consideration?
REFERENCES
I
TennesseeValley Authority, "Heat and Mass TransferBetweena Water Surfaceand the
Atmosphere,"Lab. Rep. No, 14, TVA EngineeringLab. Noiris, TN, Apr. 1972.
2. A. L. Shands,"Mean PrecipitableWater in the United States," U.S. WeatherBureau,
Tech.PaperNo. 10, 1949.
3. R. K. Linsley, Jr., M. A. Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus,Applied Hydrology. New York,
McGraw-Hill, 1949.
A
D. W. Miller, J. J. Geraghty,and R. S. Collins, WaterAtlas of the United States.Port
Washington,NY Water Information Center, 1963.
5. U.S. WeatherBureau,Tech. Papers1-33. Washington,DC: U.S. GovernmentPrinting
Office.
6. Ven Te Chow (ed.), Handbook of Applied Hydrology. New York, McGraw-Hill,l9&.
Staff, Hydrologic ResearchLaboratory, "National WeatherServiceRiver ForecastSys-
,1
Interception
and Depression
Storage
r Prologue
The purposeof this chapteris to:
3.1 INTERCEPTION
i= it+i2+4+i4
TABLE3.2 OBSERVED
PERCENTAGES
OF INTERCEPTION
BY
VARIOUSCROPSAND GRASSES'
Vegetation
type Intercepted(%) Comments
Crops
Alfalfa 36
Corn 16
Soybeans 15
Oats 7
Grassesb
Little bluestem 50-60-.1
Big bluestem s7 l
Tall panic grass s 7 f Water applied at rate of ] in. in 30 min
Bindweed 17 l
Buffalo grass 31 )
Blue grass 17 Pdor to harvest
Mixed species )A
Natural grasses t4-t9
"Valuesroundedto nearestpercent.Data for table were obtainedfrom Refs.2,4, and 5,
'Grass heightsvary up to about 36 in.
44 CHAPTER3 INTERCEPTIONAND DEPRESSIONSTORAGE
EXAMPLE 3.1
Using the following equationsdevelopedby Horton6for interceptionby ash and oak
trees, estimatethe interception loss beneaththesetrees for a storm having a total
precipitationof 1.5 in.
Solution
1. For ashtrees.
L ; : 0 . 0 1 5+ 0 . 2 3 P
: 0.015+ 0.23(1.5) : 0.36in.
2. For oak trees,
L;:0.03+0.22P
: 0.36in. rl
: 0.03+ 0.22(1.5)
3.2 THROUGHFALL
A numberof relationshipsfor estimatingthroughfall for a variety of foresttypeshave
been developed.ntt Deiermining factors for throughfall quantities include canopy
coverage,total leaf area,numberand type of layersof vegetation,wind velocity, and
rainfall intensity.The arealvariability ofthesefactorsresultsin little or no throughfall
in somelocationsand considerablethroughfall in others.In general,prediction equa-
tions for throughfall mustincludemeasuresof canopysurfaceareaand coverasprime
variables.An example of a throughfall relationship for an easternUnited States
hardwoodforest follows.l2
(3.6)
i - f
46 CHAPTER
3 INTERCEPTION
ANDDEPRESSION
STORAGE
o
b0
!t
o
E
d
4 8 1 2 16 20
Time (min)
Figure3.2 Simpledepression
storageabstraction
scheme.
u : (Soke-kg# (3.e)
It was shown that k : 1/S, so that
u : ,-o'"d!" (3.10)
dt
a (i-f)*G-f)e-.""
(3.r2)
i - f i - f
o.125 o.25 0.315 0.50(turf)
Mass overlandflow and depressionstoragesupply ( P - F)
9)- RO 0.80
E
o
l-
bl I
" 7 n
-
Exponential relationship -
o.7o I
i,t tl
a -\
-lP-F)tS,
F = -I - e "
,
I I
i 6 0
o
6 OGEE sumrnationof the b!
g
o
standardprobability curve
n5n a
B
a o
E
{ -
.: 40 6
9
o o
d J U o0
s2
o
6zo I
o
!) E
t
o
and o - - e-kP")
:(i f)(I
(3.13)
i * f i - f
: |
- g-kP" (3.r4)
P is the grossprecipitation.In the plot meandepthsof 0.25 in. for turf and 0.0625in.
for pavementswere assumed.Maximum depthswere 0.50 and0.125in., respectively.
The figure also depictsthe effect on estimatedoverlandflow supplyrate, which
is derivedfrom the choiceof the depressionstoragemodel. Three modelsare shown
in the figure: the flrst one assumesthat all depressionsare full before overlandflow
begins.For a turf area having depressionswith a mean depth of 0.25 in., the figure
showsthat for P - F valueslessthan 0.25 in., thereis no overlandflow supply,while
for P - F valuesgreater than 0.25 in., the overlandflow supply is equal to i - f .
For the exponentialmodel (Model 2), c alwayswill be greaterthanzero. Tholin
and Kiefer haverecommendedthat a relation betweenthosepreviouslymentionedis
likely more representativeof fully developedurban areas.15 A cumulative normal
probability curve was selectedfor this representation and is also describedin Fig. 3.3
(Model 3).
Depressionstoragedeductionsare usually madefrom the first part of the storm
as illustrated in Fig. 3.2. The amount to be deductedis a function of topography,
groundcover,and extentand type of land development.During major storms,this loss
is often consideredto be negligible.Someguidelinesfor estimatingdepressionstorage
losseshavebeen developedbasedon studiesof experimentaland other watersheds.
Values for depressionstoragelossesfrom intense storms reported by Hicks are
0.20 in. for sand,0.15in. for loam,and0.10in. for c1ay.16 Tholin andKieferhaveused
valuesof 0.25 in. inpervious urban areas and 0.0625 in. forpavements.ls Studiesof
four small imperviousdrainageareas by Viessman yielded the information shownin
Fig.3.4, where mean depressionstorage loss is highly correlated with slope.This is
0.15
I
Ei U.IU
0 1 2 3 4
Slope(70)
oo
Time (min)
Figure3.5 Depression storage
intensityversustimefor animpervious
area.(After Turner.l7)
r Summary
Accountingfor the dispositionof precipitation is an important part of the hydrologic
modelingprocess.Two abstractionsfrom the precipitation input, intercepiion, and
depressionstoragewere coveredin this chapter.
Interception lossesduring the courseof a year may be substantial,but during
intensestorms,they may be sufficiently small to neglect.Precipitationtype, rainfall
intensity and duration, wind, and atmosphericconditions affeiting evaporationare
factorsthat serveto determineinterceptionlossesfor a given foresi standor ground
coverconfiguration.Interceptionduring rainfall eventsis commonly greaterihan for
snowfall events.
Depressionstoragedeductionsoccur early in a storm sequenceand they are a
function of topography,ground cover, and extent and type of land development.
During major storms,this loss is often consideredto be negligible.
PROBI.EMS
3.1. UsingFig. 3.2, estimatethe volume of depressionstoragefor a 3-acrepaveddrainage
area' Statethe volume in cubic feet and cubic meters.Convert it to equivalentdep;h
over the area in in. and cm.
50 CHAPTER3 INTERCEPTIONAND DEPRESSIONSTORAGE
3.2. Estimatethe percentageof the total volume of rainfall that is indicatedas depression
storagein Fig. 3.2.
3.3. Using the averageannual precipitationfor your state,estimatethe annual amountof
interceptionloss.
3.4. Refer to Fig. 2.4 and estimate the annual interception lossesin lllinois, Florida,
California, and New Mexico. How good do you think theseestimatesare?In which
estimatesdo you havethe most confldence?Why? In which of thesestateswould the
water budgetbe most affectedby interception?
3.5. Using Fig. 3.4, estimatethe percentageof rainfall that would be lost to depression
storagefor a l0-acre parking lot havinga mean slopeof 1 percent.Repeatfor a slope
of 3 percent.Using the total rainfall volume determinedin Problem 3.2, estimatethe
equivalentdepth over the area of the depressionstorageloss for both slopes.Stater
depthsin mm and in.
3.6. Refer to Fig. 3.3 and estimatethe ratio of overlandflow supplyto overlandflow and
depressionstoragesupplyif the areais turf, the OGEE summationcurve is the model,
and the mean depth of depressionstorageis (a) 75 percent and (b) 125 percent.
3,7. Explain how a relation such as that given in Fig. 3.3 could be used in a simulation
model of the rainfall-runoff process'
3.8. Using Eqs. 3.3 and 3.4, estimatethe throughfall in in. for 28 in. of rainfall during the
growing season(21 events), and 17 in. of rainfall during the dormant season(13
events).
3.9. Using Horton's equationsgiven in Example 3.1, estimatethe interceptionlossesby
ash and oak trees for a storm having a total precipitation of 1.33 in'
REFERENCES
"The Effect of Forestand Pastureon the Dispositionof Precipitation,"
1. C. E. Schomaker,
Maine Farm Res.(July 1966).
2. ven Te chow (ed.), Handbook of Apptied Hydrology. New York: McGraw-Hill,1964.
3 . JosephKittredge, ForestInfluences.New York: McGraw-Hill' 1948.
i
+ . O. n. Ctark,
"Interception of Rainfall by HerbaceousVegetation,"Science86(2243),
59r-s92(r937).
"Resultsof the Mountain Home Rainfall Interceptionand Inflltration Project
5. J. S. Beard,
on Black Wattle, 1953-1954," J. S. Afr. Foresty Assoc'27,72-85(1956)'
"Rainfall Interception," Monthly WeatherRev.47,603-623(L9I9)'
6. R. E. Horton,
"A Note on the InterceptionLoss Equation," J. Geoplrys.Res.65' 3850-
7. R. A. Meriam,
385 1 ( 1 9 6 0 ) .
8. D. M. Gray (ed.),Hand.bookon the Principles of Hydrology.National ResearchCouncil,
Canada,Port Washington:WaterInformation Center,Inc., 1973.
9. K. N. Brooks, P. F. Folliott, H. M. Gregersen,and J. L. Thames,Hydrology and the
Managementof Watersheds.Ames, IA: Iowa StateUniversity Press/Ames,1991.
"The InterceptionProcess."In Prediction in CatchmentHydrology,National
10. G. J. Blake,
Symposiumon Hydrology,eds.T. G. Chapmanand F. X. Dunin, MelbourneAust. Acad.
S c i . , 5 9 - 8 1 1, 9 7 5 .
"Throughfall in PlantedStandsof Fourth SouthernPines
11. F. A. Roth, II, and M. Chang,
Speciesin EastTexas,"WaterResources Bulletin 17' 880-885(1981)
REFERENCES 51
"canopy and Litter Interceptionby Hardwoodsof Eastern
J. D. Helvey and J. H. Patric,
United States,"Water Resour. Res.l, 193-206(1965)'
New York:
R. K. Linsley, Jr., M. A' Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus,Apptied Hydrology'
McGraw-Hill, 1949.
"A Linear Model for synthesizingHydrographsfor Small Drainage
warren viessman,Jr.,
Areas," paper presented at the Forty-eighthAnnual Meetingof the AmericanGeophysical
Union, Washington, D.C., APr. 1967.
"The Hydrology of Urban Runoff," Trans. ASCE 125,
A. L. Tholin una C. J. Kiefer,
1 3 0 8 -1 3 7 91( 9 6 0 ) .
..A Method of Computing Urban Runoff ,', Trans' ASCE |09, I2L,7-
W. I. Hicks,
Aue. 1966.
Chapter4
lnfiltration
Prologue
The purposeof this chapteris to:
. Defineinfiltration.
' Indicatethe role infiltration playsin affectingrunoffquantities and in replen-
ishing soil moistureand groundwaterstorages.
' Presentmodelsfor estimatinginflltration and provide examplesof how they
can be used.
OF INFILTRATION
4.2 CALCULATION
Infiltration calculationsvary in sophisticationfrom the applicationof reported aver-
ageratesfor specificsoil types and vegetalcoversto the useof differential equations
g6verningthe flow of wateiin unsaturatedporousmedia.For small urban areasthat
iespondiapidly to storm input, more precisemethodsare sometimeswarranted'On
large waterlhedssubjectto peak flow production from prolongedstorms,averageor
representativevaluesmay be adequate.
The infiltration pto"".r is -omplicated at best. Even under ideal conditions
(uniform soil propertiei andknown fluid properties),conditionsrarely encounteredin
practice,the processis difflcult to characterize.Accordingly,therehasbeenconsider-
abtestudyof the infiltration process.Most of theseeffortshaverelatedto the develop-
ment of i1) empirical equationsbasedon field observationsand (2) the solution of
equationsbasedon the mechanicsof saturatedflow in porous media.l'2
Later in this chapter,severalcommonly usedinfiltration modelsare discussed.
As a prefaceto that discussion,a brief descriptionof the infiltration processfollows'
It reviews the principal factors affecting infiltration and points out some of the
problemsencounteredby hydrologicmodelers.
Webeginour discussionwith an idealcase,onein which the soil is homogeneous
throughout the profile and all the pores are directly interconnectedby capillary
purru!"r. Furtheimore,it is assumedthat the rainfall is uniformly distributedovef the
ur"u of "on"ern. Undertheseconditions,the infiltration processmay be chatactetized
as one dimensional and the major influencing factors are therefore soil type and
moisturecontent.3
The soil type characterizesthe sizeand numberof the passages through which
the watermustflow while the moisturecontent setsthe capillary potential and relative
conductivity of the soil. Capillary potential is the hydraulic head due to capillary
forces. capillary suction is the same as capillary potential but with opposite sign.
54 CHAPTER4 INFILTRATION
9 aoo
4
Ei
o
. 300
-.
d
d
t
2oo
Capillary conductivity is the volume rate of flow of water through the soil under a
gradient of unity (dependenton soil moisture content). Relative conductivity is the
capillary conductivity for a specifiedmoisturecontent divided by the saturatedcon-
ductivity. Figure 4.1 illustratesthe relations amongthesevariables.Note that at low
moisturecontents,capillary suctionis high while relative conductivityis low. At high
moisture contentsthe reverseis true.
With this background,an infiltration event can be examined.Consider that
rainfall is occurringon an initially dry soil. As shownin Fig. 4.l,the relative conduc-
tivity is low at the outsetdue to the low soil moistureconditions.Thus, for the water
to move downwardthrough the soil, a higher moisture level is needed.As moisture
builds up, a wetting front forms with the moisturecontentbehindthe front beinghigh
(essentiallysaturated)and that aheadof the front being low. At the wetting front, the
capillary suctionis high due to the low moisture content aheadof the front.
At the beginning of a rainfall event, the potential gradient that drives soil
moisture movementis high becausethe wetting front is virtually at the soil surface.
Initially, the infiltration capacity is higher than the rainfall rate and thus the
infiltration rate cannot exceedthe rainfall rate. As time advancesand more water
entersthe soil, the wetting zone dimensionincreasesand the potential gradient is
reduced.Infiltration capacitydecreases until it equalsthe rainfall rate. This occursat
the time the soil at the land surfacebecomessaturated.Figures4.2 and4.3 illustrate
l
4.2 CALCULATIONOF INFILTRATION 55
Moisturecontent.d
I
Figure4.2 Typicalmoistureproflledevelopment
with a constantrainfall
rate.
92
::
Time,r
Figure 4.3 Infiltration rate versustime for a given rainfall
intensity.(After Mein and Larson.e)
56 CHAPTER4 INFILTRATION
contentat the land surface.Figure 4.3 indicatesthat until saturationis reachedat the
surface,the infiltration rate is constantand equalto the rainfall applicationrate at the
surface.At Point 4, apoint that coriespondsto the time at which saturationoccursat
the surface,the infiltration rate beginsto proceedat its capacity rate, the maximum
rate at which the soil can transmit water acrossits surface.As time goes on, the
infiltration capacity continues to decline until it becomesequal to the saturated
conductivity of the soil, the capillary conductivity when the soil is saturated.This
ultimate infiltration rate is shown by the dashedline to the right of K" in Fig. 4.3.
Of particular interest is the determinationof Point 4 on the curve of Fig. 4.3.
This is the point at which runoff would beginfor the conditions specifiedabove.It is
also the point at which the actual infiltration rate/becomes equal to the infiltration
capacityratefo ratherthan the rainfall intensityrate i. The time of occurrenceof this
point depends,for a given soil type, on the initial moisture content and the rainfall
rate. The shapeof the infiltration curve after this point in time is also influencedby
thesefactors.
Another factor that must be reckonedwith in the infiltration processis that of
hysteresis. In Fig. 4.1 it can be seenthat the plot of capillary suctionversussoil
moistureis a loop. The curve is not the samefor wetting and drying of the soil. The
curves shown on the figure are the boundary wetting and boundary drying curves,
curves applicableunder conditions of continuouswetting or drying. Betweenthese
curves, an infinite number of possiblepaths exist that dependon the wetting and
drying history of the soil. A numberof approachesto the hysteresisproblemhavebeen
reportedin the literature.3
The illustration of the infiltration processpresentedwas basedon an ideal soil.
Unfortunately,suchconditionsare not replicatedin natural systems.Natural soils are
highly variable in composition within regions and soil cover conditions are also
far-ranging. Becauseof this, no simpleinfiltration model can accuratelyportray all
the conditionsencounteredin the fleld. The searchhas thus beenfor modelsthat can
be called upon to give acceptableestimatesof the rates at which infiltration occurs
durine rainfall events.
Mein and Larson have describedthree generalcasesof infiltration associated
with rainfall.3The first caseis one in which the rainfall rate is lessthan the saturated
conductivity of the soil. Under this condition, shownas (4) in Fig. 4.4, runoff never
occurs since all the rainfall infiltrates the soil surface.Nevertheless,this condition
mustbe recognizedin continuoussimulationprocessessincethe level of soil moisture
is affectedeven though runoff doesnot occur. The secondcaseis one in which the
rainfall rate exceedsthe saturatedconductivity but is lessthan the infiltration capac-
ity. Curves(I), (2), and (3) of Fig. 4.4 illustratethis condition.It shouldbe observed
that the period from the beginningof rainfall to the time of surfacesaturationvaries
with the rainfall intensity.The final caseis one in which the rainfall intensityexceeds
the infiltration capacity.This condition is illustratedby the infiltration capacitycurve
of Fig. 4.5 andthoseportionsof infiltration curves(l), (2), and (3) of Fig. 4.4 that
are in their declining stages.Only under this condition can runoff occur. All three
caseshaverelevanceto hydrologicmodeling,particularly when it is continuousover
time.
4.3 HORTON'SINFILTRATIONMODEL 57
Time, t
f,
0
o
,r*"
Figure 4.5 Horton's infiltration curve and hyetograph.
MODEL
INFILTRATION
.I3 HORTON'S
The inflltration processwas thoroughly studiedby Horton in the early 1930s.oAn
outgrowth of his work, shown graphically in Fig. 4.1, was the following relation for
determininginfiltration capacity:
-
fo: f, + ("fr f")e'n'
(+.r;
58 CHAPTER4 INFILTRATION
o - 1
q 1
1.0
Time (hr)
(a)
3.0
2.8 -TT
2.O - I l
0691ty
l l l
f=0.53+2.4
,4
2.4 l, = U.UUUUJTIu . ) 9 ( l e
2.2
fle
2.0 rOa"
d
1.8 r\$4"
9l
1.6 o\
rras!
t.4
7.2
-iro$dts"
h 1.0
0.8
l l l l l l
Infiltration capacity curve (/.
U 0.6
0.4
0.2
0
10 70 80 100 t20 140 160 t80
Figure 4.6 (a) Typical infiltration curve. (b) Infiltration capacity and mass
curvesfor normal antecedentconditionsof turf areas.fAfter A. L. Tholin and
"The Hydrology of Urban Runoff," Proc. ASCE J. Sanitary
Clint J. Kiefer,
Ens. Div. S4(SA2),56 (Mar. 1959).1
60 CHAPTER4 INFILTRATION
TABLE4,2 COVERFACTORS
where/(r) is the actual infiltration into the soil and i(l) is the rainfall intensity.Thus
the infiltration rate at any time is equal to the lesserof the infiltration capacity,f,(t)
or the rainfall intensity.
Commonly,the typical valuesof foandf" are greaterthan the prevailingrainfall
intensitiesduring a storm. Thus, when Eq.4.l is solvedforS as a function of time
alone, it shpwsa decreasein infiltration capacity even when rainfall intensitiesare
much lessthanfo. Accordingly,a reductionin infiltration capacityis maderegardless
of the amount of water that entersthe soil.
To adjust for this deficiency,the integratedform of Horton's equationmay be
used,
0
0 tptpt tl
Equivalent time
Figure4.7 Cumulativeinfiltration.
l,',u,o,
F\t) : (4.s)
where/(r) is determinedusingF,q.4.3.
Equations4.4 and4.5 may be us6djointly to calculatethe time t, that is, the
equivalent time for the actual infiltrated volume to equal the volume under the
infiltration capacity curve (Fig. 4.7). The actual accumulatedinfiltration given by
Eq. 4.5 is equatedto the area under the Horton curve, F,q. 4.4, and the resulting
expressionis solvedfor r' This equation,
EXAMPLE 4.I
4.1 can
To find the volumeof waterinfiltrated duringthe flrst 10hours,Eq'
be integratedover the range of 0-10
I -
v : [0.5s + (3.0 0.55)e-o2e' ldt
J
Y: [0.55/ + (2.45I-0.29)e-o2s\o
V : 12.47in'
ll
The volume in inchesover the watershedis thus 12'47 in'
3.0
-
; 2.0 -\-\
l?
6
.: 15
1.0
"'-0
0.5
2 4 6
L
8 10 12 t4 18
Time (hr)
4.4 MODEL
GREEN-AMPT
The Green-Ampt infiltration model,originallyproposedin 1911,has had a resur-
genceof inte1gs1.3'6-1tThis approachis basedon Darcy's law (seeChapter18).In its
original form, it was intendedfor use where infiltration resultedfrom an excessof
water at the ground surfaceat all times. In 1973, Mein and Larson presenteda
methodologyfor applying the Green-Ampt model to a steadyrainfall input.eThey
alsodevelopeda procedurefor determiningthe valueof the capillary suctionparame-
ter usedin the model. In 1978,Chu demonstratedthe applicability of the model for
useunder conditionsof unsteadyrainfall.lo As a result of theseand other efforts, the
Green-Ampt model is now employedas an option in such widely used continuous
simulation modelsas SWMM.6
The original formulation by Greenand Ampt assumedthat the soil surfacewas
coveredby ponded water of negligible depth and that the water infiltrated a deep
homogenoussoil with a uniform initial watercontent(seeFig. 4.9). Wateris assumed
to enter the soil so as to define sharply a wetting front separatingthe wetted and
unwettedregions as shown in the figure. If the conductivity in the wetted zone is
definedas K", applicationof Darcy's law yields the equation
" K"(r + s) (4.10)
Io: r
where I is the distancefrom the ground surfaceto the wetting front and S is the
capillary suction at the wetting front. Referringto Fig. 4.9, it can be seenthat the
cumulativeinfiltration F is equivalentto the product of the depth to the wetting front
L and the initial moisture deficit, 0, - 0, : IMD. Making these substitutionsin
Ponded depth
considerednegligible
I
Ho
I I
I
II
I
#: *,(t.'#) (4.r2)
: 0 at t : 0' we obtain
Integratingand substitutingthe conditionsthat F
+ I MD X {) : (4.r3)
F - S x I M D X l o g " ({ K.t
IMD X s
This form of the Green-Ampt equationis more convenientfor usein watershed
modelingprocesses than Eq. 4.l}beciuse it relatesthe cumulativeinfiltrationto the
ponded
time at which infiltration began.The derivation of this equation assumesa
equal to the infiltration capacity at all
surfaceso that the actualrate of infiltration is
cumulative infiltration at any time, a
times.Using Eq. 4.13, we can determinethe
featuredesiiablefor continuoussystemsmodeling. All the parameters in the equation
are physicalpropertiesof the soil-water systemand are measurable.The determina-
particu-
tion of suitablevaluesfor the capillary suctions is often difficult, however,
larly for relationssuchas that ihown for a clay-type soil in Fig. 4.10. It can be
observedfrom the figure that for this curve there is a wide variation of capillary
suctionwith soil moisturecontent.3
The Mein-Larson formulation using the Green-Ampt model incorporatestwo
The first stagedealswith prediction of the volume of water that infiltrates
stages.3,6
before the surfacebecomessaturated.The secondstageis one in which infiltration
water
capacityis calculatedusingthe Green-Ampt equation.In the widely usedstorm
model of infiltration is one of the
,nunug"*"nt model, the irodif,ed Green-Ampt
Computations are made using
optiois that can be employedto estimateinfiltration.6
v)
*\ t * j")
f,: x,(t
' F l (4.11)
theinfiltrationcapacity,anypondedwaterisallowedtoinfiltrateandisaddedtothe
cumulative inflltration volume'
MODEL
4.5 HUGGINS-MONKE
thetimedependency
havecircumvented problemby introducing
Severalinvestigators by
the followingequationproposed
soilmoistureas the depenO"niuutluUfe.2'10-13
HugginsandMonkeis an examPle:2
f : f,*A( I
(4.16)
PotentialEvapotranspiration
"the waterlosswhich will occur
Thornthwaitedeflnedpotential evapotranspirationas
if at no time there is a deficiencyof water in the soil for the use of vegetation."In a
practical sense,however,most investigatorshave assumedthat potential evapotran-
spiration is equal to lake evaporationas determinedfrom National WeatherService
ClassA pan records.This is not theoreticallycorrect becausethe albedo(amountof
incoming radiation reflectedback to the atmosphere)of vegetatedareas and soils
rangesas high as 45 percent.28As a result, potential evapotranspirationshould be
somewhatlessthan free water surfaceevaporation.Errors in estimatingfree water
evapotranspirationfrom pan recordsare such,however,asto make an adjustmentfor
potential evapotranspirationof questionablevalue.
An equationfor estimatingpotential evapotranspirationdevelopedby the Agri-
cultural ResearchService (ARS) illustratesefforts to include vegetalcharacteristics
and soil moisturein sucha calculation.The evapotranspirationpotentialfor any given
day is determinedas follows:2e
E T : G I x k ux , " ( # l (s.26)
0.2
0.1
,.} 0.0
ti
> n ,
0.1
J J
Months
(b)
l x
N I F
rrllS
]l{
tl
rH
0 8 1 6 2 r ' . 3 2 4 0 4 8
Weeks
Figure 5.6 Growth index GI = ETfET^,, from
lysimeterrecords,irrigatedcorn,andhayfor 1955,from
Coshocton, Ohio.(AfterHoltanet al.2e)
5.7 ESTIMATINGEVAPOTRANSPIRATION 103
sa GD AWC" x
Textureclass (v") (Y") ('/") AWC/G
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
5.7 ESTIMATING
Transpirationis an important componentin the hydrologicbudgetof vegetatedareas,
but it is a difficult quantity to measurebecauseof its dependenceon phytological
variables.It is a function of the number and types of plants, soil moisture and soil
type, qeason,temperature,and averageannual precipitation. As noted previously,
evaporationand tianspiration are commonly estimatedin their combinedevapotran-
spiration
' form.
If the precipitation and net runoff for an atea ate known, and estimatesof
groundwateiflow and storagecan be made,rough estimates- of ET canbe had using
ihe basic hydrologicequatiJn,Eq. 1.1. A more sophisticatedapproachdevelopedby
peaman foilows.t3It iJ representativeof the methodsmost often used'
104 CHAPTER
5 EVAPORATION
ANDTRANSPIRATION
The PenmanMethod
Both the energybudgetand masstransportmethodsfor estimatingevapotranspiration
(ET)have limitations dueto the difficulties encounteredin estimatingparametersand
in making other required assumptions.To circumventsomeof theseproblems,pen-
man developeda method to combinethe masstransport and energybudgettheories.
This widely usedmethodis one of the more reliableapproachesto estimatingETrates
usingclimaticdata.13'rs'23,30
The Penmanequationis of the form of Eq. 5.18; it is theoreticallybasedand
showsthat EZ is directly related to the quantity of radiative energy gained by the
exposedsurface.In its simplified form, the Penmanequationisls
LH + 0.27E
t s t : - (s.27)
L + 0.21
where A : the slopeof the saturatedvapor pressurecurve of air at absolute
temperature(mm Hg/'F)
H : the daily heatbudgetat the surface(estimateof net radiation) (mm/day)
E : daily evapoiation(mm)
ET : the evapotranspirationor consumptiveusefor a given period (mm/day)
The variablesE and.Fl are calculatedusing the following equations:
E : 0.35(e"- e)(l'+0.0098ar) ( s .28)
:
where eo the saturationvapor pressureat mean ak temperature(mm Hg)
e6 : the saturationvapor pressureat meandew point (actualvapor pressure
in the air) (mm Hg)
u2 : the mean wind speedat 2 m abovethe ground (mi/day)
The equationusedto determinethe daily heat budget at the surface,11,is
11 : R(1 - r)(0.18 + 0.55.t)- 8(0.56 * 0.092e2s)(0.10 + 0.905) (5.29)
where R : the mean monthly extraterrestrialradiation (mm HrO evaporatedper
dav)
: the estimatedpercentageof reflecting surface
B = a temperature-dependent coefficient
s : the estimatedratio of actual duration of brisht sunshineto maximum
possibleduration of bright sunshine.
The empirical reflectivecoefficientr is a function of the time of year,the calmnessof
the water surface,wind velocity, and water quality. Typical rangesfor r are 0.05 to
0.12.31valuesof e" andA can be obtainedfrom Figs.5.7 and 5.8, thosefor R and B
can be obtainedfrom Tables5.6 and 5.7. The use of Penman'sequationrequiresa
knowledgeof vaporpressures,sunshineduration,net radiation,wind speed,and mean
temperature.Unfortunately,regular measurements of theseparametersare often un-
availableat sites of concern and they must be estimated.Another complication is
making a reductionin the valueof EZwhen the calculationsare for vegetatedsurfaces.
While results of experimentsto quantify reduction factors have not completelyre-
solved the problem, there is evidencethat the annual reduction factor is close to
5.7 ESTIMATINGEVAPOTRANSPIRATION 105
"C .F
"C .F
50 111
60 t40
r04 313 =
't22 40
50 !? ts
86 303 ct
I € : o
€ + o 104 o
ro? !d
o
B t ^ 68 6
t r 1 n 86 - 1 0
14
o
F
s0l. z6J 6
F.
68 | | I I I t273
20 0 zzV | |
0.2 0.4 0 6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
10 50
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
satuated vapor pressure' ea (mm Hg)
Valueof A (mmHg/'F)
Figure 5.7 Relation betweentemperatureand Figure 5.8 TemperatureversusA relation for use
*i?rt ,n" PenmanLquation. (After Criddle'23)
saturatedvapor Pressure.
that using
Thus,unlessthereis evidenceto supportanothervalue'it appears
unity.32-34
satisfactoryresults for surfaces
a value of 1 for the reduction coefficient may give
of free water evaporation
having varied vegetal covers.Accordingly, aty estimate
by an appropriatereduction
could be used ro estimaieEZ, providin[ it is modified
coefficient.
EXAMPLE 5.4
using the PenmanMethod, Eqs.5.21
': to 5.29, estimateET, giventhe following data:
: 30 degreesc'
temperatureat warer r"tru"" 20 degreesc, temperatureof 1l
: (48 mi/day)' the month is
relative humidity : +O p"r""nt, wind-velocity i mph
S is found to be 0'75'
Juneat latitude 30 degreesnorth, r is given ut 0'07' and
Solution
l.Giventhedatafortemperature,thevaluesofeoandeacanbedetermined.
UsingFig.5.TorAppendixTableA.2,thesaturatedVaporpressuresare
31'83'andfor
foundto be l7.53unO-:t'Sl mm Hg respectively'ThI'"-:
:
: X 0'4 12'73'
a relativehumidity of 40 percent,e,t 31'83
Then,usingEq. 5.28'
E : 0.35(31 .83 - 12.73)(1+ 0.0098x 48)
E:9.83 mm/daY
2.ThevalueofAisfoundusingFig.5.8;forthegivenlatitudeandmonth,R
isobtainedfiomTable5.6;andBisgottenfromTable5.'Tforatemperature
: 1'0' R : 16'5' andB : I7 '01'
of 30"C.fne vatuesfound are A
Then,usingEq.5.29,
H: 16'5(I - 0'07)(0'18+ 0's5 x 0'75)
6 - 0.092x 12j30)(0.10 + 0'90 x 0'75)
- 17.01(0.5
H = 6.04 mm/daY
O \ O h O \ 6 \ t o € O \ \ O € € r )
O o r) F. O N + r) \O F- t-- l-- F-
O\ O F- * C.l * \O F- :+ f.-' r) O Ol
d \ + \ O O \ i o * r ) \ O \ O \ O \ O n
ft
o
LL
6
t- * co o o\ * o co cn oo oo n F-
trJ tF-O\dcl\fh!nv1<.cqolO
o
IL
tr
f
U) nv?qnnqqnv.t-nv.tol
J €oN catf,r +s+coNooo\o
: : * * * d d i * -
F
z
o
N F. O\ € cn ci O e.l O \n \O h N O\
tf
o c.i ri + r; ri ri { cd -.j oi F ri c.i
I
z
\ -.: dl .l \ oq v? q g oq 9 q cl
z r.) \O \O \O r.) !f c.l r O f\ \A tri d
I * * - i * d
=
o
E. r F- tr - \r ) €€$\O\O**€6
(r \o \o \o \o r) * c7) d o\ F- r) N o
5
o
q)
lJ-
9nqq\qqn\\-q*: q
o $ h n \ o r ) h c n N o € \ o $ *
* i i i i * i * d
6
z
uJ H t1
F F- O\ oo a] N a- 6 oo oo \O o
z -j 6i di + ri ri + ri 6i ci *, <j +
J
T
F
z
o e-:q\qoq.l-9qqvln
\ O O \ : c . l o $ n h * o a l ( ) €
H * * * * r *
4 Z
tIO
>tr q q \ g o q q - \
ds
u O
n q q n r t
O r} oO O al cn r) r) \O r) r) <+ C.l
olu
6 Z E
ui<
f > cn\oor)66r)ooooo6*\o
1 z .j d; \o od o 6i + r; \ci i-- r- r- \c;
S IIJ i : : a
2O-
ft+
t=P
) z
muJ
4 ,Ct)
F ]
q
€s
\Or ) *6al - - 6l o+r ) \O
E V
lo
UJ E:
6
z a > 6
SUMMARY 107
TABLE5.7 VALUESOF TEMPERATURE-DEPENDENT
B FORUSEINTHEPENMAN
COEFFICIENT
EQUATION
Tu B T" B
(K) (mmHrO/day) fF) (mm HrO/day)
3. UsingEq. 5.27,
Er : 0.0 x 6.04 + 0.27 x 9.83)/(1+ 0.27)
ET : 6.85 mm/day
is 6.85 mm/day. ll
Thus the estimatedevapotranspiration
Simulating Evapotranspiration
The volume of water evaporatedor transpiredfrom a watershedover time can be
substantial.Accordingly, continuoushydrologicmodelingprocessesshouldincorpo-
rate an EZcomponent.The modelsgiven in this chaptertypify suchan approach(see
aboundon this subjes1.28'2e'rs':o':z
alsothe flow chart of Fig. 1.3).References
Summary
Figure 1.1 and Table5.1 showthe overall importanceof ET in the hydrologicbudget.
In many regionsof the United States,annual ET exceedsannual precipitation by a
significantamount.As a result, plans for water resourcesdevelopmentand use must
incorporate estimatesof ET losses.Where irrigated agriculture is practiced, these
estimatesare especiallyimportant.
A numberof approachesto estimatingEThavebeendeveloped.They generally
fall into the following classes:theoretical,basedon the physicsofthe process;analyt-
ical, basedon energyor water budgets;and empirical, basedon observations.Equa-
tions usedin making ET calculationsare usually of the type illustrated by Eqs. 5.1,
5.8,5.10,5.19,5.22,and5.26.
1oB cHAp+R 5 EVApoRATtoN
ANDTRANsptRAloN
PROBLEMS
5.1. An 8000-mi2watershedreceived20 in. of precipitationin a 1-yearperiod. The annual
streamflowwas recorded as 5000 cfs. Roughly estimatethe combined amounts of
water evaporatedand transpired.Qualify your answer.
5.2. Find the daily evaporationfrom a lake during which the following datawere obtained:
air temperature 90oF,water temperature60oF,wind speed 20 mph, and relative
humidity 30 percent.
5.3. Find the monthly consumptiveuse of an alfalfa crop when the mean temperatureis
70"F, the averagepercentageof daytime hours for the year is 10, and the monthly
consumptiveuse coefficientis 0.87.
5.4. During a given month a lake having a surfacearea of 350 acreshas an inflow of 20
cfs, an outflow of 18 cfs, and a total seepagelossof 1 in. The total monthly precipita-
tion is 1.5 in. and the evaporationloss is 4.0 in. Estimatethe changein storage.
5.5. What are two filethodsthat might be usedto reduceevaporationfrom a small pond?
5.6. Computethe daily evaporationfrom a ClassA pan if the amountsof water required
to bring the level to the fixed point are as follows:
Day 1 2 3 4 5
Rainfall (in.) 0 0.65 0.12 0 0.01
Water added(in.) 0.29 0.55 0.07 0.28 0.10
Evaporation
5.7. For Problem 5.6, the pan coefficientis 0.70. What is the lake evaporation(in inches)
for the 5-day period for a lake with a 250-aqe surfacearea?
5.8. The pan coefficientfor a ClassA evaporationpan locatednear a lake is 0.7. A total
of 0.50 in. of rain fell during a given day. Determinethe depth of evaporationfrom
the lake during the sameday if 0.3 in. of water had to be addedto the pan at the end
of the day in order to restorethe waterlevel to its original valueat the beginningof the
day.
5.9. A 2500 mi2drainagebasinreceives25 in.lyr rainfall. The dischargeof the river at the
basinoutlet is measuredat an averageof 650 cfs. Assumingthat the changein storage
for the systemis essentiallyzero, estimatethe EZlossesfor the areain inchesand cm
for the year. Stateyour assumptions.
5.10. Determine the daily evaporationfrom a lake for a day during which the following
mean values were obtained: air temperature78'F; water temperature62oF; wind
speed,8 mph; and relative humidity, 45 percent.
5.11. Usingthe Meyer and Dunne equations,find the daily evaporationrate for a lake given
that the mean value for air temperaturewas 80T, for water temperature60'F, the
ziveragewind speedwas 10 mph, and the relative humidity was 25 percent.Refer to
Appendix Table A.2 for vapor pressrirevalues.
5.12. Determinethe seasonalconsumptiveuse of truck crops grown in Pennsylvaniaif the
meanmonthly temperaturesfor May, June,July, and August are 62,71,16, and 75'F
respectivelyandthepercentdaylighthoursforthegivenmonths arc10.02,10.1,10.3,
and 9.6 as percent of the year respectively.
REFERENCES 109
5.13. Using the PenmanMethod, Eqs.5.27 to 5.29, estimateET, giventhe following data:
temperatureat water surface: 20 degreesC, temperatureof air : 32 degreesC,
relative humidity : 45 percent,wind velocity : 3 mph, the month is Juneat latitude
30 degreesnorth, r is given as 0.08, and S is found to be 0.73.
REFERENCES
Streamflow
r Prologue
The purposeof this chapteris to:
The amountof water flowing in surfacewater coursesat any instant of time is small
in termsof the earth's total waterbudget,but it is of considerableimportanceto those
concernedwith waterresourcesdevelopment,supply,and management.A knowledge
of the quantity and quality of streamflowsis a requisite for: municipal, industrial,
agriculiural, and other water supply endeavors;flood control; reservoir designand
operation; hydroelectricpower generation;water-basedrecreation;navigation;fish
und .ildlit" management;drainage; the managementof natural systemssuch as
wetlands;and water and wastewatertreatment.
Streamflowis generatedby precipitationduring stormeventsand by groundwa-
ter entering surface channels.During dry periods, streamflowsare sustainedby
groundwaterdischarges.Where groundwaterreservoirsare below streamchannels-
often the casein arid regions-streams ceaseto flow during protractedprecipitation-
free periods. Relations between precipitation and streamflow are complex, being
influJnced by the factors discussedin the foregoing chapters.As a result, many
approachesto relating theseimportant hydrologicvariableshavebeen developed.l-3
Severalof them are discussedin detail in Part Three of the text'
Field measurementsof streamflow are based on the use of flow-measuring
devicessuchas weirs and flumes and on the measurementof channelcross-sections
along with streamflowvelocities(seeChapter 8).
DRAINAGEBASINEFFECTS
The quality and quantity of streamflowgeneratedin a drainagebasin are affectedby
the bisin's physical,vegetative,and climatic features.a-eAccordingly,it is important
that the have
hydrologist a good understanding ofthe soils, rocks,plants,topography,
J12 6 STREAMFLOW
CHAPTER
land-usepatterns,and otherbasincharacteristicsthat influencethe sequenceof events
separatingprecipitation and runoff. It should be pointed out, however,that while
natural basin featuresare very important elementsin the runoff process,land-use
ieatures createdby humans (e.g., housingdevelopments,parking lots, agricultural
patterns)may,in somecases,be the dominantones.Land managementpracticescan
be beneficial,suchasin retardingerosion,and they can alsobe detrimentalwhenthey
function to acceleratenatural hydrologicprocesses.In Chapter10,the principal basin
characteristicsof concern to the hydrologistare discussed.
Stormperiod hydrograph
'{1
oa-. Endof
. I'a direct runoff
\% .
\
Y
Continuous
hydrograph
Time
Figure 6.1 Hydrograph definition.
6.4 MEASURINGAND RECORDINGSTREAMFLOW 113
FORSTREAMFLOW
6.3 UNITSOF MEASUREMENT
Two types of units are usedin measuringwater flowing in streams.They are units of
dischargeand units of volume.Discharge,or rate of flow, is the volume of water that
passesa particularreferencepoint in a unit of time. The basicunits usedin connection
with streamgaugingin the United Statesare the foot and meter for measurements of
dimensionand the secondfor measurementsof time. Commonly usedunits of dis-
chargemeasurementare cubic feet per second(cfs) and cubic meters per second
(m3/sec).Other units of dischargein useare second-footper squaremile (sec-ft/mi2),
for expressingthe averagerate of dischargefrom a drainagebasinor definedarea,and
million gallonsper day (mgd),commonly usedin water supplycalculations.Units of
volume used are the cubic foot, cubic meter, liter, gallon, and acre-foot (a volume
equivalent to 1 ft of water over an acre, 43,560 ft2, of land). The latter unit is
commonly used in irrigation practice in the westernUnited States.Irrespectiveof
whetherEnglish or metric units are usedfor dimensions,the standardunit of time for
streamflowobservationsis the second.
AND RECORDING
6.4 MEASURING STREAMFLOW
' bI) 6 6
o
bo
a )
ri
3000
Discharge (sec-ft)
Figure 6.2 Station rating curve for RaquetteRiver at Piercefield,New York. (U.S.
GeologicalSurvey.)
114 CHAPTER6 STREAMFLOW
AREA
OF DEPTHAND CROSS.SECTIONAL
6.5 MEASUREMENTS
OF VELOCITY
6.6 MEASUREMENT
Velocity measurements, combinedwith thoseof cross-sectionalarea,permit calcula-
tion of dischargeat a given stream or river location. Point flow velocities can be
determinedusing velocity-measuringdevicessuch as the Pitot tube, dynamometer'
and current -"i"r. In the United States,the Price current meter has long been a
standardin streamflowgauging.This deviceoperatesby exposingcuppedvanesto the
direction of flow, *o"h lik" the anemometerused in measuringwind velocity. The
cup-vaneassemblyrotatesin nearproportion to flow velocity and the rate of rotation
is convertedto point velocity using a rating table or appropriateequation'
, Various chemical and electrical methods are also employed in determining
velocities.Commonly usedchemicalmethodsinclude salt velocity, salt dilution' and
is
the detectionof radioactivetracers. Of these methods,the salt velocity method
perhapsthe most widely used.It is basedon the principle that salt introducedinto the
streamwill increaseits electricalconductivity.Electrodesplaceddownstreamof the
FLOWVELOCIry
POINTVELOCIryTO CROSS-SECTIONAL
6.7 RELATING 115
Figure6.3 Verticalvelocityprofile
POINTVELOCITY
6.7 RELATING FLOWVELOCITY
TO CROSS-SECTIONAL
Water surface
for Example6.1
Figure 6.4 Channelcross-section
EXAMPLE 6.1
Calculatethe dischargeat the sectiongiven in Fig. 6.4. Data from field observations
are shownin Tables6.1 and6.2.
I 4 2.1
2 5 2.3
'7.2 2.7
3
4 7.4 2.8
5 2.5
6 4.'1 2.2
7 0 0
,117
METHODFORDETERMINING
6.8 THESLOPE-AREA DISCHARGE
TABLE6.3 CALCULATIONS
FOR
EXAMPLE
6.1
Area Vel. Flow
Area (sq.ft.) (fps) (cfs)
t61,.27 376.t3
Total estimateddischargeis 376.13 cfs
DISCHARGE
METHODFORDETERMINING
6.8 THE SLOPE.AREA
In somecasesit is difflcult to make velocity or other measurementsneededto deter:
mine discharge.This is often the caseduring large flood events.Under suchcircum-
stances,it is sometimespossibleto estimatethe flow by taking measurements of high
water lines (after the flood event),cross-sectionalareas,and channelslopesand then
usingthesedatain an equationsuchasManning's to estimatethe flow. The applicable
Manning equationis
Q : \I.49ln)APzrzgrrz (6.1)
where Q : discharge(cfs)
n : Manning's roughnesscoefficient
A : cross-sectionalarea(ft2)
R: the hydraulic radius
S: the headloss per unit length of channel
For streamflows,Manning's n valuesmay rangebetweenabout0.03 and 0.15. When
reasonabledeterminationscan be made of n, A, R, and S, Eq. 6.1 can be used
to estimate the streamflow that occurred during the high-water period. For a
more completediscussionof this and other streamflowdeterminationmethods,the
118 CHAPTER6 STREAMFLOW
r Summary
Streamflowis the result of storm-periodprecipitation, snowmelt,and groundwater
discharge.l3It is a primary sourceof water for a host of instreamand offstreamuses.
The graphicalrepresentationof streamflowis the hydrograph,a plot of flow versus
time at a prescribedlocation alongthe water courseof interest.As illustratedby Fig.
1.3, the end product of many hydrologicmodelingprocessesis a hydrographwhich is
derived from a precipitation input, modified appropriatelyby various abstractions
suchas infiltration. Methodsfor measuringstreamflowin the field were presentedin
this chapter.In later sectionsofthe book, a variety oftechniquesfor deriving hydro-
graphs from precipitation and other hydrologic data are covered (seePart Three).
PROBLEMS
6.t. Considerthat you haveobtaineda gaugeheightreadingof4 ft at a gaugingsite on the
RaquetteRiver (Fig. 6.2). What would you estimatethe dischargeto be in cfs and in
m3/sec?If the gaugeheighthad been9 ft, what would the dischargebe?Which of the
two estimatesdo you think would be the most reliable?Why?
6.2. SolveProblem 6.1 if the gaugeheight readingswere 5 ft and 7 ft.
6.3. Consulta USGSWaterSupplypaperand plot the streamflowdatafor a drainagebasin
ofinterest.Discussthe factorsthat you believeinfluencedthe shapeofthe hydrograph.
6.4. For the major surfacewater course in your locality, discussthe value of making
streamflowforecasts.
6.5. Calculatethe dischargeat the sectiongiven in Fig. 6.4 if the depth measurementsat
Give resultsin
the verticalswere:0, 3.8, 5.4, 7.1,8.1,7.0,4.5, and 0 ft respectively.
cfs and m3/s.
Calculatethe dischargeat the sectiongiven in Fig. 6.4 if the velocitieswere: 0, 2.3,
2.6,3.1,2.9,2.7,2.5, and0 fps respective$,and the depthsof Problem6.5 applied.
Give resultsin cfs and m3/s.
REFERENCES
1 . N. C. Grover and A. W. Harrington, StreamF/ow. New York Wiley, 1943.
2. United StatesDepartmentof the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation,Water Measurement
Manual. Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1967.
3 . I. E. Houk, "Calculation of Flow in Open Channels,"Stateof Ohio, The Miami Conser-
vancy District, Tech. Rept. Part IV, Dayton, OH, 1918.
4. Ven Te Chow (ed.), Handbook of Applied Hydrology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
5 . American Society of Civil Engineers,"Hydrology Handbook," Manuals of Engineering
Practice.No. 28. New York: ASCE. 1957.
REFERENCES 1 19
6 . O. E. Meinzer, Hydrology.New York: Dover, 1942.
7 . A. N. Strahler, "Geology-Part II," Handbook of Applied Hydrology. New York: Mc-
Graw-Hill. 1964.
8 . R. E. Horton, "Drainage Basin Characteristics,"Trans.Am. Geoplrys.Union l3r 35O-
36r(1932\.
9 . W. B. Langbeinet al., "TopographicCharacteristicsof DrainageBasins,"U.S. Geological
Survey,Water Supply Paper,968-c, 1947.
1 0 . R. K. Linsley, Jr., M. A. Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus,Applied Hydrology. New York:
McGrawHill, 1949.
1 1 . S. S. Butler, EngineeringHydrology.EnglewoodCliffs, New Jersey:Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1951.
12. C. H. Pierce,"Investigationof Methodsand EquipmentUsedin StreamGauging,"Water
Supply Paper 868-A, U.S. GeologicalSurvey,Washington,D.C.: GovernmentPrinting
Office,1941.
1 3 . D. R. Maidment (ed.),Handbookof Hydrology.New York: McGraw-Hill , 1993.
PART TWO
MEASUREM
HYDROLOGIC ENTS
AND MONITORING
Chapter7
HydrologicDataSources
r Prologue
The purposeof this chaPteris to:
DATA
7 . 1 GENERALCLIMATOLOGICAL
DATA
7.2 PRECIPITATION
There are probably more records of precipitation than of most otherhydrologic
variables.The priniipal federalsourceof data on precipitationis NOAA. Climatolog-
ical Data, publishedmonthly and annuallyfor eachstateor combinationof states,the
pacific area,PuertoRico, and the Virgin Islandsby the EnvironmentalData Service,
E # = ,
DATA
7.3 STREAMFLOW
The principal sourcesof streamflowdatafor the United Statesare the U.S. Geological
Survey(USGS),U.S. Soil Conservation Service(SCS),U.S.ForestService,andU.S.
Agricultural ResearchService(ARS). In addition,the U.S. Army Corpsof Engineers
(COE), the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), and the U.S. Bureauof Reclamation
(USBR) make somestreamflowmeasurementsand tabulatestreamflowdata relative
to their missions.Stateagencies,universities,and variousresearchorganizationsalso
compile and publish a variety of streamflowdata.
The USGS Water Supply Papers(WSf; are the benchmark for referencing
streamflowdata. Furthermore,computerizeddata are also availablefrom the USGS.
Publications of the Geological Survey, publishedevery 5 years and supplemented
. annually, arean excellentsourceof information on that agency'sreports. The SCS
historically published data on streamflow from small watershedsand plots in its
Hydrologic Bulletin series,but much of the data have been republishedby ARS.
"pilot watersheds"are publishedin cooperationwith the USGS.
Recordsfrom SCS
U.S. Forest Service streamflow data are publishedat irregular intervals in various
technicalbulletins and professionalpapers.
DATA
AND.TRANSPIRATION
7.4 EVAPORATION
Monthly and annualissuesof ClimatologicalData, publishedby NOAA, includepan
evaporationand related data. The ARS, agricultural colleges,and water utilities are
other sourcesof information. In particular, data on evapotranspirationare often
obtained by university researchersworking through their Agricultural Experiment
Stations.
REFERENCES 125
r summary
Climatic and other data are keystonesin hydrologicmodelingprocesses.Numerous
sources of data exist and may be accessedto support model developmentand
verification, statisticalanalyses,and specialstudies.
PROBLEM
7.1 Developa list ofdata sourcesin your stateorlocality by visiting the library or through
other channels.
REFERENCES
1 . Soil ConservationService,U,S. Departmentof Agriculture, SCSNational Engineering
Handbook, "Hydrology", Sec. 4. Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Offlce,
Au,g.1972.
J. F. Miller, "Annotated Bibliography of NOAA Publications of Hydrometeorological
Interest," NOAA Tech. Mem. NWS HYDRO-22, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Washington,D.C., May 1975. ,
D. R. Maidment (ed.), Handbookof fudrology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993.
ChapterB
lnstrumentation
Prologue
The purposeof this chapteris to:
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Hydrologicinstrumentationsupportsarealinvestigations,problemanalyses,research,
planning,and environmentalpolicymakingand analysis.A hostof measurements are
neededto support efforts in water resourcesplanning, management,design, and
constructionrelatedto suchsubjectsas aquifer systemsanalysis,solid wastemanage-
ment, flood hazardassessment, water supplyavailability,water quality management,
groundwaterrecharge,protection of fish and wildlife, and navigation.
Historically,instrumentswere often usedto obtain cumulativerather than con-
tinuousinformation abouthydrologicvariablessuchasrainfall and evaporation.Fqr-
thermore,there was often no attemptto correlatewater quality constituentloadings,
for example,with ratesof water flow. Consequently,many historic data havelimited
utility, not somuchbecauseof lack of adequateinstrumentation,but ratherfrom using
availableinstrumentsto measurethe wrong thing or in too limiting a fashion.Today
'
it is widely recognizedthat it is important not only to selectappropriateinstruments
but to selectthem in the contextof datanetworksthat meetthe needsof moderntimes.
More will be said about this in Chapter9, In Section8.2, instrumentsfor measuring
hydrologicvariablesand waysin which they can be usedjointly to createa complete
. representationof a functioning hydrologicsystemare discussed.
INSTRUMENTS 127
8.2 HYDROLOGIC
INSTRUMENTS
8.2 HYDROLOGIC
Good sourcesof information abouthydrologicinstrumentsare the National Weather
Service,U.S. GeologicalSurvey,U.S. Bureauof Reclamation,U.S. Army Corpsof
Engineers,Soil ConservationService,and instrumentmanufacturers,Theseagencies
and industrieshavelong been in the businessof measuringhydrologicvariablesand
theycanprovidedetaileddescriptionsof state-of-the-artmeasuringdevices.Someofthe
major typesof measuringinstruments are describedhere, but the coverageis far from
exhaustiveand the interestedreader should consult the appropriate references.l-3
Precipitation
Gaugesfor measuringrainfall and snowfall may be recording or nonrecording.The
mostcommonnonrecordinggaugeis the U.S. WeatherServicestandard8-in. gauge.
The gaugemay be read at any desirableinterval but often this is daily. The gaugeis
calibrated so that a measuringstick, when inserted, showsthe equivalentrainfall
depth. Such gaugesare useful when only periodic volumes are required, but they
cannotbe usedto indicate the time distribution of rainfall'
Recordinggaugescontinuouslysensethe ratb of rainfall and its time of occur-
rence.Thesegaugesare usually either ofthe weighing-recordingtype or the tipping
buckettype. Weighing-typegaugesusually run for a period of 1 week, at which time
their chartsmustbe changed.The figure associatedwith Problem2.5 is typical of the
recordedoutput. A masscurve of rainfall depth versustime is the product, and this
curve can be translatedinto an intensity-time graph by calculating the ratios of
accumulatedrainfall to time for whatevertime stepis desired.Tipping bucketgauges,
on the other hand, senseeach consecutiverainfall accumulationwhen it reachesa
prescribedamount, usually 0.01 in. or 1 mm of rain, A small calibratedbucket is
located below the rainfall entry port of the gauge. When it fills to the 0.01-in.
incrementit tips over,bringing a secondbucketinto position.Thesetwo small buckets
are placed on a swivel and the bucketstip back and forth as they fiIl. Each time a
bucketspills it producesan indication on a strip chart or other recordingform. In this
way a record of rainfall depth versustime (intensity)is the outcome.For rain gauges
" to record snow accumulations,some modifications must be made. Usually these
involveproviding a melting agentso that the snow can be convertedinto measurable
water.
Figure 8.la is the diagram of a self-reportingrain gaugingstation.The tipping
bucketmechanismgeneratesa digital input signal whenever1 mm of rainfall drains
through the funnel assembly.The signalfrom the gaugeis automaticallytransmitted
to a receiving station where it records the station ID number and an accumulated
amountof rainfall. The receiving stationrecordsthe time at which the messagewas
received and rainfall rates for desiredperiods can be calculated accordingly' Fig-
ure 8.1b showsa similar gaugeequippedto measuresnow.In this case,a glycometh
solution is usedto melt the snow.The melt water overflowsthrough a temperature-
compensatingmechanismand is measuredby the tipping bucket,which operatesthe
station's transmitter.Gaugesof the type shownin Fig. 8.1 can easilybe incorporated
into real-time monitoring systemsthat can be used in a variety of forecastingand
operatingmodes.
128 8 INSTRUMENTATION
CHAPTER
Antenna
Antenna mast
Antenna
Temperatffe
compensation
overflow
Antenna mast mechanism
Glycometh
Funnel assembly collecting
section
Signalcable
Signalcable
Lifting rope Lifting rope
Antennacable Antennacablb
(a) (b)
Figure 8.1 Self-reporting (a) rain and (b) snow stations. (Courtesy of Sierra-
, Misco, Inc., EnvironmentalProducts,Berkeley,CA.)
Evaporationand Transpiration
Evaporationpans have been widely used for estimatingthe amount of evaporation
from free water surfaces.Devicessuchasthat depictedin Fig. 8.2 areeasyto use,but
relating measurements taken from them to actual field conditionsis difficult and the
.. -data_lhey-produceare often of questionablevalue for making areal estimates.A
INSTRUMENTS
8.2 HYDROLOGIC 129
and HumiditY
Wind,Temperature,
Measurementsof wind, temperature,and humidity are neededto supportmany types
of hydrologicanalyses.Wind is commonly measuredusing an anemometer,a device
that has a wind-propelledelementsuchas a cup (Fig. 8.2) or propellerwhosespeed
is calibratedto reflect wind velocity. Wind direction is obtainedusing a vane,which
orients itself with the direction of the wind.
130 CHAPTER
8 INSTRUMENTATIoN
Temperaturemeasurementsare madeusing standardthermometersof various
types,while hurnidity is measuredusing a psychrometer.A psychrometerconsistsof
two thermometers,one called a wet bulb, the other a dry bulb. Upon ventilation the
thermometersmeasuredifferently, and this differenceis called the wet-bulb depres-
sion.By usingappropriatetables,dewpoint, vaporpressure,andrelativehumidity can
, be determined.6
Figure 8.3 depictsa completeweatherstation incorporatingmeasurementsof
precipitation, wind, temperature,barometricpressure,and humidity. Sucha station
- can automatically
report weatherdata from remote siteson either an event and/or
Funnel assembly
Solar panel
Tipping bucket
Lifting rope
Antennacable
Main housing
Signal cable
Ground level
Transmitter
OpenChannelFlow
Measurementsof open channel(natural and created)flow are made using standard
measuringdevicessuchas flumes and weirs, and they are also madeby calibrating
special control sectionsalong rivers and streamssuchthat measurementsof depth
(Jtage)of flow can be related to discharge.Flow-measuringdevicesare designedso
that sensingsomeparametersuchas depth automaticallytranslatesthe observation
into units of flow (discharge).When a control sectionis used,observationsof cross-
sectionalareafor variousdepthsmust be obtained,and averageflow velocitiesmust
be ascertainedfor variousstagesso that a sectionrating curve can be established.In
the United States,the U.S. GeologicalSurvey,the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,the
Soil ConservationService,andthe U.S. Army Corpsof Engineershavedoneextensive
flow measuringand havebeen active in developinginstrumentsand proceduresfor
ascertainingrates of flow.2'6
Golttrol Sections where the installation of a weir, flume, or some other flow-
measuringdeviceis impractical, it is sometimespossibleto developa rating curve at
somelocation alonga streamby taking measurements of depth,cross-sectionalarea,
and velocity and calculatingthe rate of flow for a particular stageat the location.By
doing this for a range of depths of flow, a station rating curve can be developed.
Instrumentsrequired to developsuch a curve are depth-sensingdevices,surveying
instruments,and velocity meters.The velocity meter is similar to an anemometer.It
is placedat variouspositionsin the channeland a velocity is recorded.By doing this
at a numberoflocations, a velocity profile for a given depth can be developed.From
this an averageflow velocity can bJcomputed, ind uy uiing that determinationand
INSTRUMENTS 133
8.2 HYDROLOGIC
Diverging
sectlon
Throat section
a
J
Altemate45"
wing wall
PLAN
t x t xf,tngle
SECTIONZ-f,
Figure 8.5 Parshallflume.(U.S.Soil Conservation
Service.)
Valve shut-offkeys
Connecting band
Valves
Antenna mast
Transmitter
Hydraulic
damping device
Level
sensor
Counter
weight
Mounting
brackets
lnlet tubes
Sideclean-
out port
Bottomclean-
out port
Figure 8.7 Self-reportingstilling well liquid-levelstation.
(Courtesy of Sierra-Misco,Inc., Environmental products.
Berkeley,CA.)
8.4 REMOTE
SENSING 135
correspondingpressurechange.This resultsin a fluid-levelchangein the manometer
connectedto the gassupplyand this in turn is usedto reflect stagevariationover time.
The foregoingdescriptionsare of a few of the instrumentsused in hydrologic
work. Both the limitations associatedwith their use and their reliability must be
understoodif they are to be used correctly and their outputs are to be considered
credible.
8.3 TELEMETRY
SYSTEMS
Historically,many gaugeswere read periodically by an individual making the rounds
of installations.This servedwell whenthe purposeof the data wasto establisha base
record of somevariablesuchasrainfall. But today,undermany circumstances,it has
becomenecessaryto make continuousrecordingsof rainfalls, streamflows,and evap-
oration rates and to have thesedata availablefor the real-time operation of water
managementsystemsand for forecastinghydrologicevents.Someexamplesof activ-
ities requiring real-time hydrologicdataarc managingreservoirs,issuingflood warn-
ings, allocating water for various usessuchas irrigation, monitoring streamflowsto
ensurethat treatiesand pactsare honored,and monitoringthe quality and quantity of
waterfor regulatoryand environmentalpurposes.Accordingly,gaugingstationscapa-
ble of electronicallytransmitting their data to a central location for immediateuse
havenow becomecommon.The advantagesof suchstationsincludeproviding infor-
mation to usersin a time frame that meetsmanagementneeds,reducingthe costsof
collecting data, and providing a continuousand synchronousrecord of hydrologic
events.Figure 8.8 showsa streamgaugereporting station using radio transmission.
Figure 8.9 illustratesa satellitedata collection and transmitting operation.T-|2
8.4 REMOTE
SENSING
Sincethe 1960s,remote sensinghasbecomea commonhydrologictool. Examplesof
aircraft and satellitedatacollectionand transmission abound.13-16 Figure8.10 illus-
tratesthe useof aircraft and satellitesin a snowsurveysystem.Other typesof surveys
suchasthoserelatedto determiningimperviousareas,classifyingland usesfor assess-
ing basin'wide runoff indexes, determining lake evaporation, and groundwater
prospectingcan be depictedin similar fashion.Table 8.1, which summarizesopera-
tional uses of satellite data in hydrology circa 1981, showsthe great diversity of
remote sensingand data transmissionoptions that can be exercised.l6
The principal value of remote sensingis its ability to provide regionalcoverage
and at the sametime providepoint deflnition.Furthermore,satellitecommunications
can be digitized and are thus compatiblewith the transferof computerizedinforma-
tion. Following the evolution of linkages between computer and communications
technology,new softwaresystemsincorporatingpowerful data managementsystems
havebeen developed.Thesesystemsfacilitate the storage,compaction,and random
accessof large data banks of information. one data managementoption, geographic
information systems(GIS), allows the overlayingof many setsof data (particularly
satellite-deriveddata) for convenientanalysis.Versatilecolor pictorial and graphic
display systemsare also becomingattractiveas their costshavedecreased.ra
136 CHAPTER
8 INSTRUMENTATIoN
I Utah
L.
Anzona
I
q)
B
.H
z
Boulder City
VIIF Radio Station
Mt. Hualpai
Repeater Station
20 40 60
N
,& Scaleof miles
"&*"
rq* Lake
EXPLANATION
Havasu
s Parker
Dam fl Water level gauge
A
X
Black Point
Taylor'sFerry il VIIF radio antenna tower
Repeater Station H
gauge
@ Transmitter-ieceiver radio
Colorado
Cibola gauge nver VHF Very high frequency radio
lmperial Dam
Repeater Station
Dam
-'-:4 *
az*<3e
-{/co '--
Low-altitude
gamma-ray light.
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142 8 INSTRUMENTATIoN
CHAPTER
With the advancementof satellite technology,the use of satellitesas remote
sensorplatformshasspread.Currently availablesensorscan operatein a multitude of
electromagneticradiation wavelengthsand the information content of their signals
can include Surfacetemperatures,radiation, atmosphericpollutants,and other types
of meteorologicaldata. As remote sensorsare improved to permit the attainmentof
greater radiometric and geographicresolution, and as computer image-enhancing
techniquesbecomemore sophisticated,it is certain that this powerful watermanage-
ment tool will seeeven sreaterand more diversifieduse.
r summary
Hydrologic data are important componentsof model design and testing and of a
variety of statistical analyses.The quality of data obtained relate to attributes of
measuringinstrumentsand to the featuresof gaugingsites.It is important to under-
standthe pros and consof variousinstrumentsand to know how they canbestbe used.
REFERENCES
MonitoringNetworks
Prologue
The purposeof this chapteris to:
9.1 THEPURPOSE
OF MONITORING
The purpose of monitoring is to gather information in a continuum such that the
dynamics of the systemcan be ascertained.According to Dressing,objectives of
monitoring for nonpoint source pollution control include developmentof baseline
9.2 SPECIAL
CoNSIDERATIoNS
145
information, generatingdata for trend analysis,developingand/or verifying models,
and investigatingsingleincidentsor events.zTheseobjectivesare alsovalid for hydro-
logic monitoring in general,but they shouldbe supplementedby the following obje"-
tives:planning,real-time systemoperating,enforcingregulatoryprograms,and envi-
ronmental policymaking. In the flnal analysis,the ultimate purposeof monitoring is
to enhancedecisionmaking,whetherit be for development,management,regulation,
or researchaims.
9.2 SPECIALCONSIDERATIONS
Timeand SpaceVariability
In general, monitoring networks are designedto have both spatial and temporal
dimensions.Although monitoringa specificpoint locationmay be all that is necessary
undersomecircumstances, it is more commonthat what is happeningin a regional
settingis of importance.The temporal aspectis similar. While a snapshotat some
point in time may suffice for some purposes,the time varianceof conditions to be
tracked is usually critical for effective analysesandlor decisionmaking.Both the
short-termand long-term variabilities of many targefsof monitoring must be ascer-
tained. For example,water quality in a streamcan changerapidly with time, while
changesin lake levels,suchas thoseexperiencedin the GreatLakes in the 1980s,are
the result of long-termhydrologicvariability.
Spatial variability must also be representedin a monitoring network: for exam-
ple, infiltration ratesmay vary considerablywithin a region, rainfall intensitiesmay
be quite different within even short distances,and water quality in a river might be
different in upstreamand downstreamlocations.Topography,soils, vegetalcovers,
and many other factors affecting the performanceof a hydrologic systemare also
distributed differently in space,and these differencesmust be recognizedin the
monitoring plan. The trick is to developa monitoring systemthat can (1) provide the
neededdata,(2) recognizeregionaland temporal variabilities,and (3) keep installa-
tion, operation,and maintenancecoststo a minimum. To do this requiresa compre-
hensiveknowledgeof the systemto be monitored,an understandingof what the data
obtainedby the systemwill be used for, and a knowledgeof the level of detail in
collecting the data that must be exercisedin spaceand time.
DataRequirements
The amountand type of datato be generatedby a monitoringsystemmustbe carefully
consideredin its design. Selectingappropriateinstruments,determining sampling
frequency,and settingdata formats are elementsthat must be considered.Questions
such as how much do we need to know and when do we need to know it must be
answered.The form and extensiveness of data must be tightly relatedto monitoring
146 CHAPTER9 MONITORINGNETWORKS
Flood
warnlng
Water
managemeff
---:
Telephone
Lift station
monitoring
control Hardwire
lnfrared
+ + , . . + +
xgnr
Water quality
monitoring
(Courtesyof Sierra-Misco,
Figure9.1 A telemetrymonitoringsystem. Inc.,Environ-
mentalProducts.
Berkeley.
CA.
QualityControland QualityAssurance
The costsof monitoring are usually substantialand thus it is essentialthat the data
generatedbe of consistentlyhigh quality. Accordingly, most monitoring systems
include quality control and quality assurance(QA/QC) elements.Quality control is
a plannedsystemof activitiesdesignedto producea quality product(datain this case)
that meetsthe needsof the user. Quality assuranceis a plannedsystemof activities
designedto guaranteethat the quality control programis being carried out properly.
A quality managementplan should be part of the overall monitoring program
and should be preparedwhen the monitoring program is being developedto ensure
that the data collectedwill be of a satisfactorynature for the monitoring program's
objectives.3
9,4 NETWORKS
HYDROLOGICAL-METEOROLOGICAL 147
To useror
IN MONITORING
9.3 USEOF COMPUTERS
With the rapid technologicaldevelopmentof computers,especiallyinexpensivemi-
crocomputers,the oppoitunities foiautomated collection of all types of hydrologic
and water quality data have increased substantially.Microcomputers, used with
analog-to-digital converters,pressureor liquid-level sensors,and the appropriate
software can, for example, be used in hydrologic monitoring systemsas flow
metering/dataacquisitionsystems(Fig.9.2).4Furthermore,suchsystemsare highly
versatile and they are rblatively inexpensive.Computer systemscan be custom-
designedfor almost any dataacquisitionapplicationand they are often lesscostly than
other commerciallyavailablehardwaresystemsdesignedfor the samepurpose.Com-
puterscan convert raw datainto other more usefulforms, storedata for later use,and
communicatewith other computerterminalsif necessary.As such,they are a power-
ful and important componentof modern hydrologicmonitoring systems.Figure 9.3
illustratesthe use of computersin a real-time telemetry system.
NETWORKS
ETEOROLOGICAL
e.4 HYDROLOGICAL-M
Most modern hydrologic-meteorologicnetworks are designedto provide real-time
information for purposessuchas hydropowerscheduling,releasingflows for irriga-
tion, developingand testinghydrologicsystemmodels,regulatingreservoirdischarges,
allocating water from multiple sources,streamflow forecasting,tracking pollutant
transport, and enforcing environmental regulations. Hydrological-meteorological
148 CHAPTER9 MONITORINGNETWORKS
Water level
Weather station
Computer
:,/:
Modem
Data Collection
REFERENCES
SURFACEWATER
HYDROLOGY
C h a p t e r1 0
r Prologue
The purposeof this chaPteris to:
AND DRAINAGEBASINS
WATERSHEDS
10.1 CATCHMENTS,
Runoff occurswhen precipitationor snowmeltmovesacrossthe land surface-some
of which eventuailyreachesnatural or artificial streamsand lakes'The land areaover
which rain falls is called the catchmentand the land area that contributessurface
runoff to any point of interestis called a watershed.This can be a few acresin size
or thousandiof ,quut" miles.A large watershedcan contain many smaller subwater-
sheds.
Streamsand rivers conveyboth surfacewater and groundwaterawayfrom high
water areas,preventingsurfaceflooding and rising groundwaterproblems'The tract
154 CHAPTER
1O RUNOFF
ANDTHECATCHMENT
of land (both surfaceand subsurface)drainedby a river and its tributariesis called a
drainage basin. A watershedsuppliessurfacerunoff to a river or stream,whereasa
drainagebasinfor a given streamis the tract of land drainedof both surfacerunoff and
groundwaterdischarge.
Rain falling on a watershedin quantitiesexceedingthe soil or vegetationuptake
becomessurface runoff. Waterinfiltrating the soil may eventuallyreturn to a stream
and combine with surfacerunoff in forming the total drainage from the basin. The
network of overlandflow coursesand defineddrainagechannelscomprisethe water-
shed.Surfacerunoff from tracts of land beginsits journey as overlandflory, often
calledsheetflow,beforeit reachesa definedswaleor channel,usually beforeflowing
more than a few hundredfeet. The lines separatingthe land surfaceinto watersheds
are called divides.Thesenormally follow ridges and moundsand can be delineated
using contourmaps,field surveys,or stereographpairs of aerial photographsto iden-
tify gradient directions.
ContributingArea
In the majority of hydrologicanalyses,the magnitudeof total surfaceareacontributing
direct runoff to somepoint of interestis needed.Becauseof variationsin topography,
the true surfaceareacannotbe easilymeasured.The horizontalprojectionofland area
is easilyobtainedand normally adoptedin hydrologiccalculations.This resultsin an
error in actual watershedarea whereverthe projected area is less than the actual.
Somesurfaceareain watershedsmay not contributeto surfacerunoff, so the error in
using the projectedwatershedareais somewhatoffset.
PartialArea Hydrology
For light storms,or for someflat areas,portions of the catchmentdo not contribute
to runoff. Precipitationfalling on or flowing into depressedor blockedareascan exit
only by seepageor evaporation,or by transpirationif vegetated.If sufficientrainfall
occurs, such areasmay overflow and contribute to runoff. Thus the total area con-
tributing to runoff varies with the intensity and duration of the storm. Methods for
incorporating this phenomenonin hydrologic studies are calegorizedunder proce-
duresfor partial area lrydrology.
In partial areahydrology,watershedareasare dividedby one of severalmethods
into contributing (active) and noncontributing (passive)subareas.For infrequent
(severe)storms,largerpercentagesof the watershedsurfacemay contributeto the peak
flow and volume of runoff, which are the primary variables of interest to design
engineers.For more frequent storms,significantly smaller portions of some water-
shedsmay contribute.As a consequence, partial areahydrologyis seldomincorpo-
ratedin hydraulic structuredesign,and is of greaterinterestin watersupplyand water
quality studies.As will be shownlater (Chapter12) unit hydrographtheory andrunoff
curve numbermethodsare basedon linearity of rainfall and runoff, and assumethat
the full watershedcontributesto runoff in all stormsand in proportional amountsat
different times in the samestorm. Application of thesemethodsto watershedsthat
havesignificantnoncontributingzonescould, and do, introduceerror ifthe zonesare
nof first delineatedand the distributedeffectsproperly modeled.
10.2 BASINCHARACTERISTICS
AFFECTINGRUNOFF 155
When Boughton applied the procedureto a test watershed,rit was found that
runoff occurredfrom the entire watershedon only 3 of 30 eventsin the l5-year study
period.In abouttwo-thirds of the runoff events,dischargeoccurredonly from the cell
with the smallestsurfacestoragecapacity.
10.2 BASINCHARACTERISTICS
AFFECTING
RUNOFF
The natureof streamflowin a regionis a function of the hydrologicinput to that region
and the physical,vegetative,and climatic characteristics.As indicatedby the hydro-
logic equation,all the waterthat occursin an areaas a result ofprecipitation doesnot
appearas streamflow.Fractionsof the grossprecipitationare divertedinto pathsthat
do not terminatein the regional surfacetransport system.Precipitation striking the
groundcango into storageon the surfaceor in the soil andinto groundwaterreservoirs
beneaththe surface.The characterof the soil and rocks determinesto a large extent
the storagesysteminto which precipitatedwaterwill enter.Opportunity for evapora-
tion and transpirationwill also be affectedby the geologicand topographicnatureof
the area.
156 CHAPTER1O RUNOFFAND THE CATCHMENT
StreamPatterns
Wind, ice, and water act on land surfacesto createseveraltypes of drainagepatterns
seen in nature. The particular design that results is a function of several factors
including slope,underlying soil and rock properties,and the historiesof hydraulic
action, freeze-thaw activity, and sedimenttransport.
Geomorphology
of DrainageBasins
The principal geologicfactorsthat affect surfacewatersare classifiedaslithologic and
structural. Lithologic effects are associatedwith the composition,texture, and se-
quenceof the rocks, whereasstructuraleffectsrelatemainly to discontinuitiessuchas
faults and folds. A fault is a fracture that resultsin the relative displacementofrock
that was previouslycontinuous.Folds are geologicstrata that are contortedor bent.
Variationsin the erodibility of the different strata can easily lead to the creation of
distinctive forms of drainagesystems.
Both large-scaleandlocal effectson the storageand movementof surfacewaters
existbecauseof geologicactivity and structure.For example,drainagepatternsare
1 58 CHAPTER10 RUNOFFAND THE CATCHMENT
determinedto a large extentby the nature of land forms. On the other hand, flowing
surfacewatersalso affect the surfacegeometrythrough the processof erosion.Thus
significant land forms resulting from volcanic activity, folding, and faulting affect
drainage,whereasdrainagepatterns,havingbeengenerated,can alsomodify the land
forms by creatingvalleys,deltas,and other geomorphicfeatures.
Streamsare classifiedasbeingyoung,mature,or old on the basisof their ability
to erodechannelmaterials.Youngstreamsare highly active and usually flow rapidly
so that they are continually cutting their channels.The sedimentload imposed on
thesestreamsby their tributariesis transportedwithout deposition.Mature streams
are those in which the channel slope has been reduced to the point where flow
velocitiesarejust able to transportincoming sedimentand where the channeldepth
is no longerbeingmodifiedby erosion.A streamis classifiedasold whenthe channels
in its systemhavebecomeaggraded.The flow velocitiesof old streamsare low dueto
gentleslopesthat prevail.Wide meanderbelts,broad flood plains,anddeltaformation
are alsocharacteristicof old streams.The lower reachesof the Mississippi,Rhine, and
Nile are examples.Flows in young river basinsare often o'flashy,"*h"t"u, sluggish
flows are common to older streams.
The description of a drainagebasin in quantitative terms was an imponant
forward stepin hydrologyand can be tracedback in largepart to the efforts of Robert
E. Horton.2Strahler,Langbein,and othershaveexpandedHorton's original work.3-a
To quantify the geometry of a basin, the fundamental dimensionsof length,
time, and mass are used. Many drainagebasin featuresthat are important to the
hydrologistcan be quantified in terms of length, length squared,orlength cubed.
Examplesare elevation,streamlength, basin perimeter,drainagearea, and volume.
The conceptof geometricsimilarity can be appliedto drainagebasinsjust as it is to
many other systems.3 Most readerswill be awareof model-prototypestudiesof air-
craft, dams,and turbomachinery.Suchstudiesinvolveconsiderationsof geometricas
well as dynamic similarity. In the samemannerthat inferencesas to the operationof
a prototype can sometimesbe drawn from a geometricallysimilar model, inferences
canalsobe drawnaboutthe operationof one drainageareaon the basisof information
obtained from a similar one. Perfect similarity will never be realized if natural
drainagesystemsare compared,but striking similarities have been observedwhich
can often be put to practical use.
'/, "81
{,'v '\'rr
;)
Areal Measurements
Just as linear measuresrelate to many factors of hydrologic interest, so do areal
measures.For example,the quantity of dischargefrom any drainagebasinis obviously
a function of the areal extentof that basin.
Correlationshavebeenobservedbetweenthe averagearea,Au, of basinsof order
u, andthe averagelength of streamsegments,2,. Thesevariablesare often relatedby
an exponentialfunction. For example,studiesof sevenstreamsin the Maryland-Vir-
ginia areaby Hack haveproducedthe relationship6
L : I.4Ao6 (10.2)
where L = the streamlength measuredin miles to the drainagedivide
A : the drainagearea(miz)
Hack's observationsindicatethat as the drainagebasinincreasesin size,it becomes
longer and narrower; thus precisegeometricsimilarity is not preserved.
Drainageareahas long beenusedas a parameterin precipitation*runoff equa-
tions or in simpleequationsindexingstreamflowto area or other parameters.Many
early empirical equationsare of the form3
Q: cA- (10.3)
where Q : a measureof flow suchas mean annual runoff
A : the size of the contributine drainaeeatea
Valuesof c and m are determinedby regressionanalysis(seeChapter26); Fig. 10.3
illustratesa relation of this form.
€o r u
q 8
( ( ) 6
= a
I
3
./
Channeland BasinGradients
surface
The slopesof a drainagebasinand its channelshavea very strongeffecton the
runoff pro""r, of thairegion. Most stream channel profiles exhibit the characteristic
this
of decreasingslopeproceedingin a downstreamdirection.Figure 10.4illustrates
particular.trait. Also illustrated in
elevationdrop dividedby the channt
suchthat the areasbetweenthe ave
that is, A, : Azin the figure. The g
asparametersto describedrainaget
describe
make this clear. Some mathemalicalfunctions that are used to more fully
streamprofilesarelinear, exponenti
ical value to representthe Primal
Schwartz.TThis factor,known as th
a uniform channelthat is equivalen
sametraveltime. This factorhasber
maximum
from the centerof massof rainfall excessto the peak rate of runoff ) and
discharge.
In additionto the slopeofthe streamchannel,the overall land slopeofthe basin
slopes
is an important topographicfactor.A quantitativerelation betweenvalley wall
by Strahler.3 A commonly used method
and streamcnannetstopeshas been derived
method
of determiningthe slopesof a basin has been presentedby Horton'SThe
grid over a topographic map of the drainage area
involvessuperimposinga transparent
b"t*""n its intersections with the drainage
in question.nacfr grlJnne is measu."d
needed'
divide; the numberof intersectionsof eachgrid line with a contourline is also
A determinationof the land slopecan then be made using
nsec0- (10.4)
S:--t ,
Drainage
boundary
Horizontal
grid line
uContour'
r
Contour interval = 50 ft
scaie
Area-ElevationRelation
How the areawithin a drainagebasinis distributedbetweencontours(Fig. 10.6)is of
interestfor comparingdrainagebasinsand gaining insight into the storageand flow
characteristicsof the basin.For suchstudies.an areadistribution curve suchas that
shown in Fig. 10.7 is used.The curve can be obtained by planimeteringthe areas
RUNOFF
AFFECTING
10.2 BASINCHARACTERISTICS 163
l l \ ' / t r 1
l l \ / / / /
( r r \ f t /
. ' , \: \ I . i/ z ' r '
\
,ffi_-_.w;i.i
-
e 300
E 2so
o
€ 2oo
Io l)u
r! '
100
Median elevation
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
of area
Percentage
Figure 10.7 An area-elevation distribution curve.
1 64 CHAPTER10 RUNOFFAND THE CATCHMENT
DrainageBasin Dynamics
Geomorphology'likg hydrology,was largely qualitative in
nature in its formative
years'With the passingof time and the greatlr needfor
reliablequantitativeinforma-
tion, the sciencehasprogressedto the point whererational relations
betweenvariables
are being developed.Theserelationsire usually intendedto quantify
theinieractions
betweenthe factorsthat modify the land forrnand the land iorm
ifsef. In addition,
equationsrelatingthegeomorphicpropertiesto hydrologic,
climatologic,or vegetative
factorsare beingsought.some of the iunctional ielations of particulir
significanceto
the hydrologistwill be discussedin the following chapters.
10.3 RUDIMENTARYPRECIPITATION-RUNOFF
RELATIONSHIPS
ritation and runoff has beento plot annual
rend line, and estimatethe percentageof
rtities determinedthis way, however, are
:e ofreliability is higherfor drainageareas
rnal or other types of variation, that is, an
e procedure.The resulting equationtakes
the form
o:($)rr-Pr) (10.5)
1902.
I
1898r l .
I t28 a 903
^ 4 0
1 9l 0 r a
- J 6
.E
8 3 6 --l-- ,77
1 926
23
X Slope
s 0.57
. ) J +
--i--I a trg
29_
32 1920 1l
1924
-1 9 1 8 i q)5-oL
:
f--a
7921o 1932
1930
o1! o
. 1897
90
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 t 2 t 3 ! 4
Runoff (in.)
Figure 10.8 Annual precipitation and annual runoff in
the
NeoshoRiver basin above Iola, Kansas.(U.S. GeologicalSurvey
Data.)
165
10,3 RUDIMENTARYPRECIPITATION-RUNOFFRELATIONSHIPS
EXAMPLE 10.1
PrecipitationdepthsP, for a l4-day period are listed in Table 10.1. The API on April
1 is 0.00. Use K : 0.9 and determinethe,API for each successiveday.
Solution. Equation 10.9 reducesto
API,: K(API,-1)+ P,
which was applied in developingthe successivevaluesof API, in Table 10.1.
TABLE10.1
(A
Precipitation API,
10.4 STREAMFLOW
FREOUENCY
ANALYSIS
Hydrologistsestimatestreamflows.Two approachesare employed.The first is a phys-
ical processesapproachin which runoff is computed on the basis of observedor
expectedprecipitation.The secondis foundedon statisticalanalysesofrunoffrecords
.- --vvi{}out resott-to precipitation data. Such investigationsusually include frequency
FREQUENCYANALYSIS
10.4 STREAMFLOW 167
C a
o a ao
12 months
-
1.0
x.
Example 1.0 in
drought with
R.I. = 17 yr
0.1
10 100
RecurrenceInteryal (Yr)
for FiveRiv-
Figure 10.9 Low-flowfrequencydataconsolidated
ers.(AfterWhipple.r5;
RecurrenceIntervaland Frequency
The recurrenceinterval (R.I.) is definedas the averageinterval over a long period of
yearsduring which a correspondingmagnitudeof somehydrologicvariableis at least
met. This parameteris also called the return period, and sometimes,though less
appropriately,thefrequency of the event.For the examplein Fig. 10'9, droughtsless
than 1 in. occurredin 8 ofthe 136yearsofrecords.The 1.0in. droughthasan average
recurrenceinterval of about 17 years.Statedanotherway,on the average,one year of
every l7-year sequenceis expectedto experiencea drought of at most 1.0 inch.
Similarly,eachyearthe probabilityof a 1.O-in.droughtis 8/136 = 0'059, or about
6 percent. This is defined as the exceedenceprobability or frequency, and is the
re-iprocal ofthe return period.It shouldbe obviousthat the 1.0-in.droughtcould
168 CHAPTER
10 RUNoFFAND
THEoAToHMENT
occur in any year,or in severalconsecutiveyears.This type ofanalysiscannottell the
investigatorwhat will happenthis year or next, and allows only an estimateof the
averagerecurrenceinterval and the probability of occurrencein any given year. This
subjectis fully developedin Chapter27.
10.5 STREAMFLOW
FORECASTING
r Summary
Runoff is probablythe most complexyet most important hydrologicprocessto under-
stand.It has attractedthe attention and focus of engineersand scientistsand com-
prisesthe greatestpercentageby far of most hydrology textbooksand publications.
The conceptsintroducedhere will be more fully developedin the next six chapters,
as well as in significantportions of Parts Five and Six.
PROBLEMS
10'1'ffi,',T'#:fl
:Jfr Hfi'#':iJf
*:l;J:ff ;J3;:1,!;";ffi
:?'fi#.n.}il:H:i*
what purposesmight you use this?
10.2. Selecta rain gaugerecord of interest.Use the annual valuesas data to calculatethc
coefficientsof an antecedentprecipitation index of the form of Eq. 10.8.
10.3. Determinethe drainagedensityof the basin shown.Area : 6400 acres.Lengths are
in miles.
REFERENCES 169
L0.4. Using any dictionary,plus indexesor glossariesfrom one or two other hydrologytexts,
find and compare definitions of the following terms: runoff, direct runoff, direct
surface runoff, surface ruryoff,surface water, overlandflow, streamflow,drainage,
watershed,catchruen&inage basin, subbasin,dr ainage divide.
16.
Chapter1'1
Hydrographs
r Prologue
The purposeof this chapteris to:
HYDROGRAPHS
11.1 STREAMFLOW
A streamflowhydrographprovidesthe rateof flow at all pointsin time duringand after
a storm or snowmeltevent.l Hydrologistsdependon measuredor computed(synthe-
sized) hydrographsto provide peak flow rates so that hydraulic structurescan be
designedto accommodatethe flow safely.Becausea hydrographplots volumetric flow
rates againsttime, integration of the area beneath a hydrographbetWeenany two
points in time givesthe total volume of water passingthe point of interestduring the
time interval. Thus, in addition to peak flows,hydrographsallow analysisof sizesof
reservoirs,storagetanks, detentionponds,and other facilities that deal with volumes
of runoff. A knowledge of the magnitude and time distribution of streamflow is
essentialto many of theseaspectsof watermanagementand environmentalplanning.
172 CHAPTER11 HYDROGRAPHS
o
u
Processes
Precipitation-Streamflow
Duriirg a given rainfall, water is continually being abstractedto saturatethe upper
levelsof the soil surface;however,this saturationor infiltration is only one of many
continuous abstractions.4-6 Rainfall is also interceptedby trees, plants, 4nd roof
surfaces,and at the same time is evaporated.Once rain falls and fulfills initial
requirementsof infiltration, natural depressionscollect falling rain to form small
puddles,creatingdepressionstorage.In addition, numerouspools of water forming
detentionstoragebuild up on permeableand impermeablesurfaceswithin the water-
shed.This storedwater gathersin small rivulets, which carry the wateroriginatingas
overlandflow into small channels,then into larger channels,and flnally as channel
flow to the watershedoutlet. Figure 11.2aillustratesthe distribution of a prolonged
uniform rainfall. Although such an event is not the norm, the conceptis useful for
showingthe mannerin which detentionand depressionstoragewould be distributed.
In general,the channelof a watershedpossesses a certain amountof baseflow
during most of the year. This flow comesfrom groundwateror spring contributions
and may be consideredas the normal day-to-dayflow. Dischargefrom precipitation
excess-that is, after abstractions are deducted from the original rainfall-
constitutesthe direct runoff hydrograph(DRH). Arrival of direct ninoff at the outlet
accountsfor an initial rise in the DRH. As precipitationexcesscontinues,enoughtime
qlapqgsfor progressivelydistant areasto add to the outlet flow. Consequently,the
11.2 FACTORSAFFECTINGHYDROGRAPTISHNPC 179
-
Depressionstorage
fi
-
o
Time
(b)
HydrographShapes
If the rainfall maintainsa constantintensityfor a long enoughperiod of time, a state
of equilibrium dischargeis reached, as depicted by curve A in Fig. 11.2b. The
inflection point on curveA often indicatesthe time at which the entire drainagearea
contributes to the flow. At this time maximum storase of the watershedis only
174 CHAPTER11 HYDROGRAPHS
and
partially complete.As rainfall continues,maximum storagecapacityis attained
(runoff)] is reached. The condition of
iqrliUri"t" finflow (rainfall) equals outflow
attained in nature' Extended
maximum storageand equiiibrium is seldom if ever
its duration negateany
rainfall lnuy o"Iu., but viriations in intensity throughout
possibility of u IRH of the theoretical shapefor constant rainfall intensity'
Anormalsingle.peakDRHgenerallypossessestheshapeshownbycurveBin
peak magnitudeof this
Fig. 11.2b rather tian iy the "ur',oJin Fig. 11.2a.The time to
hyirograph dependsonih" intensity and duration ofthe rainfall' and the size,slope,
shape,and storagecapacityof the watershed.once peak flow has beenreachedfor a
given isolatedra'instorm,itt" ORg beginsto descend, its source of supply coming
such as detention and channel
largely from water accumulatedwithin the watershed
storage.
processesinvolvedin forming the DRH can be better understoodby visualizing
theprecipitationexcessaspartiallydisposedofimmediate$bysurfacerunoffwhile
releasedlater from
a portion remainsheld within the watershedboundariesand is
integrated effects of the duration
storage.Thus the shapeand timing of the DRH are
factorsas well asthe effect of
and intensityofrainfall and other hydrometeorological
the physiogiaphicfactorsof the watershedupon the storagecapacity'
COMPONENTS
11.3 HYDROGRAPH
\
into its com\-
It is important to understandhow the hydrographcan be subdivided
ofprecipitation andwatershed
nenrpar15andto look at the effecton hydrographshape
features.Figures11.3and Il'4 areusedfor this purpose'
with respect
A hydiographis a continuousgraphshowingthe rate of streamflow
strip recorder that indicates stage
to time, ,rtr*ityoutained by -"anr of a continuous
to a discharge hydrograph
vefsustime (stale hydrograph),which is then transformed
generallytaken to
by applicationof a rating curve.Hereafter,the term lrydrographis
indicate a dischargehYdrograPh'
a pgriod
Figure t t.gi lttustrai"* ih" hydrographof a permanentstreamduring
lrydrograph because ground-
between precipitation events,known i" i bot" flow
cause modification of the base
water sustainsthe flow. Four general conditions
HortonT using the following sets of
flow hydrographshape.They aL describedby
inequalities:
Setl i<f set3 i>f
F(S, F(S,
Set2 i<f Set4 i>f
F)S, F)Sr.
11.3 HYDROGRAPH
COMPONENTS 175
(e) (0 fo)
t
(h)
End ofrainfall
9C
Groundwater flow
Time
of thehydrograph.
Figure 11.4 Components
11.4 BASEFLOWSEPARATION
s - Qlog"
t- 4o
K
(rr.2)
This equation determinesthe quantity of water releasedfrom groundwaterstorage
betweenthe times of occurrenceof the two dischargesof interest,or it can be usedto
calculatethe volume of water still in storageat a time some chosenvalue of flow
occurs.To get the latter, 4, is setequalto zero and qsbecomesthe referencedischarge.
Figure 11.5ais a plot of Eqs. 11.1and II.2 andprovidesadditionaldefinition.
178 CHAPTER11 HYDROGRAPHS
qo
.. ,?
q
K
/ \r3 ?r
t
(a.)
I l
qo discharge at rcginningof arr interval
Qt discharge at :nd of an inten,a\
I
I I II
q Interval = unit period in
d / whicht is expreissed .
/
qo
Qt
Time
to t1
(b)
. Figure 11.5 Baseflow model'
SeparationTechniques
Severalmethodsfor baseflow separationare used when the actual amount of base
r flow is unknown. During large storms,the maximum rate of dischargeis only slightly
affectedby baseflow, and inaccuraciesin separationmay not be important.
The simplestbaseflow separationtechniqueis to draw a horizontalline from the
point at which surfacerunoff begins,PointA in Fig. 11.7, to an intersectionwith the
hydrographrecessionwherethe baseflow rate is the sameasat the beginningof direct
runoff as indicatedby Point B. A secondmethodprojects the initial recessioncurve
downwardfromA to C, which lies directly below the peak rate of flow. Then point D
on the hydrograph,representingN daysafter the peak, is connectedto point C by a
straightline definingthe groundwatercomponent.One estimateof N is basedon the
formula3
N - Ao'2 (11.3)
where N : the time in days
A = the drainageareain squaremiles
A third procedureis to developa baseflow recessioncurve using Eq. 11.1 for data
from the segmentFG, and then back-calculateall base flow to the left of Point fl
180 cHAPTER11 HYDRocRApHS
o
9p
F
Time
o
d
d
TIMERELATIONSHIPS
11.5 HYDROGRAPH
Wavetravel time is definedas the time required for direct runoff originating at the
most remotepoint in the channelto reachthe outlet. The last drop of direct runoff to
passthe outlet conceptuallytravelsoverthe watersurfaceand reachesthe outlet at the
speedof a small surfacewave,rather than at a speedequal to the averagevelocity of
flow. The wavetravel time is fasterthan the averagevelocity and varieswith channel
shapeand other factors.For a rectangularchannel,the ratio is approximately5/3 (see
Section 13.1 for other wavevelocities).The time base(Fig. 11.4) of a hydrographis
consideredto be the time from which the concentrationcurve beginsuntil the direct-
runoff componentreacheszero. An equationfor time basemay take the form
T6:t"*t, (rr.4)
where To : the time baseof the direct runoff hydrograph
/" : the duration of runoff-producingrain
t- : the excessrainfall releasetime
Watershedlag time, illustrated in Fig. 11.4, is definedas the time from the penterof
tt
massof effectiverainfall to the centerof massof direct runoff. Other definitionsand
severalequationsrelating lag time to watershedcharacteristicsare providedin S_ec-
tion 11.7 and subsequent chapters.
Becauseofits importancein unit hydrographtheory, the excess-rainfallrelease
time is introduced.This is definedasthe time requiredfor the last, most remotedrop
ofexcessrain that fell on the watershedto passthe outlet, signallingthe cessationof
direct runoff. It is easilydeterminedas the time interval betweenthe end of rain and
the end of direct runoff. Only that part of the outflow which classiflesas direct runoff
(excessrain) is consideredin dqterminingthe releasetime. Watershedoutflow nor-
mally continuesafter cessationof direct runoff, in the form of interflow andbaseflow.
Releasetime is very similar by definitionto wavetraveltime and time of concentration
(Section11.6).
A foundational assumptionof unit hydrographtheoryl2 is that the watershed
excessreleasetime is a constant,regardlessof the storm duration, and is related to
basinfactorsratherthan meteorologicalcharacteristics. The excessreleasetime is also
conceptuallyidenticalwith the time baseof an instantaneousunit hydrograph(IUH).
This is the runoff hydrographfrom 1.0 in. of excessrain applieduniformly over the
watershedin an instant of time (seeChapter 12). Both wavetravel time and excess-
rainfall releasetime are often used synonymouslywith time of concentration.
182 CHAPTER11 HYDROGRAPHS
11.6TIMEOF CONCENTRATION
t,1: c,(L""L)o3 ( 11 . s )
where /1 : the lag time (hr) betweenthe centerof massof the rainfall excessfor
a specifiedtype of storm and the peak rate of flow
I'"o : the distancealongthe main streamfrom the baseto a point nearestthe
centerof gravity of the basin (mi)
I : length of the main stream channel (mi) from the base outlet to the
upstreamend of the streamand including the additional distanceto
the watersheddivide
C, : & coefficientrepresentingvariationsof types and locationsof str'eams
For the areastudied,the constantC, was found to vary from I.8 to 2.2, with
somewhatlower valuesfor basinswith steeperslopes.The constantis consideredto
includethe effectsof slopeand storage.The value of 4 is assumedto be constantfor
a given drainagearea,but allowanceis madefor the useof different valuesof lag for
different types of storms. The relation is consideredapplicable to drainage areas
rangingin sizefrom 10 to 10,000mi'.
In a studyof seweredareasrangingin size from 0.22 to 7.51 mi2,Eagleson22
developedthe equation
L
"t ', : - (11.6)
( l . 5 / n ) R 2 / 3s t / 2
where tr : lag time, the center of mass of rainfall excess to the peak discharge
(sec)
L : the mean travel distance (ft), which is equal to the length of that portion
of the sewerwhich flows full
n : the weightedManning's coefficientfor the main sewer
: the weightedhydraulic radius of the main sewerflowing full
{
S : the weightedphysicalslopeof the main sewer
Eagleson'sequationdirectly includesthe effects of channelgeometry and slope,as
well as basin shape,and thus representsa refinementof the Snyderapproach.It also
indirectly includesthe important effect of the storm pattern.
PROBLEMS185
Linsley and Ackerman give examplesof applicationof the following modified
form of Snyder'sequation.24
t,:C,+! (rr.1)
where s is a weighted slope of the channel and the other variablesare as defined
previously.
Other investigatorshaverepresentedtime lag by equationsof the form
t t =K + ( 11 . 8 )
Vs
Numerous other derivations of relations for watershedlag times can be found in
standardhydrologictexts and periodical literature. Others are includedwith someof
the syntheticunit hydrographdiscussionsin Chapter 12.
r Summary
Understandingthe structureof hydrographSis important to many designand water
supply applications.The hydrographrepresentsthe portion of the hydrologiccycle
that engineersmostoften needin orderto determineratesof flow in streamsfor setting
bridge lengthsand elevations,designingflood protection measures,and establishing
areal extent of flooding. Similarly, the volume of drainageinto a reservoiror past a
water supply diversionis determinedfrom the areaunder the hydrograph.Accurate
estimatesof thesevolumesare important to designof dams,reservoirs,pipelines,and
'
numerousother structures.
After graspingthe fundamentalsof hydrographcomponents,including the time
relationshipspresentedin this chapter,the reader should be well preparedfor the
quantitativedevelopmentsof hydrographtheory and applicationspresentedthrough-
out Chapters12 through 16 and in Part Five.
PROBLEMS
11.1. Referto Fig. 11.1.Replotthis hydrographand usetwo different techniquesto separate
the baseflow.
11.2. Obtain streamflowdata for a water courseof interest.Plot the hydrographfor a major
runoff event and separatethe baseflow.
11.3. For the event of Problem I1.2, tabtlate the precipitation causingthe surfacerunoff
and determinethe duration of runoff-producing.rain. Estimatethe time of concentra-
tion and useEq. I 1.4 to estimatethe time baseof the hydrograph.Comparethis with
the time basecomputedfrom the hydrograph.
11.4. Tabulatedbelow are total hourly dischargerates at a cross sectionof a stream.The
drainagearea abovethe sectionis 1.0 acre.
a. Plot the hydrographon rectangular coordinate paper and label the rising limb
(concentrationcurve), the crest segment,and the recessionlimb.
186 CHAPTERll HYDROGRAPHS
b. Determinethe hour of cessationof the direct runoff usinga semilogplot of Q versus
time.
c. Use the base flow portion of your semilog plot to determine the groundwater
recessionconstantK,
d. Carefully constructand label baseflow separationcurveson the graph of Part a,
using two different methods.
0 102 8 2lo
1 100 9 150
2 98 l0 105
3 220 11 75
I
512 t2 60
5 630 IJ 54
6 460 t4 48.5
7 330 15 43.5
REFERENCES
1. American Society of Civil Engineers,Hydrology Handbook, Manuals of Engineering
Practice,No. 28. New York: ASCE, 1957.
"A
2. Donn G. DeCoursey, Runoff HydrographEquation," U.S. Departmentof Agricul.ture,
AgriculturalResearchService,Feb. 1966,pp.4I-116'
3. R. K' Linsley, M. A. Kohler, and J' L. H' Paulhus,Applied Hydrology' New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1949.
"Erosional Developmentof Streamsand Their DrainageBasins:Hydro-
A
R. E. Horton,
physicalApproach to QuantitativeMorphology,"Bull. Geol' Soc'Am' 56(1945)'
"An Approach Toward a PhysicalInterpretationof Infiltration Capacity,"
5 . if.-n. gorton,
Proc. Soil Sci.Soc.Am. 5,399-417(1940).
"An Inflltration Equation with Physical Significance,"Soil Sci.77(1954).
6 . J. R. Philip,
7 . R. E: Horion";Surface Runffi Phenomena.Ann Arbor, MI: EdwardsBros., 1935.
8 . R. J. M. DeWiest,Geohydrology.New York: Wiley' 1965'
9 . ,.Hydrology,,'in EngineeringHandbook, Sec. 4, U.s. Department of Agriculture, Soil
ConservationService,1972.
"Discussionof Analysis of Runoff characteristicsby o. H. Meyet," Trans.
1 0 . B. S. Barnes,
ASCEl0s(1940).
"Unit HydrographLag and PeakFlow Relatedto Basin
1 1 . A. B. Taylorand H. E. Schwartz,
Characteristics," Trans,Am. Geophys. Union 33(1952).
REFERENCES 187
12. L, K. Sherman, "Streamflow
from Rainfall by the Unit-GraphMethod," Eng.News-Rec.
108(1932).
1 3 . D. F. Kilber, "Desk-top methods for urban stormwatercalculation," Ch. 4 in Urban
Stormwater Hydrology, Water ResourcesMonograph No. 7, American Geophysical
Union, Washington, D. C., 1982.
14. U.S. Bureauof Reclamation,Designof SmallDams,2nd ed., Washington,D.C.,1973.
1 5 . C.F.Izzafi,, "Hydraulicsof RunofffromDevelopedSurfaces,"Proceedings,26th Annual
Meetingof the HighwayResearchBoad,26, pp. 129-146, December1946.
16. FederalAviation Administration,"Circular on Airport Drainage,"ReportA/C 050-5320-
58, Washington, D.C., 1970.
n. J. R. Morgali, andR. K. Linsley,"ComputerAnalysisof OverlandFlow,"./. Hyd.Div., Am.
Soc.Civ.Eng.,9l, no. HY3, May 1965.
1 8 . G. Aron, and C. E. Egborge,"A PracticalFeasibility Study of Flood PeakAbatementin
Urban Areas,"U.S. Army Corpsof Engineers,Sacramento, Calif., March 1973.
1 9 . Soil ConservationService,"National EngineeringHandbook, Sec. 4, Hydrology," U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture,U.S. GPO, Washington, D.C., 1972.
20. Soil ConservationService,"Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds,"TechnicalRelease
55, Washington, D.C., 1975(updated,1986).
2 t . F. F. Snyder,"Synthetic Unit Graphs," Trans.Am. Geophys.Union 19, 447-454(1938).
22. Peter S. Eagleson,"CharacteristicsofUnit Hydrographsfor SeweredAreas," paperpre-
sentedbeforethe ASCE, Los Angeles,-CA,1959,unpublished.
23. W. W. Horner, and F. L. Flynt, "RelationBetweenRainfall and Runoff from Small Urban
Areas," Trans.ASCE 62(101), 140-205(Oct 1956).
aA R. K. Linsley,Jr.,andW. C. Ackerman,"Methodof PredictingtheRunofffromRainfall,"
Trans.ASCE 107(1942\.
C h a p t e r1 2
Unit Hydrographs
r Prologue
The purposeof this chapteris to:
t
(b)
24hr )z nl
(c)
12.2 DERIVATION
OF UNITHYDROGRAPHS
FROM
STREAMFLOW DATA
EXAMPLE I2.1
Using the total direct runoff hydrographgiven in Fig. I2.2, derive a unit hydrograph
for the l7I5 ac drainagearea.
Solution
I
I
) o l 1l t2
Time (hr)
500
2-hr unit hydrograph of
o 400 l.u rn. on I / I) ac
FA
300
Basef-tow Baseflow
200 / / \,
separatlon
.100
/^ t'-# -j
0
3 4 5 6 7 8
Time(hr)
Dfuectrunoffduration
TABLE
12,1 DETERMINATION
OFA 2.HRUNITHYDROGRAPH
FROM AN ISOLATEDSTORM
I 110 t10 0 0
2 t22 t10 t2 8.5
3 230 t10 120 84.8
4 578 110 468 i-l I
should not exceedabout 25 percent of the drainage atea lag time' but
violatesthis rule for the example.From Fig. 12.2, the rain duration is 2 hr.
5. Using the values from Table I2.1, plot the unit hydrograph shown in
Fig. 12.2. r I
BY LAGGINGMETHODS
APPLICATIONS
12.3 UNITHYDROGRAPH
Once an X-hr unit hydrographhasbeenderivedfrom streamflowdata (or synthesized
from basin parameters,Section 12.6) it can be used to estimatethe direct runoff
hydrographshapeand duration for virtually any rain event.Applications of the X-hr
UH to other stormsbeginswithlagging procedures,usedfor stormshavingdurations
that are integermultiples of the derived duration. Applications to stormswith frac-
tional multiples of X, known as S-hydrographandIUH procedures,are discussedin
Sections12.4 and 12.5.
Becauseunit hydrographsare applicableto effective (net) rain, the processof
applyrngUH theory to a storm beginsby first abstractingthe watershedlossesfrom
the precipitation hyetograph,resulting in an effective rain hyetograph'Any of the
proceduresdetailedin Chapter 4 can be applied. The remainder of this discussion
assumesthat the analysthas already abstractedwatershedlossesfrom the storm.
If the duration of anotherstorm is an integermultiple of X, the storm is'treated
as a seriesof end-to-endX-hourstorms.First, the hydrographsfrom eachX increment
ofrain are determinedfrom the X-hourunit hydrograph.The ordinatesare then added
at correspondingtimes to determinethe total hydrograph.
EXAMPLE 12.2
Dischargerates for the 2-hr unit hydrographshownin Fig' I2.3 are'.
Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
O (cfs) 0 100 250 200 100 50 0
Hour 1 L J 4
Excess(in.) Q.5 0.5 1.0 1.0
c 0
2 3 4 . 5 6
(a) 2-hourunit storn excess
^ 300
200
i90 zoo
€ 1oo
'6
0
-
1.0
ir 0.5
0
2 3 4 5 6
(c)Designstom excess
600
500
'6 400
:i
H 300
i5 200
100
0
r 2 3 4 5 6 7
(d) Contributionof each2-hourstorm
600
500
a
t +oo
;
ff:oo
'$ zoo
-100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 8
(e) Total design hydrograph
EXAMPLE 12.3
Using the derived 2-hr lunit hydrographin Table 12.1, determinethe direct runoff
hydrographfor a 4-hr. storm havingthe following excessrain amounts:
Hour I 2
Excessrain. in. o.7 0.7 t.2 1.2
Solution
0 0 0 0
I 0.7 8.5 I1.9 11.9
2 0.7 84.8 l19 0 119
J 1 . 2" JJI 463 20.4 483
4 1.2 379 531 203 734
5 229 321 794 11 1 5
6 129 181 910 1091
7 65 91 550 641
8 35.3 49.4 310 359
9 4.9 6.9 156 163
10 0 0 84.7 84.7
1l 11.8 I 1.8
t2 0 0
12.gUN|THYDRoGRAPHAPPL|CAT|oNSBYLAGG|NGMETHoDS197
t 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2
Time units
\_
198 CHAPTER
12 UNITHYDRoGRAPHS
Time
Figure12.5 Unithydrographlaggingprocedurero
developanotherunit hydrograph.
12.4 S.HYDROGRAPHMETHOD
D-hr S-hydrographlaggedt hr
Time *l l-
(a)
EXAMPLE 12.4
Given the following 2-hr unit hydrograph,use S-hydrographproceduresto construct
a 3-hr unit hydrograph.
Time (hr) o - | 2 3 4 5 6
0 (cfs) 0 100 250 200 100 50 0
Solution. The 2-hr unit hydrographis the runoff from a 2-hr stormof 0.5
in./hr. The S-hydrograph is formedfrom a net rain rate of 0.5 in./hr lasting
indefinitelyas shownin Fig. 12.6a.Its ordinatesarefoundby addingthe 2-hr
unit-hydrograph (UH) runoff ratesfrom eachcontributing2-hr block of rain:
200 CHAPTER12 UNIT HYDROGRAPHS
/,/
/
i
I
i
I
a
90
-'{.3
u0 Time (min.)
Time
(h0 1st2-hr 2nd Z-hr 3rd2-hr S-hydrograph
0 0 0
I 100 100
'
z 250 0 250
3 200 100 300
4 100 250 0 350
5 5n 200 100 350
6 0 100 250 0 350
7 50 200 100 350
8 0 100 250 350
: !as
0,(ruH) (12.s)
Idt
202 CHAPTER12 UNIT HYDROGRAPHS
which showsthat the flow at time I is proportional to the slopeof the S-hydrograph
at time r. In applications,the slopeis approximatedbyLQ/A,I, and the IUH ordinates
can be estimatedfrom pairs of closelyspacedpoints of the S-hydrograph.
Ifan IUH is supplied,the aboveprocesscan be reversed,and any X-hour unit
graph can be found by averagingIUH florvsat X-hr intervals, or
Time (hr) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2,0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
S-curve (cfs) 0 5 0 200 450 500 650 700 750 800
IUH = AQlAf
0 0 0
0.5 JU 200
1 200 400
1.5 450 300
2 500 200
2.5 650 200
3 700 100
3.5 750 100
+ 800 50
800 0
5 800 0
0 0 0 0
1 400 0 200
2 200 400 300
3 100 200 150
A 50 100 75
5 0 50 25
6 0 0 n
" l l
204 12 UNITHYDROGRAPHS
CHAPTER
Time-reversed image
of the instantaneous
unit hydrograph
oo=[;f@xi(t-r)dr
Figure 12.9 Calculationof runoff rates with the instantaneous unit hy-
drograph.The runoff rateat arrytime is a weighted of
average the antecedent
rainfall intensities.The time-reversed imageof the instantaneous unit hy-
drographrepresents the weightingfurtction.(After Schaake'v)
l,',<,tu,r)dr
Q(A: - (r2.7)
ll:
12.6 SYNTHETICUNIT HYDROGRAPHS 205
where Q(t) : the surfacerunoff rate at time t
f(r) : the ordinate of the IUH at time r
i(t - r): the rainfall inten'sity (after abstraction of the appropriate
infiltration losses)at time t - r
The variable 7 representstime into the past so that time r - r occursbefore time r.
The limits on the integral allow r to vary betweena pastand presenttime (i.e., r : 0,
t - r : 0)' The integral givesa continuousweightingof prbviousrainfall intensities
by the ordinatesof the IUH.
12.6 SYNTHETIC
UNITHYDROGRAPHS
As previously noted, the linear characteristicsexhibited by unit hydrographsrf6i a
watershedare a distinct advantagein constructingmore complex rto.- Oir.fruig.
hydrographs.Generally,however,basicstreamflowand rainfall data arcnot available
to allow construction of a unit hydrographexcept for relatively few watersheds;
therefore, techniqueshave evolved that allow generationof syithetic unit lrydro-
graphs.
GammaDistribution
The shapesof hydrographsoften closely match a two-parametergamma function,
given by
xoe-*/B
f(x) : (12.8)
B"+lf(d + 1)
where0 ( r ( m. The parametera is a dimensionlessshapefactor (mustbe greater
tltul - 1), and B is a positive scalefactor havingthe sameunits as x and contiolling
the baselength. The product of a and B givesthe value-r correspondingto the apexl
or maximum value ofl(x). For a ) 1, the distribution has a single upe* und'plot,
similar to hydrograph shapes,as shown in Fig. 12.10. The dislribution mein is
F@ + 1), and varianceis p2(a + I).
. Many of the syntheticunit hydrographproceduresresult in only three to five
points on the hydrograph,through which a smooth curve must be fitted. In addition
to the requirementthat the curve passesthrough all the points, the area under the
hydrographmust equal the runoff volume from one unit of rainfall excessover the
watershed.This latter requirementis often left uncheckedand can result in consider-
ablg errors in performing calculationsthrough the use of ordinatesof a hydrograph
that do not representa "unit" of runoff.
The mostusefulfeatureof the gammadistributionfunction (explainedin greater
detail later) is thit it guaranteesa unit areaunder the curve. It can convenientlybe
used to synthesizean entire hydrographif the calculatedpeak flow rate
eo and its
associatedtime to are known. This usesa proceduredevelopedby Aron und'White.ro
If time r is substitutedfor x in Eq. 12.g, the time to peak tois aB. At this point,
the function/(r) equalsthe peak flow rate e,, or
o,:ffi=ffrr*1 (r2.e)
206 CHAPTER12 UNIT HYDROGRAPHS
1.0
B--1
0
x
Figure 12.10 Gamma function shapesfor various shape and scale parameter
values.
whereC, A is the unit volumeof runoff from a basinwith arcaA. The conversionfactor
C, = 1.008 is selectedto make @(a)dimensionless.
The function f(a) is shownby Aron and white to be relatedto a by1l
a : 0.045+ 0.5d + 5.6Q2+ 0303 (12.10)
( a ( 8
Collins showsthat this can be approximatedreasonablywell in the range 1
byt'
q.:05Q+5.902 (r2.Lr)
Combiningthis with F,q. 12.9 *tu"t
o : o s, tf f i . t n ( H ) ' (r2.r2)
To fit a unit graph usingEqs. I2.9 and 12.12,the peak flow rate and time must
be estimated.Severalof the methodsdescribedsubsequ-ntlyallow this. Next. @(a)is
foundfrom Eq.12.9, and a from Eq.12.10 ot l2.Il. The unit hydrographcan now
be constructedby calculatingQ at any convenientmultiple, a, of to. Substitutingalo
for x in Eq. 12.8 gives the flow at t : atp as
- Qoto: QraoeQ-o)"
(r2.r3)
which can be solvedfor all the flow rates of the hydrograph.
EXAMPLE 12.6
The peak flow rate for the unit hydrographof a 36,000-acrewatershedis 1720cfs and
o".oi, 12 hr following the initiation of runoff. Use Eq. 12.8 to synthesizethe rest of
the hydrograph.
12.6 SYNTHETICUNIT HYDROGRAPHS 207
Solution. From Fq. 12.9,
r720(12) :
6@) : 1.008(36,000)0.57
From Eq. 12.10(and t2.It),
q.:2.2
The hydrographis then found from Eq. L2.I3:
Q*, : 1720a2'2 a)
e2'2(r-
Solving for a few points, we obtain the followine values:
Snyder's Method
one- techniqueemployedby the corps of Engineersl3and many othersis
basedon
methods developedby Snyderaand expandedby Taylor and 3chwartz.sIt allows
computation of lag time, time base,unit_hydrographduration, peak discharge,,
and
hydrographtime widths at 50 and75 perceniof peukflor. ny uring tttesesevenpoints,
a sketchof the unit hydrographis obtained,rig.lz.rt,and cleckel to seeif it contains
1 in. of direct runoff.
Alternate recessions I
to produce 1.0 in. ofrunoff
Time,r
F'igure 12.11 Snyder'ssyntheticunit hydrograph.
208 CHAPTER12 UNIT HYDROGRAPHS
t , : ? , t l
T ; (r2.r4)
6
5.5
(r2.1s)
where /, : duration of the unit rainfall excess(hr)
t1 : the lag time from the certtroidof unit rainfall excessto the peak of thb
unit hydrograph
This synthetictechniquealwaysresultsin an initial unit-hydrographduration equalto
fi/5.5.However, sincechangesin lag time occur with changesin duration of tlie unit
hydrograph,the following equation was developedto allow lag time and peak dis-
chargeadjustmentsfor other unit-hydrographdurations.
tm:h+0.25(t*-t) (r2.16)
where t1p: the adjustedlag time (hr)
tt : the original lag time (hr)
to: the desiredunit-hydrographduration (hr)
t, - the original unirhydrograph duration : t,/5.5 (hr)
-640CPA
- (12.r7)
Vr: -
Ltn
that total direct runoff amountsto 1 in. An analysisby the Corps of Engineers(see
Fig. 12.12) gives additional assistancein plotting time widths for points on the hy-
drographlocatedat 50 and 75 percentofpeak discharge.l3 As a generalrule ofthumb,
ttr" ti-l width at l/so and IV^ ordinatesshouldbe proportioned eachsideof the pegk
in a ratio of I:2 with the short time sideon the left of the synthetic unit-hydrograph
peak. As noted earlier,for smallerwatersheds, Eq. I2.I4 gives unrealistic valuesfor
ihe bur" time. If this occurs,a value can be estimated by multiplying total time to the
peak by a value of from 3 to 5. This ratio can be modified based on the amount and
ii." tut" of depletionof storagewater within the watershed boundaries.
The envelopecurvesin Fig. I2.I2 ate definedby
Wso: 8301(Qo/A)" (12.18)
W15: 470f(Qo/A)" (t2"]a)
The sevenpoints formed through the use of theseequationscan be plotted and a
smooth curve drawn. To assurea unit hydrograph,the curve shape and ordinates
shouldbe adjusteduntil the areabeneaththe curve is equivalentto one unit of direct
runoff depth over the watershedarea.This can be doneby hand-fittingand planime-
tering or by curve-fitting.
Hudlow and Clarkla used least-squaresregressiontechniquesto fit a Pearson
/ type (gamma)probability densityfunction (referto Chapter26) throughthe seven
III
Snyaeruoit-nyAtographpoints. This function has an areaof 1.0 and a shapesimilar
1000
800
400
N
,2
9 200
oo
\
4-l
s
'.,
€ 1oo ) \
-? 8 0
E 6 0
9" 40
*
- n n F\ \,
t *tS
d
o \
08, $
\ \
10
8
6
0.2 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 8I 2 4 6 810 40 60 80100
Width of unit hYdrograPh (hr)
SCS Method
A methoddevelopedby the Soil ConservationServicefor constructingsyntheticunit
hydrographsis basedon a dimensionlesshydrograph(Fig. 12.13). This dimension-
less graph is the result of an analysis of a large number of natural unit hydrographs
from a wide range in size and geographii locations.The method requires only the
0.6
cSlo
b 0.5
als
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
t
Figure 12.13 Dimensionless unit hy-
tp
drographand masscurve. (After Mockus.1s)
212 CHAPTER
12 UNITHYDRoGRAPHS
determination of the time to peak and the peak discharge as follovi,s:
D
tp: tt (r2.2r)
t+
where to : the time from the beginningof rainfall to peak discharge(hr)
D : the duration ofrainfall (hr)
t1 : the lag time from the centroid of rainfall to peak discharge(hr)
The ratios correspondingto Fig. 12.13 are listed in Table 12.4. The peak flow
for the hydrographis developedby approximatingthe unit hydrographas a triangular
shapewith basetime of ! t, and unit area.The readershouldverify that this produces
^ 4844
U r : - (r2.22)
t
Q/Q, Q/Qp
0 0 1.4 0.75
0.1 0.015 1.5 0.66
0.2 0.075 1.6 0.56
0.3 0.16 1.8 0.42
0.4 0.28 2.0 0.32
0.5 0.43 2.2 0.24
0.6 0.60 2.4 0.18
0.7 0.77 2.6 0.13
0.8 0.89 2.8 0.098
0.9 o.9'7 3.0 0.075
1.0 1.00 3.5 0.036
1.1 0.98 4.0 0.018
t.2 0.92 0.009
1.3 0.84 5.0 0.004
UNITHYDROGRAPHS
12.6 SYNTHETIC 213.
The averagelag is 0.6/",where/" is the time of concentration,definedby SCS aseither
the time for runoff to travel from the furthermostpoint in the watershed(calledthe
upland method) or the time from the end of excessrain to the inflection of the unit
hydrograph.For the first case,
t":L1tp-D (r2.24)
The dimensionlessunit hydrograph,Fig. 1.2.1.3,has a point of inflection at approxi-
mately 1..7t,.If the lag time of 0.6t" is assumed,Eqs. 12.2I and 12.24 give
D - 0.2t0 0).zs)
D = 0.I33t" {r2,26)
A small variation in D is permissible,but it shouldnot exceed0.25t, or 0.I7t". pnce
the 0.133r"-hourunit hydrographis developed,unit hydrographsfor other durdtions
can be developedusing S-hydrographor IUH procedures.
By finding a value of t,, a syntheticunit hydrographof chosenduration D is
obtainedfrom Fig. 12.13.
Atother equationusedby the SCS is
. /0.'(s * 1;o.z
"'
t - : - (r2.27)
lgooyo's
where fi : the lag time (hr)
I : length to divide in feet
Y : averagewatershedslopein percent
S: the potentialmaximumretention(in.) : (1000/CN) - 10, where.CN
is a curve number describedin Chapter4
The lag from Eq. 12.27is adjustedfor imperviousnessor improved watercourses,or
both, if the watershedis in an urban area.The multiple to be applied to thq lag is
M : 1.- P(-6.8 X 10-3 + 3.4 x 10-4CN- 4.3 x 10-?CN,
-2.2 x 10-8CN3) (12.28)
where CN is the curve number for urbanized conditions, and P can be either the
percentageimperviousor the percentageof the main watercoursethat is hydraulically
improved from natural conditions.If part of the area is imperviousand portions of
the channelare improved,two valuesof M are determined,and both are multiplied
by the lag.
EXAMPLE 12.7
.\
For a drainagearea of 70 r4i2 having a lag time of 8 | hr, derive a unit hydrograph of
duration 2 hr. Use the SCS dimensionlessunit hydrograph.
Solution
2. From Eq.12.22
n _484x70
YP
9.5
Gray'sMethod
Another method of generatingsynthetic unit hydrographshas been developedby
Gray.16An approximateupper limit of watershedsize for applicationof this method
to the geographicareasof central Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, and Wisconsinis 94 mi2.
The method is basedon dimensionalizingthe incomplete gamma distribution and
resultsin a dimensionlessgraph of the form
25.0(y')n t
O,t" : 1o_7,t/pR\( \s-1 (r2.2e)
r(q) \Pol
where Q,lPo: percentflow in 0.25 PRat any given r/P^ value
q and y : shapeand scaleparameters,respectively
f : the gammafunction of q, equalto (4 - 1)!*
e: the baseof natural logarithms
Pp : the period of rise (min)
I : time (min)
The relationfor 7' is definedzs yt : yPpandq : l.+ y'.
This form of the dimensionless unit hydrograph(Fig. 12.14)allowscomputation
ofthe dischargeordinatesfor the unit hydrographat times equal to I intervals of the
period of rise P*, that is, the time from the beginningof rainfall to the time of peak
dischargeof the unit hydrograph.
Correlationswith physiographiccharacteristicsof the watershedcan be devel-
opedto get the valuesofboth Poand y'.
As 4qexample,the storagefactorP^fy' hasbeenlinked with watershedparame-
ters Lf\/S", where L is the length of the main channel of the watershedin miles
measuredfrom the outlet to the uppermostpart of the watershed(Fig. 12.15); S. is
definedas an averageslopein percentobtainedby plotting the main channelprofile
: qe.-al';l.
r(q) - #fu.
h. ;uF-& )
12.6 SYNTHETICUNIT HYDROGRAPHS 215
F<
a-
K 1 6
F re
o ' -
E
o -
p x
6 -
='(ft)'
957o confidence belts
tlr
a-l> for Ppll' Ttta
b
Rudo,tgilrgljggtq. -L r.ir
'
lchannel slope(Vo) VS"
and drawing a straight line through the outlet elevationsuch that the positive and
negativeareasbetweenthe streamprofile and the straightline are equal.The storage
factorPofy' can also be correlatedwith the period of rise P^ as shownin Fig. 12.16.
These two cerrelations allow solution of Eq. 12.29 and produce a synthetic unit
hydrographof duration P^f4 for an ungaugedarea.
216 12 UNITHYDROGRAPHS
CHAPTER
ql-
\t-
o "!'
. F h 0.0139
2.6761Po+
x t!9
.Fl6
o t *
A
'l
* V : 1 i n . x A n i z x 6 4 0nu-
Tf
I .- --^ ft2
' x 43'560
n'rnln ;
graph: Vo
2. Thevolumeof the dimensionless
V o : 2 q , x 0 . 2 5 x P 'Rx 6 0 -
fiun
3. Solve fot 2 q, by equatingV and Vo, sincethey must be equal'
12.6 SYNTHETICUNIT HYDROGRAPHS 217
s 400
300
n _ perc€ntflow in 0.25PR\
u,-T.aqi
EXAMPLE 12.8
For the given data, use Gray's method to constructa unit hydrographfor the Green
Acrewatershed, wheredrainagearea: 0.62mi2,length: 0.98mi, andS" : l.45%a.
Procedure
0.000 0 0 0 0 0
0.125 3.1 0.45 0.45 lt.J 6.1
0.375 9.3 5.80 6.2 12.3
0.625 15.6 t2.70 18.9 490 18.6
0.875 2r.8 16.35 35.3 631 24.8
1.000 24.9 16.85 651 27.9
r.t25 28.0 16.25 5r . 5 628 31.0
t.375 34.2 14.20 65.7 548 37.2
t.625 40.4 11 . 1 0 76.8 428 43.4
1.875 46.7 7.97 84.8 308 49.7 "
2.125 52.9 5.55 90.4 214 55.9
2.375 59.3 3.56 93.9 138 62.3
2.625 65.5 2.28 96.2 88.0 68.5
'74.7
2.875 71.7 l.4l 97.6 54.4
3.125 78.0 0.86 98.5 JJ.J 81.0
3.375 84.2 0.50 99.0 19.3 87.2
Espey10-MinuteSyntheticUnit Hydrograph
A regionalanalysisof 19 urbanwatershedswasconductedby EspeyandAltmanlTand
resulted in a set of regressionequations.thatprovide sevenpoints of a 10-min hy-
drograph.The entire hydrographis developedby fitting a smooth curve through the
points using eye-fitting or curve-fitting procedures.In either case, a unit area is
necessary.
The equationsfor time to peak (minutes),peak discharge(cfs),time base(min-
utes),and width at 50 and 75 percentof the peak flow rate are
fo'1801 57
To : 3.ILo'23S-o'2s (r2.30)
* Qp : 3L62 X I03Ao'e6T-t'o7 (r2.3r)
Ta: 125.89 x I}3AQ;o'es (r2.32)
W5o: 16.22x I03Ao'e3Q-oe2 (12.33)
7eQ-o78
w 1 5: 3 . 2 4 x 1 0 3 4 0 (r2.34)
where L : total distance (ft) along the main channel from the point being
consideredto the upstreamwatershedboundary
12.6 SYNTHET|C UNITHYDROGRAPHS219
:
S main channel slope (ftlft) defined by H/0.8L, where 11 is the
differencein elevationbetweenthe point on the channelbottom at a
distanceof 0.2L downstreamfrom the upstreamwatershedboundary
and a point on the channelbottom at the downstreampoint being
considered
1 : imperviousarea within the watershed(7o)
Q : a dimensionlesswatershedconveyancefactor
A : watersheddrainagearea (mi2)
T, : time of rise of the unit hydrograph (min)
Q, = peak flow of the unit hydrograph (cfs)
I, :,time baseof the unit hydrograph(min)
ITso: width of the hydrograph at 507o of Q, @in)
I4zrr= width of the unit hydrographat75%oof p. (min)
The coefficients of determination (explained in Chapter 26) for the five equationg
ranged from 80 to 94 percent. The watershedconveyancefactor is found from
Fig. 12.18.The WsoandWrt widths are normally drawnwith one-thirdof the calcu-
lated width placedto the left of the peak and two-thirds to the right.
80
s
b 7 0
. 6 0
F s o
;o 4 0
?
6 3 0
d
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0..130.14 0.15 0.16 0.17
Main channel Manning z value
Lt
J
I
I .l Lt
J A2
^3 A
As
^1
Time interval
ft)
Figure L2.19 Developmentof time-area histogramfor use
with Clark's method: (a) isochronesspacedLt apart (shown
as dashedlines) and (b) time-area histogram.
12.6 SYNTHETICUNIT HYDROGRAPHS 221
I,-Q,:#:U# (r2.36)
If the differentialis discretizedto LQ/LI, andif Q, andQ, are the flowsat t andt - l,
thenEq. 12.36becomes
Q'
Io,- Ao,: YQ'- (12.37)
Lt
BecauseQ : (Q, + Qr)/2, the flow at the end of any Al is
The IUH is found from Eq. 12.38by solvingfor Q, at the end of eachsuccessive
time
interval.
EXAMPLE 12.9
Given the following 15-min time-area curve, find the IUH for the 1000-acrewater-
shed.Then determinethe 15-min syntheticunit hydrograph.The storagecoefficient
K is 30 min.
Areabetween
Timeinterval isochrones
(min) (acres)
0 - 1 5" 100
15-30 300
30-45 500
45-60 100
Time I I IUH
(hr) (acre-in./Af
) (cfs) col + c1Q1 (cfs)
0
100 400 160+0 0
0.25
300 1200 480 + 96 80
0.50
500 2000 800 + 346 368
0.75
100 400 160+ 688 861
1.00
0 0 0+509 99'7 l
1.25
0 0 0+305 6't9
1.50
0 0
0 0 0
0.25 160 80
0.50 576 368
0.75 1146 861
1.00 848 997
t.25 509 679
1.50 : :
: tl
If the waterri"O ,uU time is not available,the K value can also be estimatedby
recognizingthat Q, = KdQldt when the inflow is zero in Eq. 12.36.This occurs at
approximatelythe inflection point on the recessionof Fig. t2.2, when inflow to the
channelceases.If hydrographdataare available,the estimateof the Kvalue is the ratio
of the flow rate to the slope of the hydrographat this particular point on the hy-
drograph.
12.6 SYNTHETIC
UNITHYDROGRAPHS 223
Nash'sSyntheticIUH
One of the earliest formulations of the IUH was developedby Nash.l8Instead of
characteizingrunoff as translationfollowedby storagein a singlelinear reservoiras
Clark did, Nash viewed the watershedas a seriesof n identical linear storagereser-
voirS,eachhavingthe samestoragecoefficientK. The first instantly (r : 0) receives
a volume equal to a full inch of net rain from the entire watershed.This water then
passesthrough reservoirsI,2,3, . . . , fl, with eachproviding an additional diffusion
effecton the original I -in. rain.
The number of reservoirs, n, is uniquely related to the reservoir storage
coefficientK andthe watershedlag time. Once the IUH is developed;it can be used
to synthesizeany other hydrograph by application of the convolution integral,
Eq. I2.7, or from the approximatemethodsdiscussed in Section12.3.
The derivation of Nash's equationfor IUH beginsfrom continuity at the first
reservoir:
_Qr,: u#1,,,
#1,,,: (r2.42)
l n Q r , - l n Q r , l , - o :- - (r2.44)
*
which reducesby taking antilogarithmsto
Qt,
e ''-
-ttK
(r2.4s)
o,l;:
BecauseQr, : S,/K and S,=o: 1 in., then
Qu:f,"-'r* (r2.46)
Qu
*
Qz,: K+ dt
(r2.47)
224 CHAPTER12 UNIT HYDROGRAPHS
is solved,giving
| ,..
9r, : V;te-"^ (r2.48)
This equationhas a full hydrographshape,beginningwith zero flow at time zero,
peaking at the maximum of the function, and eventuallyrecedingto zeto.
Similarly derived,the hydrographflowing from ruthreservoirhas the form
Qn,
: |n-r n-t/K , (12.49)
e,,: (12.50)
#1n-1r-t/K
Becausethe outflow from the nth reservoirwas causedby 1 in. of excessrain falling
Eq. 12.50describesan IUH.
instantaneously,
0.83140.458D0.37r
and Lt - (r2.s4)
(I + 1yt'ezzPozat
0.18
Basic equations
Equationsof curve:
Ct= aI?+ blo+ c I LL--\0.48
'r: "\fi)
0.16 tro. b c
I 00 -0.00371 0.163 640c,
--7-
0.000023 -0M224 0.146 4p :
] 3 x 1 o r -8.01 x l0- 0 12(
0.14 \r tp = time to peak (br)
L = watershed length
r i (mi)
Ic, = distance to
E
q centroid (mi)
So = waterway slope
o (ff/ft)
U
0.10
0.08
12
Equations of curve:
P = aI?+ blo+ c
10 Eq. a b
-0 012 +216
: -T-l --T-|
2 | -o.t)0091 +0.228 06
\t<
z-r
,ql.:
v t Y
\ 6
o
6
d
o
Eq. 1 84.2
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fercent impervious, l,
(b)
: o.zg(P=l- * 0 . 0 7()1, ^. -
Lp ?3,6=P:
Pz - 0.49P"+ 0 .1 4
:- '^" 6P,) 02.63)
r summary
Unit hydrographmethodsallow the hydrologistto estimaterunoff volumesand rates
for virtually any storm. By far, the greatestnumber of problems in practice are
evaluatedusingunit hydrographprocedures.Most of the current computermodelsuse
unit hydrographproceduresasdescribedin Chapters 23,24, and25. Thesemodelsare
simply computerprogramsthat perform the unit hydrographsynthesesand convolu-
tion stepsdescribedin this chapter.Any softwareuser shouldunderstandthe origin,
applicability,and parameterestimationproceduresfor eachunit hydrographmethod
seiected.The most successfulusesof the computermodelswill resultfrom a thorough
familiarity with the processesdescribedin this chapter.
PROBLEMS
12.1. Given the following storm pattern and assuminga triangular unit hydrographfor one
time unit, determinethe compositehydrograph.
Stormpattern
Time unit 1 2 3 4
Rainfall 1 1 4 2
Unit hydrographbaselength : 6 time units; time of rise : 2 time units; and maxi-
mum ordinate : I rainfall unit height.
12.2. Given a rainfall duration of 1 time unit, an effectiveprecipitation of 1.5 in., and the
following hydrograph,determine(a) the unit hydrographand (b) the compositehy-
drographfor the given storm sequence.
228 CHAPTERl2 UNIT HYDROGRAPHS
Stormsequence
Time units I z J
Precipitation (in.) 0.4 l.l 2.0 1.5
Stormsequence
Time units r 2 J
Precipitation (in.) 0.3 r.4 0.9
11 12 I P.M 2 3 4 5 6
Time 8 a.u. 9 10
Measured
100 300 500 700 800 600 400 300 200 100 100
discharge 100
cease?
a. At what times did direct runoff begin and
Determine the index (in'/hr) for the basin'
b. @
(cfs)for eachtime.listed'
c. Derive the 2-hr'unit-nydrograpirordinates
concJnffation (excessreleasetime) for the basin.
d. Estimatethe tirne of
e.Atwhattimewoulddirectsurfacerunoffceaseiftherainfallof2.T5in./hrhad
and had lastedfor 8 hr rather than 2?
begunat 9 .q.'l\a. (in.) for a uniform
f. Determined;;;i;t urg" .ur" (cfs) and the direct runoff
rainfall of 2j5 it'lhr and a duration of 8 hr'
Lz.lS. Measuredtotal hourly dischargerates
in the accompanyingtable' The hydrr
uniform intensity of 2'60 in'/hr startir
baseflow from 8 A.M' to 3 P'v' was a
' determined as the area under the dir
10 11 12 I P.M 2
Time 8 a.v
Measured 100 100
100 100 300 600 400 200
discharge
|2.|6.A5-hrunithydrographfora425}-acre.basinisshownintheaccompanyingsketch.
Thegivenhyd.og.-uphactuallyappearedasadirectrunoffhydrographfromthebasin'
of 5 hr,beginning
by rainf;ffi;;;;ii"'"iriv
caused "i 0.30in./hrfor a duration
att = 0.
the basin'
a. Determinethe excessreleasetime of
b. Determinethe @ index for the basin'
contributingto direct runoff 4 hr after
c. what n".""*"J" "'i,ti" JJr"g" t"r* was
rain began(r = 4)?
as shownin the sketch'Do not scale
d. Use your responseto part c to determineQp'
Qp from the drawing'
t = 3 andr : 5' Why did the hydrograph
e. Note that rain continuedto fall between
: 3 and t = 5, rathet than continue to rise during those
form a ptateaut"i*""n t
2 hours?
230 CHAPTER12 UNIT HYDROGRAPHS
QO
,i: 700
= ouu
I 500
e 40o
! :oo
$ zoo
100
Time, t
f. Usethe given 5-hr unit hydrographto determinethe direct runoff rate (cfs)at 7 p.r'r.
on a day when rain fell at an intensity of 0.60 in./hr from I p.rrr.to 11 p.vr.
12.17. The 2-hr unit hydrographfor a basin is given by the following tabie:
Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
O@fs) 0 60 200 300 200 120 6 0 3 0 1 0 0
Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0@f9 0 50 300 400 200 s0 0
12.19. Usethe following 4-hr unit hydrographfor a basinto determinethe peak dischargerate
(cfs)resulting from a net rain of 3.0 in./hr for a 4-hr duration foliowed immediately
by 2.0 in.lhr for a 4-hr duration.
Time (hr) 0 2 4 6 8 10
0(cfO 0 200 300 100 50 0
PROBLEMS 231
12.20. Compare the time from the peak to the end of runoff for the SCS triangular unit
hydrographwith the time of concentration,/". Discuss.
12.21. Prove that the areaunderthe rising limb of the SCSbasic dimensionlesshydrograph
equalsthat of the triangular unit hydrograph,that is, 37.5 percefi of the total.
12.22. Bycalculus,showthatthemaximumvalueof/(x)inEq. 12.15occurswhenx:aB,
for a > 1. Also solvefor the centroidaldistanceby taking the flrst moment aboutthe
y axis.
12.23. Accordingto the rational method(seeChapter15) of estimatingpeakflow from small
areasnthe peak rate for a storm with uniform continuingintensity is equal to the net
' rain rate and occurs at the time of concentration.For what conditions,if any, would
Eqs. 12.63 and 12.17result in agreementof the peak magnitudeand time, estimated
by CUHP, with those of the rational method?Discuss.
L2.24. Describetwo methodsthat could be usedto constructa 2-hr unit hydrographusing a
l-hr unit hydrographfor a basin.
12,25. Measuredtotal hourly dischargerates (cfs)from a 2.48-n12drainagebasin are tabu-
lated below.The hydrographwas producedby a rainstormhavinga uniform intensity
of 2.60 in./hr starting at 9 A.M.and abruptly ending at 11 l.rvl. The baseflow from
8 ,q,.lt.to 3 p.lrl.was a constant 100 cfs.
Time (hr) 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
o(ruH) 0 10 40 60 80 100 90 70 60 50 40 30 2 0 1 0 0
12.27. Use the following 2-hr unit hydrographto determinethe peak direct-runoffdischarge
rate (cfs)resulting from a net rain of 2.0 in./hr for 5 hr'
Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0(cf9 0 50 200 300 200 1s0 100 0
12.28, The ordinatefor a 5-hr unit hydrographis 300 cfs at a time 4 hr after the beginning
of net rainfall. A storm with a uniform intensity of 3 in,/hr and a duration of 5 hr
occursover the basin.What is the runoff rate after 4 hr if the @index is 0.5 in./hr?
232 CHAPTER
12 UNITHYDROGRAPHS
12.29. Given below is an IUH for a watershed.Use the IUH to find hourly DRH rates for a
net rain of 4 in. in a 2-hr oeriod.
Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
o(ruH) 0 10 40 50 60 80 100 80 20 r0 0
I
I
{, +oo --t I
po I I I
I
I I I
.A 2oo T
--i -T
I I I
I I I
I I I
Time (hr)
12.31,. Recordedflow rates for a net rain of 1.92 inchesin 12 hours are shownin the table.
'
If the baseflow is 375 cfs throughoutthe storm,determinethe 12-hrunit hydrograph,
and convert it to a 6-hr unit hydrograph.Then apply the 6-hr unit hydrographto
determinethe total hydrograph(including 400 cfs baseflow) for a24-hr storm having
four 6-hr blocksof net rain at ratesof 0.7, 3.8, 10.8,and 1.8 in. per hour.
0 375
6 825
12 2200
18 36s0
aA 3900
JU 3200
36 2375
A' 1,725
48 1250
54 900
60 650
66 490
72 410
78 375
REFERENCES
HydrographRouting
r Prologue
The purposeof this chapteris to:
The first referenceto routing a flood hydrographfrom one river station to another was
by Graeff in 1883.1The techniquewasbasedon the useof wavevelocity and a rating
curve of stageversus discharge.Hydrologic river routing techniquesare all founded
upon the equationof continuity
dS
I - O : (1 3 . 1 )
dt
MuskingumMethod
Storagein a stableriver reachcan be expectedto dependprimarily on the discharge
into and out of a reach and on hydraulic characteristicsof the channelsection.The
storagewithin the reach at a given time can be expressedas2
o
99
E
Time
Figure 13.1 Effect of weighting factor.
The routing time interval A/ is normally assigned any convenient value between the
limits of K/3 and K.
The storagechangein the river reachduringthe routing interval from Eq. 1 3 . 3i s
s, - s' : Klx(I' - 1')+ (r - x)(o2- o')l (13.s)
and substitutingthis into Eq. 13.4 resultsin the Muskingum routing equation
O2: CsI2+ CII. + CzOl ( 13.6)
in which
-KX + 0.5Ar
co (r3.7)
K-KX+0.54/
KX + 0,5 Lt (13.8)
ct:
K-KX+0.54t
K - K X- 0 . 5 A r (13.e)
cz:
K-KX+0.54t
Note that K and Ar must havethe sametime units and aiso that the three coefficients
sum to 1.0.
Theoretical stability of the nunrericalmethod is accomplishedif Al falls be-
tweenthe limits 2KX and2K(I - X). The theoreticalvalue of K is the time required
for an elemental(kinematic) waveto traversethe reach.It is approximatelythe titne
interval betweeninflow and outflow peaks, if data are available.If not, the wave
velocity can be estimatedfor variouschannelshapesas a function of averagevolocity
Vfor any representativeflow rate Q. Velocityfor steadyuniform flow canbe estiinated
by either thi Manning or Ch€zyequation: The approximatewavevelocities for differ-
ent channel'shapesare given in Table 13.1.
EXAMPLE 13.1
: 2 days.The
Perform the flood routing for a reach of river given X : 0.2 and K
inflow hydrographwith Ar : 1 day is shownin Table 13.2,column 1. Assumeequal
inflow and outflow rates on the 16th.
Solution. If Ar : l dayandX = 0.2 andK :2days, thenEqs.13.7toI3.9
give Co : 0.0477,C1 : 0.428, andC2 : 0'524' Row-by-rowcomputationis
given in TabIe13.2. ll
TABLE13.2
(1) (2\ (3) (4) (5)
Computed
Date lnflow voI2 Crl't C,Q, outflow
K : ( 13 . 1 0 )
n+0-x)o
Instantaneousvaluesof S for the graphsin Example I3.2 were determinedby
solvingfor S, in Eq. 13.4for successivetime increinents.A valueof S, : 0 was [sed
for the initial increment,but the value is arbitrary since only the slope and not the
intercept of E_q.13.3 is desired.The 52 valuesare plotted against.average weighted
discharges,XI + (l - X)O in Table 13.3. A preferablemethod would be to plot S,
valuesagainstcorrespondingvaluesof instantaneous(rather than average)valuesof
XIz + (l - X)Or, using recordedvaluesof inflow and outflow (not provided).
TABLE13,3
Weighted discharge (cfs)
- l.ll"
2
u =
Oj+02
2
sz X+(1 -X)O
o
po
ro
€ X ,a
E I o
g x
e 5
.E A
b0 t\
o X
80.000 cfs-davs
Storage,S
Using data from Example 13.1 to find the outflow rate on 3-26, we obtain
Kr : C6: 0.0477
Kz: CoC2+ Cr : 0.0477(0.524)+ 0.428:0.4530
Kz : KzCz: 0.4530(0.524)
: 0.2374
SCS ConvexMethod
The U.S. Soil ConservationService (SCS) developeda coefficient channelrouting
technique,similar to the Muskingum method, in their National EngineeringHani-
book.3It has had widespreadapplication in planning and,designand can be used
successfullyevenwhenlimited storagedatafor the reachare available.Until 1983,the
procedurewas usedfor all streamflowhydrographrouting in TR-20, the SCS storm
event simulation computer program describedin Chapter 24. Newer versions of
TR-20 usethe att-kin methoddescribedin Section13.3.
Analysis of Fig. 13.2 producesthe working equation for the convex routing
method.Becausethe areasunderboth curvesare equal,and becausethe peak outflow
is lessthan (and occurslater than) the peak inflow, the curvescrossat somepoint A,
resultingin the fact that the value Orwill alwaysfall betweenIl andOt. At any time,
the vertical distanceof 02 aboveOr (or below 01 on the right of A) is a fraction C, of
the differenceIt - 01 as shown in the inset of Fig. 13.2. By proportionatevertical
distances
Oz: O t + C , ( 1 1- O ) (r3.r4)
This could be usedto route the entire inflow hydrographif C, could be established.
FromEq. 13.14,
or- o, (13.1s)
-'-
1,.-o,
BecauseAl is one limb of the triangle in the inset to Fig. 13.2,
Lt _O"- O, (13.16)
K Ir-O,
where the constantK is the horizontal time from O, to the interseptionof the line
passingthrough Ol and 02. Thus C, is a function of both A/ and K, or
n r_- Lv t
w (r3.r7)
routing method.
Determination of K and C, Proof that K from Fig. 13.2is a constantis left to the
reader.It is a storageparameterwith time units and can be approximatedby the K
from the Muskingummethod.Similarly, C, is approximatelytwice the MuskingumX.
The reach length divided by wavevelocity (estimatedfrom Table 13.1) will provide
another estimateof K, or actual measurementsof reach travel time can be used.
Equation 13.l'l canthenbe solvedfor C,. The valuerecommendedby the SCS,in the
absenceof other estimates,is
C,: (13.18)
Method
Muskingum-Cunge
been
Severalattemptsto overcomethe limitations of the Muskingummethodhavelot
totally ,u"""riful becauseof computational complexity or difficulties in physically
interpretingthe routing parameteri.a'sThe Muskingum parametersare best derived
fiom streamflowmeasurementsand are not easilyrelatedto channelcharacteristics.
Cunge6blendedthe accuracyof the diffusion wave method (seeSection 13.3)
with the simplicity of the Muskingum method, resulting in one of the most recom-
gives
mendedtechniquesfor generaluse.It is classifiedas a hydrologicmethod,yet it
resultscomparablewith hydraulic methods'
Cungeshowedthat ihe finite-differenceform of the Muskingum equationbe-
comesthe diffusion waveequationif the parametersfor both methodsare appropri-
atelyrelated'From Eqs. 13.1 and I3'3, the Muskingumequationis
s -
K+ln+(l-x)ol:t-o ( 13. 1e)
dt-
obtain
SubstitutingQ,for I andQi*rfot O, andrewritingin finite-differenceform' we
LtlK + 2x (r3.24)
cr:
2(r-x)+Lt/K
4 -
2(I-x)-cLt/Lx
" ' (r3.2s)
v2
2(I-x)+Lt/K
./r .-\ L Aal?
x:t('-#t) (r3.26)
where v is the averagevelocity QfA, andm is aboutI for wide natural channels.The
coefficientm comesfrom the uniform flow equation
Q: bA- (13.28)
Q*4:o (13.30)
6x At
givesEq. I3.2t if c : mv.If dischargedata ate available,m canbe estimatedfrom
nq. tZig. Valuesfor commonshapechannelsare given in Table 13'1'
The rout{rg can now be done using either constantm and c parameters(i.e.,
using a single ai'eragevelocity) or variableparameters(usingeachnew velocity v).
equition I-3.2i rs solvedfor c, the valueX is derivedfrom Eq. 13.26,andE6' 13.23
to 13.25are solvedusing K : Lx/c.
When using this rnethod,the valuesof Ax and Ar shouldbe selectedto assure
that the flood wa-vedetailsare proper$ routed.Nominally' the time to peak of inflow
is broken into 5 or 10 time incrementsAt. To give both temporal and spatialresolu-
tion, the total reachlength l, can be dividedinto severalincrementsof Ax length, and
outflow from eachis treated as inflow to the next.
244 CHAPTER13 HYDROGRAPHROUTING
EXAMPLE 13.3
Usethe Muskingum-Cungemethodto route the hydrographfrom Example13.2.Use
So: 0.0001,Lx : 545 mi, flow cross-sectionalareaat Q : 59,960is 5996 ft2,
width at Q : 59,960is 60 ft, and Ar : 1.0 day (asin Example13.2).
Solution. From the inflow, the peak rate of 59,960cfs gives
o^ 59.960
So:T
59,960:-
V r-: TQo -
,, l0fps
c : Z V o : 1 6 . 7f p s
From Eq. 13.26
-
":;1, 1000
(16.7)s4s
0.0001 L
(s280)
:0.4
't
I
I
L* -545(5280)
ff:
K : 1 7 2 , 8s 0e 0c
7:
and C": -0.1765
Ct: 0'7647
Cz: 0'294I
The routing for a portion of the hydrographis as follows:
Note that the peak outflow of 48,750 cfs on March 26 occurson the samedate
as in Example I3.2 but has experiencedslightly greaterattenuationfrom the
Muskingum-Cunge example.
The value C, is alwayspositive,and negativevaluesof C, arenot particu-
larly troublesome.Although C0is negativein this example,this condition should
be avoidedin practice.As seenfrom Eq. 13.23, negativevaluesof Coare avoided
ROUTING 245
RESERVOIR
13.2 HYDROLOGIC
when
^|,
,* rr (13.31)
Other Methods
Other hydrolSgicriver routing procedureshavebeendeveloped,includingthe working
R&D method,straddle-stagger method,Tatummethod,and multiple storagemethod.
They all appear as options in HEC-I, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineer's event
simulation and routing model describedin Chapter24.
ROUTING
RESERVOIR
13.2 HYDROLOGIC
The storageindication method of routing a hydrographthrough a reservoiris also
calledthe modified Pulsmethod.8A flood wavepassingthrough a storagereservoiris
both delayedand attenuatedas it enters and spreadsover the pool surface.Water
storedin the reservoiris gradually releasedas pipe flow through turbines or outlet
works, calledprincipal sprllways,or in extremefloods, over an emergencyspillway.
Flow over an ungatedemergencyspillway weir sectioncan be describedfrom
energy,momentum,and continuity considerationsby the form
O: CYH' (r3.32)
where O : the outflow rate (cfs)
Y : the length of the spillway crest (ft)
H : deepestreservoirdepth abovethe spillway crest (ft)
C : the dischargecoefficientfor the weir or section,theoretically 3'0
x : exponent,theoreticallyJ
Flow through a free outlet dischargepipe is similarly describedby Eq. 13.32
where' I : the cross-sectionalareaof the dischargepipe (ft')
H : head above the free outlet elevation (ft)
C : the pipe dischargecoefficient, theoretically\/29
.r : exponent,theoreticallyj
Flow equations for other outlet conditions are availablein hydraulics textbooks.
Storagevaluesfor variouspool elevationsin a reservoirare readily determinedfrom
computationsof volumesconfinedbetweenvariouspool areasmeasuredfrom topo-
graphic maps. Since storageand outflow both dependonly on pool elevation,the
resulting storage-elivationcurve and the outflow-elevationrelation (Eq. 13.32) can
easily be combinedto form a storage-outflowgraph. Storagein a reservoirdepends
only on the outflow, contrastedto the dependenceon the inflow and outflow in river
routing(Eq. 13.3).
"surchargestorage"or the storage
For convenience,,Sis often defined as the
abovethe emergencyspillwaycrest.Normally the overflowrate is zero when,Sis zero.
Ifthe graphedstorage-outflowrelation is found to be linear, and ifthe slopeofthe line
246 CHAPTER13 HYDROGRAPHROUTING
is definedas K, then
S : KO (13.33)
is a
and the reservoiris called a linear reservoir. Routing through a linear reservoir
showninFig. 13.l-usingr : 0'0inEq. 13.3'
specialcaseof Muskingumriverrouting
exceeds
Note alsothat the,outfl-owrate in Fig. tg.t is increasingonly while the inflow
assumptions that the inflow imme-
the outflow.This observationis conJistentwith the
and that the outflow depends only
diatelygoesinto storageoverthe entirepool surface
on this storage.
time
Routing through a linear reservoiris easily accomplishedby first dividing
s2 : Ko2into Eq. I3'4 and
into a numberof equal incrementsand then substituting
for each time increment'
solving for oz, wtrictris the only remainingunknown
To route an emergencyRo'oathrough anonlinear reservoir,the storage-outflow
the outflow
relation and the continiity equation,Eq. L3'4,are combinedto determine
I3'4 can be rewritten as
and storageat the end of'eachtime inciement A/. Equation
side'Pairs
in which the only unknown for any time incrementis the tgt_*:n the right
b" generated that satisfy Eq. 13 .34 and checked
of trial valuesof S"*, andO,*1"ould
fot confirmation. Rather than resort to this trial proce-
in the storage-outflow"uru"
replottedas
dure, a valrieof At is selectedand points on the storageoutflow curve are
direct determi-
the ';storageindication" curve shownin Fig. 13.3' This graph allowsa
nation of the outflow O,11 o11ce a value of the ordinate Zl,*rfLt I On+rhas been
from the S-O
calculatedfrom Eq. f :.:4' ftre secondunknown' S,*t, can be read
curve(whichcouldilsobeplottedonthegraphinFig. 13.3)orfoundfromEq'13'34'
t200
I
/
/
{,
600
:
.il<
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0
Outflow (cfs)
EXAMPLE 13.4
Giventhe tria4gular-shapedinflow hydrographand the 2S/Lt + O curve ofFig. 13.3
find the outflow hydrograph for the reservoir assumingit to be completely full at the
beginningof the storm.(SeeTable 13.4.)
o
90
Time (hr)
In selectinga routing period Ar, generallyat leastfive points on the rising limb
of the inflow hydrographare employedin the calculations.An increasednumber of
points on the rising limb, that is, a small A/, improvesthe accuracy,sinceas A/ - 0
the numerical integrationapproachesthe true limit of the function being integrated,
in this casedSfdt.
Column 3 in Table 13.4 comesfrom the given inflow hydrograph,column 4 is
simply the addition of I, + In*r, andColumns5 andT are initially zero, sincein this
problem the reservoir is assumedfull at the commencementof inflow. Therefore,
there is no availablestorage.
(1)
Time
(2) (3)
ln
(4)
I, + In+l
'n-o.
(5) (6)
2Sn+1 , a
-;f- T vn+1
(7)
an+t
(8)
Sn+t
0 1 0 -tt, 0 JU 5 12.5
I 2 3 0 90 20 110 18 46
z 3 6 0 150 74 224 3Z 96
3 4 9 0 2lo 160 370 AA 164
+ 5 120, 270 284 ))4 52 250
5 6 150 330 450 780 )6 361
6 7 180 315 664 979 63 458
'7 225 853 r078 65 506
8 135
8 9 9 0 135 948 1085 65 510
9 10 45 953 998 64 467
t0 ll 0 0 870 870 62 404
ll 1 2 0 0 746 746 58 344
t2 t 3 0 0 630 630 54 288
248 13 HYDROGRAPH
CHAPTER ROUTING
the sum of columns4
The starting value for n : 1 in column 6 is computedas
and 5 from F,q.13.34
: 25"
(L + 12)- ( * - o ' ) - + o2
Lt
25.
3 0 * 0 : - - + o2
Lt
column 6 gives a valuefor
Enteringthe ordinateof Fig. 13.3 with the value 30 from
end-of-time-interval
o, of 5 cfs, which is recordedin column 7 , The corresponding
columns 6 and7 and recorded in column 8. Moving to
storage,s,, is calculatedfrom
be found fof : 2 usings'
n
the secondfow, a value of the term in column 5 can now
and O, from columns7 and 8'
ThestepwiseprocedureusedtogetoutflowfiguresforallncanbeSumma.
rized as
l.Entriesincolumnsland3areknownfromthegiveninflow.hydrograph.
column 3' - -
2. Entries in column 4 arc the additionsof I' t I'*' in
3.Theinitialvalueofthetermincolumn5iszero,thoughitcouldalsobe
4 and 5 are
based on any arbitrary starting storagevalue' and columns
addedto producethe value in column 6'
4.The2SlA,t+oversusoplotisenteredwithknownvaluesotzSlLt+o
to find valuesof O for column 7'
5.Columns6andlaresolvedforS,+r,whichisrecordedincolumn8.
for column 5 usingthe
6. Advanceto the next row and calculatethe next value
7 and 8'
valuesin the precedingrow for O and S {om columns
4 and enterthe
7. Add the value in cotuin 5 to the advancedsum in column
result in column 6 for the new period under consideration'
8.ThenewoutflowforcolumnTisagainfoundfromtherelationof
ZSlLt + O as in Fig. 13.3.
g.Thecorrespondingnewstorageincolumn8isfoundbysolvingfrom
columns6 andT'
l.0.Steps6throughgarerepeateduntiltheentireoutflowhydrographisgener-
ated. rl
RIVERROUTING
13.3 HYDRAULIC
ploys both the equationof continuity and
utions to the complete hydrarllic routing
ffffii.;fiffi:::
ili"'nTil::ll;lffi
tions.
Hydraulicfoutingtechniquesarehelpfulinsolvingriverroutingproblems,over-
the simultaneoussolution
land flow, or sheetnow. uyaraulic routing proceedsfrom
1'negeneralforms of the combinationfor
of expression,of continoiti una-o*"ntuir,
rivers are called the spatically varied unsteadyfl'ow equations'
13.3 HYDRAULIC
RIVER
ROUTING 249
Theseequationsalso apply to sheetflow or overland flow and include terms for
laterally incoming rainfall. They can be simplified and used to resolveriver routing
problems.eFor completeneisof presentation,a generalform of the spatially varied
unsteadyflow equationswill be presentedfirst.
Equationof Continuity
The equation of continuity statesthat inflow minus outflow equals the changein
storage.To relatethis conceptto a river sectionundera condition ofrainfall or lateral
inflow, consideran elementof length Ax and unit width into the page as shown in
Fig. 13.4.
The total inflow is
+t*+)(,.#?) o'
o(v (13.36)
*
ofrl," (r3.37)
l(x, t)
,(,-#+)(,- o ( v * o?t) ( r . * + )
l A x L x
f 2--*l-- 2-
(a)
i(x, t)
ft)
Figure 13.4 Continuity and momentum elements(where p : the density of
water, V : the averagevelocity. 1l : the depth. i : the lateral inflow per ele-
mental Ax, and S = the slopeof the river bottom).
250 CHAPTER13 HYDROGRAPHROUTING
Consequently,continuity gives
where i is the averagelateral inflow resulting from rainfall over Ax and Ar.
The continuity equation of unsteadyflow with lateral inflow is obtained by
simplifyingEq. 13.38
6V .,0y , 0y :
"v6- x- | v - - 6r x ( 13 .3e)
At
For otherthan a unit width, Eq. 13.39takesthe form
MomentumEquation
In accordancewith Newton's secondlaw of motion, the changeof momentumper unit
of time on a body is equal to the resultantof all externalforces acting on the body.
The following derivationof the momentumequationof spatiallyvariedunsteadyflow
is presentedsubjectto the following assumptions:(1) the flow is unidirectional and
velocity uniform acrossthe flow section;(2) the pressureis hydrostatic;(3) the slope
of the river bottom is relatively small; (4) the Manning formula may be used to
evaluatethe friction lossdueto shearat the channelwall; (5) lateral inflow entersthe
stream with no velocity componentin the direction of flow; and (6) the value of I
representsthe spatial and time variationsof lateral inflow.
Forcesactingon an elementof lengthAx andunit width are shownin Fig. i 3.4b.
The forcesF1andF, representhydrostaticforceson the elementand are expressedas
- ylyA atvA)axl
f-, - -;zl
F,: (13.41)
By assuminga small slope for the river bottom, the gravitational force is given by
Fr : yASA.x (13.44)
The frictional force alongthe bottom is equalto the friction slope$multiplied by the
weisht of water in an elementAx.
\: vASyLx ( 13 .4s )
13.3 HYDRAULICRIVER ROUTING 251
and DynamicWaves
Kinematic,Diffusionn
For the casewith zerclaterclinflow, l, Eq. 13.51can be solvedfor the friction slope
Ev VAV IAV
c _ c _ : (r3.s2)
Diffusion wave
Fu11dynamic wave
252 ROUTING
CHAPTER13 HYDROGRAPH
HYDRAULIC
USEDIN VARIOUS
TABLE13.5 ASSUMPTIONS
METHODS
ROUTING
Steadyflow is definedas flow that doesnot changewith time, and uniform flow
is flow with a water surfaceparalleling the bed slope.For steadyuniform flow, the
rating curve (stage-discharge curve)is a singlecurve without hysteresisloops. Steady
nonuniform flow has constantdischargebut varying water surfaceslopesuchas that
found at the entranceto a reservoiror at the approachof a waterfall.
One way of selectingthe applicablemethod is to examinethe rating curve and
assesswhether it is the same for rising and falling stages.The choice of routing
equation dependson whether the difference is small (kinematic), relatively large
(dynamic),or somewherein-between(diffusion).
The kinematic wave method assumesthat the inertia terms of Eq. 13.52 ate
negligibleand that the friction slopeequalsthe bed slopeS. Momentumconservation
is approxi(natedby assumingsteadyuniform flow, and routing is accomplishedby
combiningthe continuity equationwith any form of friction lossequation.Typically,
either the Manning equationor Ch6zyequationis used.The Chdzyequationis
V : C\/RS ( 13.s 3)
and the Manning equationis
l'486
V : O2/3St/2 ( 13.s 4)
n
.- dQx * 9 : o (13.se)
At
"- : d Q : l d Q (13.60)
dA BdY
to the slope of the
where B is the top width of the channel.Thus celerity is related
rating curve,which varieswith stage.Most applications assume that c is constantand
9 * , 9 : dd{x9- (13.61)
At dx
accounts for the
The left-hand side is the kinematic wave equation and the right
diffusion d is
diffusion effect of nonuniform water surfaceproflles. The hydraulic
given by
.
" 2 5
d : -
q (r3.62)
tr:# (r3.64)
SCSAtt-Kin TR-20Method
In 1983,the SCSreplacedtheconvexmethod(Section13.1)with themodifiedatt-kin
(attematron-kinematic)methodas the agency'spreferredchannelrouting method.ls
The 1.964SCS TR-20 (Chapter 24) single-eventsimulation model used the convex
method but was subsequentlymodified to route by the att-kin method.
The procedureis a blend of the storageindication and kinematicwavemethods.
Figure 13.5 showsthe two-step processof simulating attenuationfirst by meansof
e
E
o
PP
Q: KS^ (13.66)
into the continuity equation, Eq. 13.30, where S is the storageand K and m are
coefficients.Kinematic routing solvesthe unsteadyflow equation(13.59) with
Q: bA* (r3.61)
whereb andm are input coefficients,and A is cross-sectionalarea.If Z is the length
ofrouiing reach,andifthe cross-sectionalareathroughoutL is relativelyconstant,the
storageis given by
S: LA (13.68)
The larger ru becomes,the shorterthe travel time, A value of m I 1.0 would incor-
rectly makethe celerity slowerthan the averageflow velocity.Studiesby SCSresulted
in a recommendationof ! for general use. Signif,canterrors resultedfor m values
greater than2.0. Equation 13.67 is appropriatefor cross sectionshaving a single
ihannel with regulaishape.Complexcrosssectionsare more diffcult to evaluate,but
la valuescan be developid from a rating table for the stream'rs
As the coefficient b decreases,attenuationof the peak flow increasesdue to
reducedvelocity and increasedstoragein the reach.The value b canbe estimatedby
plotting Q andA on log-logpaper and fitting the linear form of Eq. 13.67 (referlo
faatei6.+1. The slope*oUa be m andtheinterceptut 4_: 1 would be b. The SCS
has also developednomographsfor estimatingb and m'"
As a generalguideline,the reach length L shouldbe increasedto a value that
resultsin a kinematic wavetravel time c greaterthan the selectedtime increment,or
Lo> cA,t
Z*io LR
ft ft
9,000 18,000
7,500 15,000
mV = wave celerity
l*ln = minimum acceptablereach length 6,000 12,000
LR = minimum recommended reach length 5,000 10,000
mV
ft/sec MainTime
3,500 7,000
0.5 Increment
Hours
2 r <nn 5,000
0.7
? nnn 4,000
I
1,500 3,000
0.5
1,000 2,000
0.3
n?5
0.2' 750 1,500
3 0.1
1.000
/
0.05
350 700
5
250 500
7 Example:
mV = 4ftlsec
10 Main time increment = 0.2 hr
T2 L*n= 1,450ft
La = 2,900 ft
15
t00
Figure 13.6 SCS nomographfor determining reach length for
atl-kin method of routing. (After U.S. Soil Conservation Service,
"ComputerProgramfor Project Formulation," TechnicalRelease
20, Revised,AppendixG, 1983.)
PROBLEMS 257
: mV' and Ar is the time increment' The
where Lo is the recommendedlength' c
minimumrecommendedLoisthatgivingawavetraveltimeequaltoabouthalfthe lengthy
rime incremenr. This 1j[$;"1* iray iesult in analytical difficulty when
inflowhydrographsorsteepStreams.areencountered.Italsoresultsinthepeak
time incrementAr. If severalreacheswere
outflow time being ,ourJ"J"rp io the full
accumulate'Thus a reachlength between
routed, this incrementattime^errorwould
greater thal c. A/ is recommended'
c Lt andc Lt/2 is acceptable'but a length
Figure13.6providesth"rangeofminimumacc"eptableandminimumrecommended
routing reachlengths.
ff ffi ff;;iicationsofhvdraulicroutingtec|1ioue11p.p"11'i^'"Tt*::?:Yi::
"u.n ff ;'il;;'n"'uu"'i11,,
ffi ff Ji,ffiffi ;t'1":".1-':^:"::::T,it?ii:
:3:[";ffi;i;;;ffi;"'"-*:i"o1j.u""]'mJ1't^:-:T:1T':1"::i"%i"$1
, i. wru,iilpresented
iir"T-l"ii,'.i,"n"
;;lrt':? 1"*Tl student
ll :^11ti::
thataninteresred caniil::1,::
understand
HX"J"H;il;il#il;;;;;,;;i;#
modeling'
the structuringprocessesof hydrologic
Summary
ComputersoftwareforhydrographsynthesiS^androutingisavailablefromnumerous
federal agelcy routines are detailed in
public and private vendors. wid;ry used
amflow processesincludesone or
Chapter24. Virtually every (
m o r e h y d r o g r a p h r o a s H E C - I ( C h a hydroloeig
p t e r 2 4a1d
) , hydraulic
p r o v i d e
lplied
severalchoices.In I
the models can be found in the
routing procedures' g]]:i,:Ytditg
At sel suggestions .T"
1iterarure.,6,17 will engage ln rlver or
The readerwho
when eachof the methodsshouldbe applied'
reservoirroutingisencouragedtodwelopthecomparisonrequestedinProblem13.25
before leavingthis chaPter'
PROBLEMS
hydrologic and hydraulic routing techniques'
13.1. Discussthe main diff-erencesbetween
t+}i
13.2. TheMuskingum
1iT
.'SX,ffff:il# ffi?#t;; q-
riverroutingequation'
:..ii+l ?:,:,':'?,*
r" 191 ;q":: Iit:t?;;i,Y
:,-Yllli"'*ifi:'i I
ilY?iBi'"".U'1-'"d;i"?';:fli!11iy":;T"':'.."t"jfl i:;#"J
I"a'^#i'.h;r::;;'i;A--)-r",t'i'i""1'"'lT1,1l.o:'^"iui:.'*
i:il3iil;
Siif#ffi"#ru:=#;"i"e-i*ine
outflow, and storage at the beginning
orthe
of time
the tlme p:.'i"l'
oerro.; *u,'::9,":1i:
i'||w 12' v2' .xg 9z v\v 4-_
lT"jll
corresponding u,,t'l
uutu", ;;:E;:
G n"t*#:J:'::3*4":::i3";ffi';
ffi:Tt"'ff:fd;#?;##ir*"p"'i"a'lndAsistl"*"1c-",'istorage'Perrorm
"and
for Cs' C1' and C2'
the describedA",inution verify ttre equations
l"3.3.IftheMuslongumKvalueis12hrforareachofariver,andiftheXvalueis0.2'what
purposes?
would be a reasonablevalue of Ar for routing
258 ROUTING,
13 HYDROGRAPH
CHAPTER
13.4. A river reachhas a storagerelation given by S; : ali + boi. Derive a routing equa-
tion for O2 analogousto the Muskingum equation (13.6). Give equationsfor the
coefficientsof 11,01, and 12.
13.5. List the steps(starting with a measuredinflow and outflow hydrographfor a river
'
reach)necessaryto determinethe Muskingum K and X values. If the inflow and
outflow are recordedin cubic feet per second,statethe units that would result for K
and X if your list of stepsis followed.
13.6. Given the following inflow hydrograph:
lnflow Outflow
(cfs) (cfs)
lnflow Outflow
Time (cfs) (cfs)
6 e.Ira. l0 10
Noon 30 12.9
6 p.v, 68 26.5
Midftight 50 43.1
6 l.rra. 40 44.9
Noon 3l 41.3
6 p.tvt. ZJ 35.3
Midnight 10 27.7
6 n.n. 10 t9.4
Noon 10 1 5I.
6 p.v. 10 12.7
Midnight t0 11 . 5
6 A.M. 10 10.8
PROBLEMS 259
Usethe Muskingum
13.8. Selecta streamin your geographicregionthat hasrunoffrecords'
method of routing to find K and X'
l3.g.PrecipitationbeganatnoononJune14andcausedafloodhydrographinastredrn.As
thehydrographpassed,thefollowingmeasuredstreamflowdataatcrosssectionsA
and B were obtained:
Inflow, Outflow,
Time SectionA SectionB
June14-17 (cfs) (cfs)
6 e.v. 10 10
Noon 10 10
6 p.tvt. 30 t3
Midnight 10 26
6 e.u. 50 43
Noon 40
6 p.u. 30 4l
Midnight 20 35
6 n.u. 10 28
Noon l0 19
6 p.tvt. l0 IJ
Midnight 10 I J
6 e.u. 10 1l
Noon 10 10
lnflow lnflow
Time (cfs) Time (cfs)
emergencyspillway of a certain
13.10. The outflow rate (cts) and storage(cfs-hr) for an units of hours'Use
: Sl3,wherethe number3 has
reservoirare linearly t"fui"a Uy d - or Ltl2to determine
this and the continuity equations s2 + 02 Ltlz = I tt + sr
the following inflow event:
itr" p""f. outflow rad fr;m the reservoir for
Time I D o
(h0 (cfs) (cfs-hr) (cfs)
0 0
L 400
4 600
6 200
8 0
7
" : 2*.
whereAr is equalto 10 hr. If s at 8 e.u. is 0 cfs-hr,usethe continuity equationto route
the following hydrograph through the reservoir:
13.12. For a vertical-walled reservoir with a surface area A show how the two routing
equations(73.32 and 13.34) could be written to contain only o2, sz, and known,
values(computedfrom or, s,, and so on). Eliminate .FIfrom all the equations.How
could thesetwo equationsbe solvedfor the two unknowns?
13.13. Given: Vertical-walled reservoir, surface area: 1000 acres; emergency.spillway
width : 97.l ft (ideal spillway);H : watersurfaceelevation(ft) abovethe spillway
crest; and initial inflow and outflow are both 100 cfs.
a. In acre-ft and cfs-days,determinethe valuesfor reservoirstorageS corresponding
to the followingvaluesof I1..0, 0.5, l, 1.5,2,3, 4 ft.
b. Determine the values of the emergencyspillway Q correspondingto the depths
namedin part a.
c. Carefully plot and label the discharge-stcirage curve (cfs versuscfs-days)and the
storage-indicationcurve (cfsversuscfs,Fig. 13.3) on rectangularcoordinategraph
paper.
d. Determinethe outflow ratesoverthe spillwayat the endsof successive dayscorre-
spondingto the following inflow rates(instantaneousratesat the endsof successive
days):100, 400, 1200,1500, 1100, 700, 400, 300, 200, 100, 100, 100. Use a
routing table similar to the one used in Example 13.4 and continue the rotating
procedureuntil the outflow drops below 10 cfs.
e. Plot the inflow and outflow hydrographson a single graph. Where should these
curvescross?
13.14. Routethe given inflow hydrograph through the reservoir by assumingfhe initial water
level is at the emergencyspillway level (1160 ft) and that the principal spillway is
plugged with debris. The reservoir has a 500-ft-wide ideal emergency spillway
(C = 3.0) locatedat the 1160-ft elevation.Storage-area-elevation data are
Time(h0 I (cfs)
0.0 0
0.5 3,630
1.0 10,920
1.5 to,'720
2.0 5 010
2.5 1,600
3.0 460
J.) 100
4.0 10
A < 0
table.
a.Findthel5-minunithydrographbySnyder'smethod.
063
30minand
forthenrst
l i"li:l! ff;ru#iHfllSiii.?om18in.ofrain
of 15minandthe
period
o.cuweusinga routing
.. il"i:i.,i[T;iitf;,ersus
outflow and storagecurvesprovloeo' to the bottom
the reservoirassumingit is full
e. Route,n" uJ#f,iu.;;;n";;"dh
of the sPillwaYelevation980'
water^inthe reservor'
f. Indicate maxi-mumheight of plu'"d to obtain 5 ft of freeboard?
g. At what "tJ;;;;iJ'n"'op "f th;;;;;;
lncremental Total
storage storage
Elevation
1oo(ft") 104(ft3)
(ft)
0
960
40
40
970
zto
250
980
590
840
990
1240
2080
1000
lnflow Outflow
Time SectionA SectionB
June14-17 (cfs) (cfs)
6 .q,.N{. l0 10
Noon 10 l0
6 p.u. 30 13
Midnight 70 26
6 .r.lr. 50 43
Noon 40
6 p.lr. 30 +l
Midnight 20 35
6 a.Ira. 10 28
Noon 10 t9
6 p.rra. l0 l5
Midnight t0 l3
6 e.u. l0 ll
Noon 10 10
13.22. If the MuskingumK valueis 12 hr for a reachof a river, and if the X valueis 0.2, what
would be a reasonablevalue of Ar for routing purposes?
PROBLEMS 263
30-mi river reach:
13.23. Giventhe following valuesof measureddischargesat both endsof a
lnflow Outflow
Time (cfs) (cfs)
6 n.u. 10 10
Noon 30 12.9
6 p.rra. 68 26.5
Midnight 50 43.r
61.v. 40 44.9
Noon 3l 4t.3
6 p.Ira. 23 35.3
Midnight 10 27.7
6 n.rra. 10 t9.4
Noon 10 15.1
6 p.tu. 10 12.7
Midnight 10 I 1.5
6 e.lr. 10 10.8
lnflow Outflow
(cfs) (cfs)
6 e.v. 10 10
Noon 30
6 p.v. 68
Midnight 50
6 e.l"l. 40
Noon 3l
6 p.v. ZJ
Midnight 10
REFERENCES
1. Graeff, "Trait6 d'hydraulique."Paris,1883,pp. 438-443.
2. Y. T. Chow, Open ChannelHydraulics. New York: McGraw-Hill , 1959.
3. U. S. Soil ConservationServiie, National EngineeringHandbook, Notice NEH 4-102.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrintingOffice,August 1972.
4. S. Hayami, On the Propagationof FloodWaves,Bulletin 1. Kyoto,Japan:DisasterPreven-
t i o n I n s t i t u t e1, 9 5 1 .
"Multiple Linearization Flow Routing Model," Proc.
5. T. N. Keefer and R. S. McQuivey,
ASCEL Hyd. Div.100(HY7) (Iuly 1974).
"On the Subjectof a Flood PropagationMethod," J. Hyd. Res'IAHRT(2),
6. J. A. Cunge,
20s-230(1967).
7 . D. L. Brakensiek,"KinematicFlood Routing,"Trans.ASCE L0(3) (1967).
"Water Studies,"Bureauof ReclamationManual, Yol.
8. U. S. Departmentof the Interior,
IV Sec. 6.10. Washington, D.C.: U. S. GovernmentPrinting Offrce, 1941.
"Numerical Techniquesfor Spatially VariedUnsteadyFlow," University
9. T. E. Harbaugh,
of Missouri Water ResourcesCenter,Rept. No. 3, 1967.
10. R. K. Price, "Comparisonof Four Numerical Methods for Flood Routing," Proc. ASCE
J. Hyd. Div. 100(HY7) (July 1974).
"NonlinearKinematicWaveApproximation
11. R. M. Li, D. B. Simons,and M. A. Stevens,
for WaterRouting,"WaterResourcesRes.AGU II(2) (Apr. 1975).
"WavePropagationin Rivers," HEL Ser. 8' No. 1.
12. J. A. Harder and L. V. Armacost,
Hydraulic Engineering Laboratory, College of Engineering,University of California,
Berkeley,June 1966.
"Numerical Solution of UnsteadyFlows in Open
13. D. J. Gunaratnamand F. E. Perkins,
Channels"HydrodynamicsRept. 127,MIT, Cambridge,MA, July 1970.
14. G. DiSilvio, "Flood Wave Modiflcation Along Channels," Proc. ASCE J. Hyd. Div.
9s(HY7) (1e69).
"Simplifled Dam-Breach
15. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil ConservationService,
RoutingProcedure,"Tech.Release66,Mar. 1979.
"ComparativeAnalysis of Flood Routing Methods," ResearchDoc.
16. Streldoff, T., et al.,
24,Hydrologic EngineeringCenter,U. S. Army Corps of Engineers'Davis, CA, 1980.
"Guidelinesfor Calculatingand Routinga Dam-Break
l7 . D . L. Gunlachand W. A. Thomas,
Flood," ResearchNote 5, HydrologicEngineeringCenter,U. S. Army Corpsof Engineers,
Davis.CA. 1977.
C h a p t e r1 4
Snow Hydrology
Prologue
The purposeof this chaPteris to:
. Indicatethe importanceof snowmeltto water supplyand managementin cold
regions.
. Describemethodsfor measuringsnowfall and describingits water-producing
caPabilities.
' Describethe physicsof snowmelt.
. presentmodeisfor estimatingsnowmeltunder variousconditionsof tempera-
ture, relativehumidity, wind speed,topography,ground cover,and snowpack.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In many regions,snowis the dominantsourceof water supply.Mountainousareasin
the Weit areprime examples.Goodellhasindicatedthat about90 percentof the year$
water suppliin the high Llevationsof the ColoradoRockiesis derivedfrom snowfall.'
Equally high proportions are also likely in the Sierrasof California and numerous
t"giotrr m tne Nortfrwest.A significantbut lessershareof the annualwateryield in the
Northeastand Lake statesalso originatesas snow.It is important that the hydrologist
understandthe natureand distributionof snowfallandthe mechanismsinvolvedin the
snowmeltprocess.
Snowmelt usually beginsin the spring. The runoff derived is normally out of
phasewith the periodsof gieatestwaterneed;therefore,variouscontrol schemessuch
as storagereseivoirshavJ been developedto minimize this problem. An additional
point of significanc.e is that $omeof the greatestfloods result from combinedlarge-
icale rainstorms and snowmelt.Streamflowforecastingis highly dependenton ade-
quate knowledge of the extentand characteristicsof snowfleldswithin the watershed.
fhe water yield from snowfall can be increasedby minimizing the vaporization of
snow and melt water. Timing the yield can be managedwithin limits by controlling
the rate of snowmelt. Early resultscan be be obtainedby speedingthe melt process'
whereasthe snowmeltperiod can be extendedor delayedby retarding it. The annual
snowfall distribution in the United Statesis shownin Fig. 14'1'
& f
-v
/
S:.-
) \
I O
,4
00
co
, I
()
!1
a
!?
E
q
{)^
> j
o
. t
5E
p P
.=.Y
tu5
14,2 SNOW ACCUMULATIONAND RUNOFF 267
AND RUNOFF
14.2 SNOWACCUMULATION
Under the usual conditions encounteredin regionswith heavy snowfall, the runoff
from the snowpackis the last occurrencein a seriesof eventsbeginningwhen the
snowfallreachesthe ground.The time interval from the start to the end of the process
might vary from aslittle asa day or lessto severalmonthsor more. Newly fallen snow
hasa densityof about 10 percent(the percentageof snowvolumeits waterequivalent
would occupy),but as the snow depth enlarges,settling and compactionincreasethe
density.ls
The temperaturein a deep layer of accumulatedsnow is often well below
fueezingafter prolongedcold periods.When milder weather setsin, melting occurs
flrst atlhe rno*pu"k surface.This initial meltwater moves only slightly below the
surfaceand again freezesthrough contact with colder underlying snow.During the
rcfreezingpro""rr, the heat of fusion releasedfrom meltwaterraisesthe snowpack
t"*p"rutur". Heat is also transferredto the snowpackfrom overlying air and the
ground. During persistent warm periods, the temperatureof th9 entire snowpack
Iontinually rises'and finally reaches32'F. With continued melting, water begins
flowing down through the pack. The initial melt component is retained on snow
crystals in capillary films. Once the liquid water-holdingcapacity of the snow is
reached,the snow is said tobe ripe. Throughoutthe foregoingprocess'pack density
increasesdue to the refreezingof meltwaterand buildup of capillary films. After the
water-holdingcapacityis reached,the densityremainsrelatively constantwith contin-
ued rnelt. Meltwater that exceedsthe water-holdingcapacity will continueto move
268 14 SNOWHYDRoLoGY
CHAPTER
down through the snowpackuntil the ground is finally reached.At this point runoff
can occu.r.Three situationsthat may exist at the ground interfacewhen meltwater
reachesit are describedby Horton.t6
First, considerthe casewherethe melt rate is lessthan the infiltration capacity
of the soil. In addition, downward capillary pull of the soil coupled with gravity
exceedsthe samepull of the snow lessgravity. The meltwaterdirectly entersthe soil
and a slushlayer is not formed.
The secondcaseoccurs when a soil's infiltration capacity is greaterthan the
melt rate, but the net capillary pull of the snowpackexceedsthat of the soil aidedby
gravity. Capillary water builds up in the overlying snow until equilibrium is reached
at which upward and downwardforces balance.A slushlayer forms and providesa
supply of water that infiltrates the soil as rapidly as it entersthe slushlayer.
The final situationis one in which the melt rate exceedsthe infiltration capacity.
A slush layer forms and water infiltrates the soil at the infiltration capacity rate.
Excesswater acts in a manner analogousto surfacerunoff but at a much decreased
overlandflow rate.
As warm weathercontinues,the melt processis maintainedand accelerateduntil
the snowcoveris dissipated.
14.3 SNOWMEASUREMENTS
AND SURVEYS
Snow measurementsare obtained through the use of standardand recording rain
gauges,seasonalstorageprecipitation gauges,snow boards,and snow stakes.Rain
gaugesare usually equippedwith shieldsto reducethe effect of wind.3Snow boards
are about 16 in. square,laid on the snow so that new snowfall which accumulates
betweenobservationperiodswill be found abovethem. Care must be taken to assure
that adversewind effectsor other conditionsdo not producean erroneoussampleat
the gauginglocation.Snow stakesare calibratedwoodenpostsdriven into the ground
for periodic observationof the snowdepthor insertedinto the snowpackto determine
its depth.
Direct measurementsof snow depth at a single station are generally not very
useful in making estimatesof the distributon over large areas,since the measured
depth may be highly unrepresentativebecauseof drifting or blowing. To circumvent
this problem, snow-surveyingprocedureshavebeendeveloped.Suchsurveysprovide
information on the snowdepth,waterequivalent,density,and quality at variouspoints
along a snow course.All thesemeasuresare of direct use to a hydrologist.
The water equivalentis the depth of water that would weigh the sameamount
as that of the sample.In this way snow can be describedin terms of inchesof water.
Density is the percentageof snow volume that would be occupied by its water
equivalent.The quality ofthe snow relatesto the ice contentofthe snowpackand is
expressedas a decimal fraction. It is the ratio of the weight of the ice contentto the
total weight. Snow quality is usually about0.95 exceptduring periodsof rapid melt,
when it may drop to 0.70-0.80 or less.The thermal quality of snow,Q,, is the ratio
of heatrequiredto producea particular amountof waterfrom the snow,to the quantity
ANDAREAL
14.4 POINT SNOW 269
CHABACTERISTICS
of heatneededto producethe sameamountof melt from pure ice at 32"F.Valuesof
Q,may exceed100 percent at subfreezingtemperatures.The densityof dry snow is
approximately10 percentbut thereis considerablevariability betweensamples.With
grPater.
- - the densityof snow increasesto valueson the order of 50 percentor
aging,
A snowcourseincludesa seriesof samplinglocations,normally not fewer than
10 in number.ttThe variousstationsare spacedabout50- 100ft apartin a geometric
pattern designedin advance.Points are permanentlymarked so that the sameloca-
tions will be surveyedeachyear-very important if snow coursememorandaare to
be correlatedwith areal snowcoverand depth, expectedrunoff potential, or other
significantfactors.Survey dataareobtaineddirectly by forestersand others,by aerial
photographsand observations,and by automatic recording stations that telemeter
information to a central processinglocation.
In the westernUnited Statesthe Soil ConservationServicecoordinatesmany
snow surveys.Various states,federal agencies,and private enterprisesare also en-
gagedin this type of activity. Sourcesof snowsurvey dataaresummarizedin Ref. 14.
14.4 POINTANDAREALSNOWCHARACTERISTICS
The estimationof areal snow depth and water equivalentfrom point measurement
data is highly important in hydrologicforecasting.
where D
t b
--
the basin precipitation
P o : the observedprecipitation at a point or group of stations
N t : the annual precipitation for the basin
N o : the normal annualprecipitation for the control station or stations
27O CHAPTER14 SNOW HYDROLOGY
Areal Snowcover
Estimatesof the areal distribution of snowfall are very helpful in making hydrologic
forecasts.A knowledgeof actualarealextentof snowcoveron the groundat any given
time is also*applied in hydrograph synthesisand in making seasonalvolumetric
forecastsofthe runoff. Observationsof snowcoverare generallyobtainedby ground
and air reconnaissanceand photography.Between snowcoversurveys,approxima-
tions of the extentof the snowcoverare basedon availablehydrometeorologicaldata.
Snowcoverdepletionpatternswithin a given basin are normally relatively uniform
from yearto year; thus snowcoverindexescan often be developedfrom data gathered
at a few representativestations.
14.5 THE SNOWMELTPROCESS 27'I
PROCESS
14.5 THE SNOWMELT
The snowmeltprocessconvertsice content into water within the snowpack.Rates
differ widely due to variationsin causativefactorsto be discussedlater. Thesediver-
genciesare not as strikingly apparentwhen consideringdrainagefrom the snowpack,
however,since the pack itself tends to filter out thesenon-uniformities so that the
drainageexhibits a more consistentrate.
EnergySourcesfor Snowmelt
The heatnecessaryto inducesnowmeltis derivedfrom short-andlong-waveradiation,
condensationofvapor, convection,air and groundconduction,and rainfall. The most
important ofthese sourcesare convection,vapor condensation,and radiation. Rain-
fall ranks aboutfourth in importancewhile conductionis usually a negligiblesource.
EnergyBudgetConsiderations
If snowmeltis consideredas a heat transferprocess,an energybudgetequationcan
be written to determinethe heatequivalentof the snowmelt.Suchan equationis of the
form2
H^: H,r + H," + H" + H" + Hs + He + Hq (14.3)
w
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Net heat flux to snow pack, f(langleys)
EXAMPLE 14.1
Given a snowpackwith thermal quality of 0.90, determinethe snowmeltin inchesif
the total input is 137 langleys.
Solution. UseEq. 14.4
M: H^/203.2Q,
M : r37/203.2 x 0.90
M : 0.75in. rl
Turbulent Exchange
The quantity of heat transferredto a snowpackby convectionand condensationis
commonlydeterminedfrom turbulentexchangeequations.Suchan approachhasbeen
widely used,sincemeasurements of temperatureand vapor pressuremustbe madein
the turbulent zonewherevertical watervapor, temperature,and wind velocity gradi-
ents are controlled by the action of eddies.In the following two subsectionsseveral
practical equationsfor estimatingcondensationand convectionmelt are given. Here
a combinedtheoreticalequationis presentedto acquaintthe readerwith the theory of
turbulent exchange.
The basic turbulent exchangeequationcan be written'
o : Adz4 ( 14.s )
e : the property
z : lhe elevation
A: an exchangecoefficient
q : qtz\/" (r4.7)
The magnitude of q is takenasthe differencein valuesof 4 measuredat the level
z and the snow surface.For example,if T : 38'F at height z, and temperatureis the
property of interest,then q: (38 - 32) : 6"p. The gradient of the property dqldz
can be obtainedby differentiatingEq. 14.7:
o : AIL)zo-d/" (r4.e)
n: o,(T) (r4.r2)
n: (!")rr,zu)-'/nq.ou (r4.r7)
)-'/^(9J4:),
n" : (I)u"z "u, (r4.re)
* : (#)(l)r,",,r',(o1),,r", (14.24)
Equations I4.2I and 14.24 can be^ combined into a single convection-
condensationmelt M"" equationof the form'
Convection
Heat for snowmeltis transferredfrom the atmosphereto the snowpackby convection.
The amountof snowmeltby this processis relatedto temperatureand wind velocity.
The following equationcan be usedto estimatethe 6-hr depth of snowmeltin inches
by convection:2O
D: KV(T - 32) (r4.27)
where V : the mean wind velocity (mph)
Z - the air temperature('F)
On the basisof the theory of air turbulenceand heat transfer (turbulent exchange),a
, theoreticalvaluefor the exchangecoefficientK of 0.00184 X 10-0'0000156'has been
given by Light.le In this relation h, the elevationin feet, is usedto reflect the change
in barometric pressuredue to the difference in altitude. The expressionis said to
representconditions for an open, level snowfieldwhere measurementsof wind and
temperatureare madeat heightsof 50 and 10 ft, respectively,abovethe snow.Values
of the exprtssion10-00000156' vary from 1.0 at sea level to 0.70 at 10,000ft of
elevation.The actual valuesof K are normally lessthan the theoreticalflgure due to
such factors as forest cover. Empirical 6-hr K values have been reported in the
literature.20
due to
Anderson and Crawfordls give an expressionfor the houily sno.wmelt
convectionas
cv(T"_ 32)
M _ 04.28)
Q,
14,5 THESNOWMELT
PROCESS 277
where M : the hourly melt (in.)
V : the wind velocity (mi/hr)
To : the surfaceair temperature('F)
Q, : the snowquality
c: a turbulent exchangecoefficientdeterminedempirically
Temperaturemeasurements are at 4 ft, with wind gaugedat 15 ft. The corresponding
valueof c is reportedas 0.0002.
Condensation
snow.A total yield of around 8.5 in. of snowmeltincluding the condensateis thus
derived.
A water vapor supply at the snow surfaceis formed by the turbulent exchange
process;cons€quently,a masstransferequationsimilar to thosepresentedfor evapo-
ration studiesfits the melt process.An equationfor hourly snowmeltfrom condensa-
tion takesthe formrs
u : W n { r " 6- . 1 1 ) (14.2e)
- kV(e"
' "
- e,)
p -
(14.3r)
Q,
where E : the hourly evaporationin inches
es : the saturationvapor pressureover the snow
k : an empirical constant
278 14 SNOWHYDROLOGY
CHAPTER
Also, V, eo,andQ,areasdefinedbefore.lsIntheexpressionk : 0.0001,temperature
and wind measurements are taken as for Eq. 14.30, and the temperature of the air is
assumed equal to that of the snow surface for temperatures below 32oF.
RadiationMelt
The net amount of short- and long-waveradiation receivedby a snowpackcan be a
very important source of heat energy for snowmelt. Under clear skies, the most
significantvariablesin radiationmelt are insolation,reflectivity or albedoof the snow,
and air temperature.Humidity effects, while existent, are usually not important.
When cloud cover exists,striking changesin the amount of radiation from an open
snowfield are in evidence.The general nature of these effects is illustrated in
Fig. 14.3.2Combinedshort- and long-waveradiation exchangeas a function of cloud
height and coveris represented.Radiationmelt is shownto be more significantin the
spring than in the winter. It should also be noted that winter radiation melt tendsto
increasewith cloudcoveranddecreasingcloudheightasa resultof the more dominant
role playedby long-waveradiation during that period.
Forest canopiesalso exhibit important characteristicsin regulating radiative
heatexchange.Theseeffectsdiffer somewhatfrom thoseexhibitedby the cloudcover,
especiallywhereshort-waveradiation is concerned.Cloudsand treesboth limit inso-
lation, but cloudsarevery reflective,while a largeamountof the interceptedinsolation
is absorbedby the forest.Consequently,the forestis warmedand part of the incident
energydirectly transferredto snow irl the form of long-waveradiation; an additional
fraction is transferredindirectly by air also heatedby the forest.
Figure 14.4illustratessomeeffectsof forestcanopyon radiation snowmelt.The
figure typifies averageconditions for a coniferouscover in the middle latitudes.2In
winter, the maximum radiation melt is associatedwith completeforest cover, and in
spring the greatestradiation melt occursin the open. Generalizationsshouldnot be
drawn from thesecurves,which indicaterelative seasonaleffects of forest cover on
radiation melt for the conditionsdescribed.Another factor affectingradiation melt is
the land slopeand its aspect(orientation).Radiationreceivedby north-facingslopes
is lessthan that for south-exposureinclinesin the northern hemisphere,for example.
Solar energy provides an important sourceof heat for snowmelt. Above the
earth's atmosphere,the thermal equivalentof solarradiation normal to the radiation
path is 1.97 lingleys/min (1 langleyis approximately3.97 x 10-3 Btu/cm2).The
actual amount of radiation reachingthe snowpackis modified by many factorssuch
asthe degreeofcloudiness,topography,and vegetalcover.The importanceofvegetal
cover in influencingsnowmelt,long recognized,has promptedmany forest manage-
ment schemesto regulatesnowmelt.t'to'"''o
Two basic'lawsare applicableto radiation.Planck'slaw statesthat the temper-
ature of a blackbodyis relatedto the spectraldistribution of energythat it radiates.
Integrationof Planck's law for all wavelengthsproducesStefan'slaw,
Ro: cT' (r4.32)
where R, : the total radiation
o : Stefan'sconstant[0.813 x 10-10langley/(min-K-')]
T : the temperature(K)
14.5 THE SNOWMELTPROCESS
crurar,.ier,iiTth
Amount ofclouds, N
(a)
J"*qv;
o u.u 4.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 l.t
Amount ofclouds, N
(b)
t
t
I
I
r.)
^ r _ -t "n"n t : t
lr I
> 10
\
.= rt \
M,= M^ Mrt
. -4
\M, (r 'F))- 3.30
=3.821F+ .7s7
-o.5
0.0 0.2 0.4 .' 0.6 1.0
Forestcanopycover,F
(a)
(l)
0.5
,*^=l,r*
H o.o
Mf Mr, + Mr1 I
'--1 4
-0.5 4
-1.0
1- Mrt ? 'qTF r -n - 3.30
7s7Q.
Rainfall
Heat derivedfrom rainfall is generallysmall, sinceduring thoseperiodswhenrainfall
occurson a snowpack,the temperatureof the rain is probablyquite low. Nevertheless,
at highertemperatures,rainfall may constitutea significantheat source;it affectsthe
aging processof the snow and ffequently is very important in this respect. An
equationfor hourly snowmeltfrom rainfall isrs
(14.3s)
Conduction
Major sourcesof heatenergyto the snowpackare radiation, convection,and conden-
sation. Under usual conditions, the reliable determinationof hourly or daily melt
quantitiescanbe foundedon theseheatsourcesplus rainfall ifit occurs.An additional
sourceof heat,negligiblein daily melt computationsbut perhapssignificantover an
entire melt season,is ground conduction.
Ground conductionmelt is the result of upward transferof heatfrom ground to
snowpackdue to thermal energythat was storedin the ground during the preceding
summerand earlyfall. This heatsourcecanproducemeltwaterduringwinter and eady
springperiods when snowmeltat the surfacedoesnot normally occur. Heat transfer
by ground conductioncan be expressedby the relation2
dT
Hn: K-- (14.37)
EXAMPLE 14.2
During a completelycloudy April period of l2hr, the following averagesexistedfor
a ripe snowpacklocated at 10,000 ft above sea lel'el at a latitude of 44" N: air
temperature50' F; mean wind velocity, 10 mph; relative humidity, 65Vo;avenge
rainfall intensity,0.03 in./hr for I2hr; wet bulb psychrometerreading,48oF. Estimate
the snowmeltin in. of water for convection,condensation,radiation, and warm rain
for the 12 hr period.
April 23 Apnl24 Aprii 25
1600 2000 2400 0400 0800 1200 1600 2000 2400 0400 0800 1200
100 --- Short-waveradiation
- Long-wave radiation lt
80
ffi Incident short-wave radiation Incident short-wave radiation (t)
ii l,-
nm Reflected shon-wave
9 6 0 raoanon
Eo Downwad long-wave radiation (R2)
F G Absorbedshort-wave
<2 * radiation
40
H . n
E z v
o i l
t s -
-20
_40 naiatipntn)
=
o J.bwaa]one-wa1e
Reflected shofr wave radiation (1,)
E
E o.o4
- On?
.,
6
E 0.02
(Each bs reDresents mem value
E o.ot
0
1700-1800hr 2400*0100hr' 0900-1000Itr
no condensation - no convgctiotr or - no condensation
0.01
meltllcondensationmeltmelt
t t t t l
E Radiation melt (Mr)
0.25 Convrction condensation
6
mett (Mce) Total Snow Melt (M)
--- Radiationmelt total ud Runoff (O)
0.20 (Hourlyconvection-cotrde$ationmeltis
addedto of subtacbdftom totalhouly
radiationmeltto arnveattotalhouly
computed melt)
0.15
I Totalcomputedmelt
Computedmelt (net for
period0900- 1800hr =
E 0.10 l22ir-022in = I 00 in.)
o
n
_o*
0
Solution
a. Convectionmelt, 6 hr
D:KV(r-32)
D : 2 x 0 . 7x 0 . 0 0 1 8x4 1 0x ( 5 0 - 3 2 ) : 0 . 5 0 i n . (14.27)
melt,6 hr
b. Condensation
D:KrV(e"-6.11)
D : 2 x 0 . 0 0 5 7 8x 1 0 x ( 1 2 . 1 9x 0 . 6 5- 6 . 1 1 )
: 0.21in. (14.30)
. Radiation melt, 12 hr
Dn: D o ( 1- 0 ' 7 5m )
D r 2: 0 ' 4 2 x ( 1 - 0 . 7 5x 1 ) : 0 ' 1 1 (r4.34)
d. Rainfall melt. hourly
M : P(r-'- 32)lt44Q,
14 : 10.03x 12 x (48 - 32)l/(144 x 0.97) : s.64 ( 14.3s )
RUNOFFDETERMINATIONS
14.6 SNOWMELT
Variousapproachesto runoff determinationfrom snowmelthavebeenfollowed.They
rangefrom relatively simplecorrelation analysesthat completelyignore the physical
snowmeltprocessto relatively sophisticatedmethodsusing physicalequations.Most
techniquescan be consideredas basedon degree-daycorrelations,analysesofreces-
sion curves, correlation analyses,physical equations,or various indexes.Each is
discussedin turn.
SnowpackCondition
The mannerin which runoff from eitherrainfall or snowmeltis affectedby conditions
prevalentwithin the snowpackis of primary interestto a hydrologist.Variousviewson
storagecharacteristicsof a snowpackhave been advanced.These range from the
14.6 SNOWMELTRUNOFFDETERMINATIONS 285
whereI is the rainfall intensity(in./hr) andm is the rate of melt (in'/hr)' Storage
requiredto meet the liquid water deficit of the snowpackis given by
tr:#(%+w.) (14.40)
O:% (r4.4s)
P'
Then
with p" the densityof the snowpack.
wo (r4.46)
t'-
nv
the total waterS storedin the snowpack,in
Beforethe runoff commences,
inches,is givenby
S:W"+++S, (r4.47)
which can also be written
/ r t
t = * ( 1 f t + f i d i. +" mr ,\ r ) (14.48)
33
End rain
31
-: 30
'*2
= ) Q
6 - '
E
.Z te
d
o
- 2 6
24
23 66 72 78
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
Time(br)
duringrainfall'
Figure 14.6 Waterbalancein a snowpack
EXAMPLE 14.3
A core sampleof a snowpackproducesthe following information: air temperature,
10 ft;
68"F; relative humidity, 2b percent; snowpackdensity,0'2; snowpackdepth'
snowpacktemperature,22"F.
Indexes
Hydrologic indexesare made up of hydrologicor meteorologicvariablesto describe
their functioning. The index variable is more easily measuredor handier than the
elementit represents.When mean fixed relations are known to exist betweenpoint
measurementsand watershedvalues,indexescan be used to record both areal and
temporal aspectsof basin values. Indexes serve to permit (1) readily obtainable
observationsto depict hydrologicvariablesor processeswhich themselvescannotbe
easily measured,and (2) simplificationof computationalmethodsby allowing indi-
vidual observationsor groupsof observationsto replacewatershedvaluesin time and
space.The adequacyof an index is basedon (1) the ability ofthe index to describe
adequatelythe physicalprocessit represents , (2) the randomvariability of the obser-
vation, (3) the degree to which the point observation is typical of actual conditions,
and (4) the nature of variability beiween the point measurement and basin means.2
Indexesmay be equationsor simplecoefficients,and variable or constant.
The types of data requiredto make comprehensivethermal budgetstudiesare
normally unavailablein wh^ole or part for wut"tJh"dt otherthan experimentalones.As
a result, a hydrologistmust make the best use of information at hand. The most
commonly availabledata aredaily maximum and minimum temperatures,humidity,
and wind velocity.Lessprevalentare continuousmeasurements of thesedata, andfew
stationsrecord solarradiation or the durationof sunshine.Hourly cloudinessdatacan
sometimesbe obtainedfrom local airport weatherstations.
A completelygeneralindex for reliably describingsnowmelt-runoff relations
for all basinshasnot beenestablished.Most indexesincludecoefficientsvalid only for
specifictopographic,meteorologic,hydrologic,and seasonalconditionsand arethere-
fore limitedlnipplicability to other watersheds.Table 14.1 shows some types of
indexesthat havebeen used successfullyin snowmeltinvestigations.
THERMAL
USEDTODESCRIBE
TABLE14,1 SOMEINDEXES VARIABLES
BUDGET
Thermalbudgetcomponent Index
Y:a+>b$t ( 14.s1)
1Z-L
Ma= toTf,- oT!) {referto
n:{-r'1 ,,
Kelvin scale)
= 604x lA-1274-3.355
Long-wave radiation
'cE n /
-v.+
melt in open
o 1L O
Ma= zoittlpl rcrf,-orlt
= 604x IO-12 Tx- 3.355
= o.o29(Ta_ 32)
(refer to Fahrenheit
scale)
r l t l
M, = long-waveradiationmelt, in./day
P = ftee water content of snow
-r.o (taken as 0.03 in this case)
rA = absolute air temperature, K
?s = absolute snow surface temp = 273K
-2.0 o = stefm's constant
= 0.813 x 10. lolmgley/min-K-a
Io = mean daily air temperatue, F
1 A
10 20 30 40 50 60
Meanair temperature,
Zo("F)
1 n
/
Z
z}
ts "r_"n
.C .l
E U.6 ri
a
,/
\C
"y-x
Mean ru noff 0.59
5 0.6
,/,
0.4
aa,
'24. / a o
0.2 a .
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
runoff(in.)
Estimated
Figure 14.8 Observedversusestimatedrunoff for (X)
1954 and (O) 1955. RO = the daily generatedsnowmelt
runoff (in.) depth over a snow-coveredarea; G : the
daily net all-waveradiation absorbedby snow in the open
(langleys); 7-u* : the daily maximum temperature for
Boise ("F); r = the coefficient of correlation; D : the
coefficient of determination;S, = the standarddeviation
of observedrunoff (in.); Sr-, : the standarderror of the
stimated runoff (in.). (After U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers.2)
devekipedby the Corps of Engineers2for the partly forestedBoiseRiver basin above
Twin Springs,Idaho, was
* - 77)
Q : 0.00238G+ 0.0245(T^ (r4.s2)
where Q = the daily snowmeltrunoff (in.) over the snow-coveredarea
G = an estimatedvalue of the daily all-waveradiation exchangein the
open (langleys)
ZLu, : the daily maximum temperatureat Boise (T)
The equationis said to predict the daily snowmeltrunoff valueswithin 0.11 in. of
observedvalues about 67 percent of the time. Figure 14.8 illustrates this relation.
In attemptingto developsuitableindexesfor snowmelt,a hydrologistshouldseek
the approachmost closely resemblingthe thermal budget of the area, within the
limitations of availabledata.
14.6 SNOWMELT
RUNOFFDETERMINATIONS 291
TemperatureIndexes
The atmospherictemperatureis an extremelyusefulparameterin snowmeltdetermi-
nation. It reflectsthe extentof radiation and the vapor pressureof the air; it is also
sensitiveto air motion. Frequently,it is the only adequatemeteorologicvariable
regulady on hand, so widespreaduse has been made of degree-dayrelations in
snowmeltcomputations. I
A degreeday is defrnedas a deviation of 1ofrom a given datum temperature
consistentlyover a 24-hr period. In snowmeltcomputations,the referencetempera-
ture is usually 32"F. rf the mean daily temperatureis 43oF, for example,this is
equivalentto 11 degreedays above 32'F.If the temperaturedoes not drop below
freezingduring the24-hr period, there will be24 degreehr for eachdegreedeparture
above32'F. In this examplethere would be 264 degreehr for the day of observation.
Variouswaysof estimatingthe meantemperaturehaveenabledinvestigatorsto
take severalapproaches. one methodis simplyto averagethe maximumandminimum
daily temperatures.Basesother than 32"F are also used.Regardlessof the particular
attackemployed,a degreehour or degreeday is an index to the amountof heatpresent
for snowmeltor other purposesand has proved useful in point-snowmeltand runoff
from snowmeltdeterminations.
The standardpracticein developingsnowmeltrelationson the basisof temper-
ature is to correlatedegreedaysor degreehours with the snowmeltor basin runoff.
In somecases,other factorsare introducedto defineforest covereffectsand/or other
influences.Another approachoften usedis to calculatea degree-dayfactor-the ratio
of runoff or snowmeltto accumulateddegreedaysthat producedthe runoff or melt.
2.8
1 A
; 1 A
o
B
6 r-z
34 38 42 46 50 s4 58 62 66
Mean daily temperature,Z('F)
Figure 14.9 Mean temperature index. The equations are applica-
ble only for the range of temperatures shown in the diagram. (After
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.2)
292 CHAPTER14 SNOW HYDROLOGY
GeneralizedBasinSnowmeltEquations
Extensivestudiesby the U.S. Army Corps of Engineersat variouslaboratoriesin the
West have produced several general equationsfor snowmelt during (1) rain-free
periods and(2) periodsof rain.2aWhen rain is falling, heattransferby convectionand
condensationis of prime importance.Solarradiationis slight, andlong-waveradiation
can readily be determinedfrom theoretical considerations.When rain-free periods
prevail,both solarand terrestrialradiationbecomesignificantand may require direct
evaluation. Convection and condensationare usually less critical during rainless
intervals.The equationsare summarizedas follows:2
1. Equationsfor periodswith rainfall.
a. For open (coverbelow 10 percent)or partly forested(coverfrom 10 to
60 percent)watersheds,
M : (0.029+ 0.0084fto+ 0.007P)(7"- 32) + 0.09 (14.s3)
b. For heavilyforestedareas(over80 percentcover),
M : (0.074 + 0.007P,)(7.- 32) + 0.0s (14.54)
where M : the daily snowmelt(in./daY)
P , : the rainfall intensity (in./day)
T o : the temperatureof saturatedair at 10-ft level ("F)
the averagewind velocity at 50-ft level (mph)
^t . -- the basin constant,which includesforest and topographic
effects,and representsaverageexposureof the areato
wind. Valuesof k decreasefrom about 1.0 for clear
plains areasto about 0.2 for denseforests
,,
Equationsfor rain-free periods.
a. For heavyforestedareas,
, M:0'074(0.537'"+ O.47fi) (14.ss)
b. For forestedareas(coverof 60-80 percent),
M : k(0.0084u)(0'22r'"
+ 0.7870+ 0.0297" (14'56)
c. For partly forestedareas,
M : k'(I - rx0.00401,)(l- a)
+ 0.78r) + F(0'029r)
+ k(0.0084o)(0.227'" Q4.57)
)
14.6 SNOWMELT
RUNOFF
DETERMINATIONS
293
d. For open areas,
M : k'(0.00s084)(1- a) + (1 -'N)(0.0zIzT: - 0.84)
+ N(0.02gr') + k(0.00Sao)Q.227'"+ 0.78Ti) (14.58)
where M, a, k : as previouslydescribed
T'" : the difference betweenthe t0-ft air and the snow
surface("F) temperatures
T'o: the difference between the 10-ft dew-point and
snow-surfacetemperatures('F)
I, : the observedor estimatedinsolation (langleys)
a : the observedor estimatedmeansnowsurfacealbedo
k' : the basin short-waveradiation melt factor (varies
, from 0.9 to 1.1),which is relatedto mean
exposureof open areascomparedto an unshielded
horizontal surface
F : the mean basin forest-canopy cover (decimal
fraction)
Ti = the difference between the cloud-base and
snow-surf,aceternperatures(oF)
N : the estimatedcloud cover (decimalfraction)
Note that the use of equationsof the type given must be related to the areal
extent of the snowcoverif realistic values are to be obtained. Presentmethods of
determiningthis are not totally adequate.
EXAMPLE 14.4
Solution
whereWr,Wr:thefinalandinitialwaterequivalentsofthesnowpack'
resPectivelY
Qr : the ground and channelstorage
Inserting uilo"r for p, L, and AS from Eqs. 14.62-14.64 in Eq. 14.59 gives
- L" - Q"^ - (W, - Wt) - Q,
R : P,n + L,i + P", + L"i - L"i - L,i
(14.65)
and cancelingpositive and negativevaluesof L,i and lr; produces I
- Q, - L"
R = P,n+ P", - (W, - Wt) - Q,- (14.66)
1
)
14.6 SNOWMELTRUNOFFDETERMINATIONS 295
4-')
Curv e A
.MC / -<
1\MC
o (2)
6 J U ,SP&
(4)
o
625
PPR 6,
F PPM RF
B ^ ^
o z v
o tr
,%?r
o ,/, -Curv B (1)
FQ 1<
c /rt WFM
tr
RF
ro l 0 :l
WFM
a
h 5
./
-10
0 l0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Canopydensity(%)
Figure 14.10 Snowfall interception loss. (After U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers.2)
Elevation-BandProcedure
Runoff from snowmelton a watershedcan be estimatedfrom calculationsof excess
watermadeavailtble on a seriesof contributingareas(bands)at variouselevationsin
the watershed.The practiceis as follows: divide the watershedinto severalsubareas
or bands;estimatethe quantity of snowmelt,rainfall, and lossesgeneratedon each
band during a prescribedinterval of time; and usethe weightedsum of thesecontri-
butionsto provide an estimateof the excesswateravailablefor runoff. For eachband,
it is assumedthat snowmelt, rainfall, and lossesare uniform over the band. The
subareasare consideredto be either snow-coveredor snow-freeand melting or not
296 CHAPTER14 SNOW HYDROLOGY
) tte + Mt - Lt)jAt
M _ (14.68)
)a,
whereM : snowmelt water availablefor runoff (cmlday), Pr is the rainfall on the
'band,
M, is the snowmeltfrom the band, I, is the subarealoss,A, is the size of the
subarea,and n is the total number of bands.
EXAMPLE 14.5
Given the data in columns 1-5 of Table I4.2, estimatethe amount of excesswater
availablefor runoff from the watershedusingthe elevation-bandmethod(Eq. 14.68).
14,5
TABLE14.2 DATAFOREXAMPLE
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Solution. The solution for the numeratoris the sum bf the productsgiven in
column 7 of spreadsheet Table 14.2;the solutionfor the denominatoris the sum
of the subareassiven in column 2 of the table.
The excess-water availabiefor runoff : 3269.6511316: 2.5I cmlday'
II
HydrographRecessions
Recessioncurveshavebeen discussedin Chapter 11 and take the generalform
Q: Qoe-o' (r4.6e)
'
where Q : the dischargeat time t
Qo : the initial rate of flow
, : - k:__afecessionconstant
14.6 SNOWMELTRUNOFFDETERMINATIONS 297
o
u
€
Time
of a snowmelthydrograph'
Figure 14.11 Separation
runoff
Studiesof daily streamflowby hydrographspermit evaluationof the amountof
one of separation of the
derived from snowmelt.The t""hniqutnred is essentially
illustrates the proce-
daily hydrographs.Figure 14.11(not to scaleandoversimplified)
dure. Assumeihat the first, second,and succeedingpeaks,respectively,fit snowmdlt
point A the
days.If the ultimate recessioncurve is extendedbackwardin time, at a
area between recessions from
recessioncurveft'om Hydrograph2 will intersectit. The
is the melt attributed to Day
Hydrograph1 and HydiogtipiZ (showncross-hatched)
be studied to determine their
1. In like -unn"r, a seriesofsnowmelt hydrographscan
to
individual melt components.By observingsuchhydrographfeaturesas th€ height
peak X, the height io trough i, andthe form of the recession, volumetric and rate
of this
forecastsof snowmeltrunoff can be made.A more comprehensivetreatment
subjectcan be found in Ref. 25.
HydrographSYnthesis
The
synthesesofrunoffhydrographsassociatedwith snowhydrologyareoftwo-types'
first is a short-termforecist. The second kind is the development of flow distribution
for a comPletemelt seasonor a '
forecastingis very helpful in prel
controls,while the synthesisof part
lating designfloods. To forecasta
snowfieldand streamflowneedbe k
parameters
ing, it is necessaryto havethe reliablepredictionof variousmeteorological
initial conditions.Known historic parameters canbe
in additionto a knowledgeof the
flows whereas assumed or generated parameters sat-
usedfor reconstructinghistoric
isfy designflood syntlieses. Figure 14.12 displays some common hydrometeorologic
data.
In snowmelthydrographsyntheses,severalfactors(not of great conceln where
snow-
only rainfall exists)mustbe "utlfully considered.First, a drainagebasin with
as a homogeneous system, since the areal extent of the
cover cannot be accepted
298 CHAPTER14 SNOW HYDROLOGY
6
5 ^
! 9 >
> v
B 5
(h
Short-waveradiationngtesj.^,-- .- AbsorbedShort-wavefadiation
i hsolation obsened by USWB. of Boise Cily' lD U
2. Basin albedo of snow surface ^ - - = ,
| o
L Absorbed shon-wa\e ralialion compukd b) lomula 1ab. ll(
9.1 '
H 9
a t 6
o
-8
30 a
0.5 120
lrn
u 4 0.4
9 b 0.3
gB
q d 0.2
g >
7 E
0 1 0 2 0 31 10 20
MaY1955 June1955
Figurel4.l2Hydrometeorologicdataandcomputationofwatergenerated.
(AfterU.S.Army Corpsof Engineers.')
the contribut-
blanket is highly important. where only snowmeltflows are developed,
If rainfall
ing areaneel not U"itr" entiredrainage-only that portion with-snowcover'
from bare areas while
o"-"o., during the snowcoverperiod, contributionscan come
losses in such cases may
other expansesmay producecombinedrunoff' The natureof
differ greatly for nonsnowoverlayedand coveredlocations'
sub-
The altitude is an exceedinglypertinent factor in the hydrology of tracts
jected to snowfall.Ratesof .no*tnitid"crease with elevation due to a general reduc-
tion in temperaturewith height. orographic effects and the temperature-elevation
snowcover
relations tend to raise the amount of precipitation with altitude' Greater
melt rates' As a result'
depth occursbecauseof increasedprecipitation and reduced
as the snowline is ap-
the basin-wide melt and cover-area increase with height
14.6 SNOWMELTRUNOFFDETERMINATIONS 299
proached,then diminish with elevationover the higher placesnormally completely
snowcovereduntil late in the season.A snowpackexhibitsanotherimportant trait in
relation to rainstorms.In the spring, relatively little runoff occurs from snow-free
regionscomparedwith that from a snowfieldfor moderaterainfalls. During very cold
weather,the situationduring heavyrains is often reversed,sincea dry snowpackcan
retain significantamountsof water.
Two basic approachesintroduce elevation effects into procedures for hy-
drographsynthesis.2 The first dividesthe basin into a seriesof elevationzoneswheie
the snowdepth,precipitationlosses,and melt are assumeduniform. A secondmethod
considersthe watershedas a unit, so adjustmentsare made to accountfor the areal
extentof the snowcover,varying melt rates,precipitation, and other factors.
To synthesizea snowmelthydrograph,information on the precipitation losses,
snowmelt, and time distribution of the runoff are needed.Snowmelt is generally
estimatedby index methodsfor forecasting,but in design flood synthesisthe heat
budget approach,is the most used. Precipitation is determinedfrom gaugingsand
historicor generateddata.Lossesare definid in two wayswheresnowmeltis involved.
For rain-on-snowhydrographsall the water is considereda lossif delayedvery long
in reaching a stream. This is basically the concept of direct runoff employed in
rainstormhydrographanalysis.For hydrographsderivedprincipally from snowmelt,
only that part of the waterwhich becomesevapotranspiration,or deeppercolation,or
permanentlyretained in the snowpackis consideredto be lost. Assessingthe time
distribution of runoff from snow-coveredareasis commonly done with unit hydro-
graphsor storagerouting techniques.For rain-on-snow events,normal rainfall-type
unit hydrographsare applied;for the distribution of strictly snowmeltexcess,special
long-tailedunit graphsare employed.Storagerouting techniquesare widely exeicised
to synthesizespring snowmelthydrographs,perhapsdividing them into severalcom-
ponentsand different representativestoragetimes.
The time distribution of snowmehrunoff differs from that of rainstormsdue
mainly to large contrastsin the ratesof runoff generation.For flood flows associated
with rainfall only, direct runoff is the prime concern,and time distribution of base
flow is only approximated.Big errorsin estimatesof baseflow arenot generallyof any
practical significance where major rainstorm floods occur. In rainstorm flows,
infiltrated water is treated as part of the base flow component and little effort is
directedtoward determiningits time distribution when it appearsas runoff. In using
the unirhydrograph approachto estimatesnowmelthydrographs,it is customaryto
separatethe surfaceand subsurfacecomponentsand route them independently.
Storagerouting has beenusedextensivelyfor routing floodsthrough reservoirs
or river reaches.It is also applicablein preparingrunoff hydrographs.In snowmelt
runoff estimates,the rainfall and meltwaterare treatedasinputs to be routedthrough
the basin, using storagetimes selectedfrom the hydrologic characteristicsof the
watershed.Two basichydrologicrouting approachesare relatedto the assumptionof
( 1) reservoir-typestorageor (2) storagethat is a function of inflow and outflow.These
methodswere treatedin depthin Chapter13.
Storagerouting techniquesthat separaterunoff into surfaceand groundwater
components,assigndifferent empirically derivedstoragetimesto each,and thenroute
them separatelyhavebeen employed.26 An additional systemusesa multiple storage,
300 CHAPTER14 SNOW HYDROLOGY
120
,: Rn
o 6 U
il
Time (hr)
storagerouting'
Figure 14.13 Example of multiple-stagereservoir-type
reservoir-type storagerout-
iti. ngur" illustratesih" ut" of multiple-storage
runoff in u ttrunn". analogousto unit
ing for"evaluatingtime distribution of
tiOrog.uptr. (Af1erU.S. Army Corps of Engineers'2)
;?ilt1,"1*T,::t1il1""t"1':*"ff
rydiographmethodin adjustingfor nonuni-
form generationrates of water excess'
Onceap"r""nrug"S-hyatogtupftisderived'aunithydrographofanydesired are
of the S-hydrograph
periodcanbe obtaineias indlcatedm nig. 14.15.ordinates
312 15 URBAN
CHAPTER HYDROLOGY
ANDSMALLWATERSHED
Both categoriesof peakflow determinationhavehad wide application;however,
two relatively major difficulties are normally encounteredin applyingthe techniques.
First, the rainfall-runoff formulas,suchas the rational formula, aie difficult to apply
unless the return periods for rainfall and runoff are assumedto be equal. Also,
estimatesof coefficientsrequiredby theseformulas are subjectiveand havereceived
considerablecriticism. The empiric and correlativemethodsare limited in application
becausethey are derivedfrom localizeddata and are not valid when extrapolatedto
otherregions.
The most fundamentalpeak flow formulas and empiric-correlativQmethods,
ilue to their simplicity,persistin dominatingthe urban designscene,and severalof the
most popular forms are briefly describedto acquaintthe reader with methodsand
assu-ption*. Urban runoff simulationtechniquesare describedin Chapter25.
RationalFormula
The rational formula for estimatingpeak runoff rates was introducedin the United
Statesby Emil Kuichlingin 1889.18 Sincethen it has becomethe most widely used
method for designingdrainagefacilities for small urban and rural watersheds.Peak
flow is found from
QO: CIA (1s.1)
where Qo: the peak runoff rate (cfs)
C _ the runoff coefficient(assumedto be dimensionless)
I _ theaveragerainfall intensity(in./hr), for a stormwith a durationequal
to a critical period of time /"
t" : the time of concentration(seeChapter Ii)
A : the size of the drainagearea (acres)
cI : the averagenet rain intensity (in./hr) for a storm with duratiofl: t,
The runoff coefficientcan be assumedto be dimensionlessbecause1.0 acre-in./hr is
equivalentto 1.008 ft3lsec.Typical C valuesfor stormsof 5-10-year return periods
are providedin Table 15.1.
The rationale for the method lies in the conceptthat application of a steady,
uniform rainfall intensity will causerunoff to reachits maximum rate when all parts
of the watershedare contributingto the outflow at the point of design.That condition
is met after the elapsedtime t", the time of concentration,which usually is taken as
the time for a waveto flow from the most remotepart of the watershed.At this time,
the runoff rate matchesthe net rain rate.
Figure 15.1 graphically illustrates the relation. The IDF curve is the rainfall
intensity-duration-frequencyrelation for the areaandthe peakintensityofthe runoff
is Q/A: 4, which is proportional to the value of 1 defined at t". The constantof
profottionatity is thus the runoff coefficient,C : (QIA)lL Note that QIA is a point
value and that the relation, as it stands,yields nothing of the nature of the rest of the
hydrograph.
The definition chosenfor /" can adverselyaffect a designusing the rational
formula. If the averagechannelvelocity is usedto estimatethe travel time from the
most remote part of the watershed(a common assumption),the resulting design
FORURBANWATERSHEDS 313
15.2 PEAKFLOWFOHMULAS
TABLE15,1 ryPICALC COEFFICIENTS
FOR5-
TO 1O-YEARFREQUENCYDESIGN
Business
Downtown areas 0.70-0.95
'
Neighborhoodareas 0.50-0.70
Residential
Single-family areas 0.30-0.50
Multiunits, detached 0.40-0.60
Multiunits, attached 0.60-0.75
Residential(suburban) 0.25-0.40
Apartment dwelling areas 0.50-0.70
Industrial
Light areas 0.50-0.80
Heavy areas 0.60-0.90
Parks,cemeteries 0.10-0.25
Playgrounds 0.20-0.35
Railroad yard areas 0.20-0.40
Unimproved areas 0.10-0.30
Streets
Asphaltic 0.70-0.95
Concrete 0.80-0.95
Brick 0.70-0.85
Drives and walks 0.75-0.85
Roofs 0.75-0.9s
Lawns; sandy soil:
Flat,2Vo 0.05-0.10
Avenge,2-7Vo 0.10-0.15
Steep,TVo 0.15-0.20
Lawns; heavy soil:
Flat,2Vo 0.13-0.17
Average,2-7Vo o.r8-0.22
Steep,TVo 0.25-0.35
Q H
o
Figure L5.1 Rainfall-runoff relation for
Time (min) the rational method.
314 CHAPTER15 URBANAND SMALLWATERSHEDHYDROLOGY
dischargecould be less than that which might actually occur during the life of the
project. The reason is that wave travel time through the watershedis faster than
averagedischargevelocity (seeSection 13.1).As a result of using the slowervelocity
I{ the peak time (/.) is overestimated,the resultingintensityl from IDF curvesis too
small, and the rational flow rate p is underestimated.
One of the principal assumptionsof the rational method is that the predicted
peak dischargehas the same'returnperiod as the rainfall IDF relation used in the
a 4
E "
Returnperiod(yrs) Multiplier
2-to 1.0
25 1.1
)U t.2
100 1.25
EXAMPLE 15.I
Usethe rational.methodto find the 10-yearand 5O-yeardesignrunoff ratesfor the area
shownin Fig. 15.3.The IDF rainfall curvesshownin Fig. 15.2arc applicable.
Solution
1. Time of concentration:
t,:tt*tz:15+5:20min
At = 3 acres
cr = o'3
tr = 15min
Az= 4acres
Cz = o'7
tz = 5min
2. Runoff coefflcient:
c : [(3 x 0.3) + (4 x 0.7)]lQ + 4) :0.53 for 10-yrevent
C : 1.2(0.53): 0.64 for 50-yr event
3. Rainfall intensity-from Fig. 15.2:
Irc : 4'2 in'/ht
1so: 5'3 in'/hr
4. Designpeak runoff:
Q r c : C I A : 0 ' 5 3x 4 ' 2 x 7 16 cfs
Q s o : C I A : 0 ' 6 4x 5 ' 3 x 7 24 cfs rl
!2 o
't'2'
k tt " i/
..t
o-'
y"
o oo
2
o
- a
a
a
1 o
0.9
q
0.8
0.7 \
0.6 Peak runoff ftequency curve
0.5
cd
0.4
0.3
5 1020
Recurrenceinterval (Years)
and the rainfall that producedit holds for the ranked position of the observationsin
the arraysof the two i"putut" sequences. In Fig. 15.4, the 5-yearrainfall frequencyof
6.5in./hr corresponds io a runofffrequencyof4'0 cfs/acre;theratio indicatesa runoff
coefficientof approximately0.6. Although the two sequencesare eachcloselylog-
normal, they tend to converge,which suggeststhat the runoff coefficient increases
slightly with more intense,iess frequent storms.In the designrange,however,the
t"*ttr tend to support the assumptionof the rational method that the recurrence
interval of the runoff equalsthe reiurrence interval of the rainfall. It shouldbe noted
that the rainfall distributionsin Figs. 15.1and 15.4havesimilarproperties.All IDF
curvesare drawnthrough the averagerainfall intensitiesderivedfrom many different
stormsof record; any single IDF curve dses not representthe progressof a single
storm.For lack of historicalrunoff data, the designerturns to the rational methodto
construct from the rainfall history what amounts to a runoff intensity-duration-
frequency
- relation.
The most critical (highestpeak) runoff eventis often assumedto be causedby
a storm havinga duration -qual to the time of concentrationof the watershed'If the
rainfall IDF curve is steepin the designrange,severaldurationsshouldbe testedfor
the given frequency to assurethat no other storm of equal probability producesa
higlier peak runoff iate. Most applicationsof the rational method do not includethis
testbecausethe assumptionthai ihe peak occursat /" is commensuratewith the other
inherent assumptions.
31 8 CHAPTER15 URBANAND SMALLWATERSHEDHYDROLOGY
d
o
10n
"-"
4U F-
o
200 0.02
100
80 0.01
100 0.008
60
50 80 0.10 0.006
0.08 0.005
40 60 0.06 0.004
30 50 0.05 0.003
6 0.04 0.
40 0.03
cd 0.1 0.002
bo I ,
o,o2 V)
0.015 3 g tl
)n o 0.001
r, s-o.oto o 0.0008
q
10 -- 0.008 h
po
8 0.006 0.0006
10 + a 0.0005
6 a
0.0004
5 8 oo 0.0003
i
6 2 c 5
5 0.0002
3
A boo
a 3 0.000r
: 8 0.00008
2 o 0.00006
1.0 0.00005
0.00004
0.8 0.00003
0.6 1.0
0.5 0.8 0.00002
o
0.4 0.6
h
0.3 0.5 0.00001
0.4 o 0.000008
0.2 0.3 0.000006
0.000005
0.000004
0 . 1 3 0.2
Figure 15.6 Flow in pipes (Manning's formula); (After Ref. 24.)
EXAMPLE 15.2
Basedon the storm sewerarrangementof Fig. 15.7a,determinethe outfall discharge.
Assume that C : 0.3 for residentialareasand C = 0.6 for businesstracts. Use a
5-yearfrequencyrainfall from Fig. 15.7b andassumea minimum 20-min inlet time.
Solution. The principal factors in the designare listed in Table 15.2' Addi-
tional columns can be provided to list elevationsof manhole inverts, sewer
inverts, and ground elevations.This information is helpful in checkingdesigns
and for subsequent use in drawingfinal designplans.(see Table 15.3.) lI
'orational"in that thepeak
Modified Rational Method Therationalmethodis truly
flow rate is simply set equal to the net rain rate after sufflcient time occurs for the
entire watershedto contributerunoff. This resultsfor any storm equallingor exceed-
OF COLUMNHEADINGSIN TABLE15.3
TABLE 15.2 DEFINITION
Column Comment
o)
I
u\-q
j e
_ 90-
lt
t l
Legend
Sewerlinewith manholenumbers
MH1-1 r Storminlets
,\e Gutterflowline
/ contourline
-- - - areaoutline
Drainage
a 5
N 2:i-yr averagefrequencY
l l l l
10-yr averagefrequencY
v 4
\ \ r r ! l
{ Ij-'ff:::i::::?
\
K:---t.-
o J
E ? - : < : < x = x , x :
o V ( ] Y Y Y Y - ] : :
puo JeMo'l di d € + F t c l o O O
C € O € € € @ @ € €
o
=
o puoreddnS
E X EE < i i i € o r
E q * o
6 6 h
6 € € O i @ € € @ @
(g)]erresut tPl I ? E qE q E q E f r
6 o i < l N : o o o
(g)dorppenul"toqu"N $ . n n . q q R -
(4) sassolqoqu"yl $
(u)^6reuaplol I
= 6 = = s : F - R 3
( u0lrop;o qrdeOI
c
a
o (U)peeq,qcotenI
€ \ O @ O \ r 6 r A \ O
(sdD',{lPoPnS +r;ri rid d+ ris;
o - 6 * n * : N r
',qcoPn
11n1 $ $ n $ n n
o c J c . ln n qcl qq
'r$cedeg d ; 6 h € =
11n1 ! S - B H
T N € ! f , N + € N N N
( uDrelauelc I * - N i N O i S s
E
h h h o O O O ' + O
€ r + o € o 6 N 6
J
(%)remesto adols U d o o - i o o d o o
z
sN n E sq q Eq 3
kt (sle)llounl lElol 3
N
€ +q € g - s 3
ul i € o - € a i i -
T
F ' (arceTsp) - q n ' 1 q . ' l - r a
t
#orng $
u- \ 9 n \ 9 q \ c j c ' l
a (rq/'uI)ttBluleuI 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
z
lualcllloocgounra6ere,rY@
3 3 $ 3 3 A 3 A+ A+
F
-
: : : : : . i J
6 + - € n O N N \o$
o qqo9 nn qv-) oqn
6 luer.uetcul@ N O O n \ o o c l
J
O h d
: Y : X X X X
(D q$uer I + + < J ' * t s s
N
a
o
E h { o * o N N
f oro i
r
i *
t
o
t l l l l
d
e
lf,' o 0)
lrl
g
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urorl O Y T i 1 J T l I T
: i : o o 3 N i *
J
o
F
eun e * * * o o * N : i W)
15,2 PEAKFLOWFORMULAS FORURBAN WATERSHEDS323
SCSTR-55Method
The U.S. Soil ConservationServicedevelopedproceduresfor estimatingrunoff vol-
ume and peak ratei of dischargefrom urban areas.zs They are known collectively as
TR-55und indiuidually as thegraphical method,chart method, andtabular method.
The threemethodsadjustrural proceduresin NEH-426to urbanconditionsby increas-
ing the curve number CN foi impervious areas and reducing the lag time /1 for
imlperviousness and channel improvements.Allowances are also made for various
watershedshapes,slopes,and times of concentration.The SCS designedthe first two
methodsto be usedfor estimatingpeak flows,and the third for synthesizingcomplete
hydrographs.The tabular method and chart method (usedfor small watershedsup to
2000 acres)wererevisedin 1986,21but aredescribedhereto help explainthe evolution
of the methods.All three were developedfor use with 24-hr storms'Use with other
storm durationsis not advised.
The graphicalmethodwasdevelopedfor homogeneous watersheds,up to 20 mr2
in size, on which the land use and soil type may be represented by the runoff curve
number. As shownin Chapter4, the runoff curve number is simply a third variable
in a graph of rainfall versusrunoff.
Tie SCS peak dischargegraph shown in Fig. 15,8 is limited to applications
(see
where only the peak flow rate ii Oisired for 24 hr, Type-II storm distributions
Chapter f 6l. A Type-II storm distributionis typical of the 24-hr thunderstorm expe-
rienced in all staiei exceptthe Pacific Coaststates.Figure 15.8 was developedfrom
numerousapplicationsofine SCSTR-20 eventsimulationmodeldescribedin Chapter
24. To apply Fig. 15.8, the watershedtime of concentrationin hours is enteredinto
net
ttre grapir'to prJdu." the peak dischargerate in cfs/mi2of watershedper inch of
from the 24-hr gross
rain during tk Z+-nr period. The 24-hr net rain is estimated
amountusingthe scS curve number approachdescribedin chapter 4.
the effectof urbanizationcanbe estimatedusingFig. 15.9.Oncethe composite
curvenumber(CN) hasbeenestimatedfor the previousarea,a modifiedcurvenumber
is determinedby enteringFig. 15.9 with the value of the percentimperviousareaon
the modified watershed,r"ading vertically to the curve correspondingto the CN for
the pervious watershed,and then reading horizontally to determinethe modified
compositerunoff curve numberthat would be usedin determiningthe net rain depth
for the urbanizedwatershed'
Useof the 1975graphicalmethodis restrictedby the assumptionsof the tabular
This
method.The methodii a -ompositeof resultsfor one caseof the tabularmethod.
324 CHAPTER15 URBANNNO SUNU-WATERSHEDHYDROLOGY
'e 70n
Ei 500
qF
400
E 300
o
P,O
R
€ 200
E
o
100
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0
Time of concentration(hr)
Figure 15.8 Peakdischarge (cfs/mi2lin.)
of runoff versustime of con-
centration (AfterU.S.SoilConser-
/. for 24-hr,Type-IIstormdistribution.
vationService.25)
restricts its applicationsto runoff volumes greaterthan about 1.5 in. (if the curve
numberis lessthan 60). Time of concentrationshouldrangebetween0.1 and 2.0hr,
and the initial abstractionshould not exceedabout 25 percent of the precipitation.
The chart method allows determinationof peak flows for 24-hr Type-II storms
over watershedshaving a fixed length/width relation and no ponding areas.Three
chartsareusedfor flat, moderate,or steepslopesof approximatelyI,4, or 16percent.
Tablesof adjustmentsfor intermediateslopesare provided in the technicalrelease.
Severalmicrocomputersoftwarepackagesfor urbanhydrologyhavebeendevel-
oped.28 Over two-thirdsarebasedon SCSprocedures, but cautionshouldbe applied
80
z
L)
e
.E 7n
u 6 0
0 l0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
imperviousarea(7o)
Connected
Figure 15.9 Percentage of impervious areas versus composite CNs for given
pervious area CNs. (After U.S. Soil Conservation Service.2s)
WATERSHEDS325
FORURBAN
15,2 PEAKFLOWFORMULAS
in assumingthat the commercialprogramsfully imitate TR-55 or other SCS hand-
book methods.An ideal TR-55 packagewould includeall three methods,would carry
SCS endorsement,would stateall assumptionsand limitations, and would incorpo-
rate all SiS adjustmentsfor peak coefflcient,percentimperviousness, percentageof
channelimproved,pondingor swampyareas,length/widthratio variations,and slope.
Its use shoutAako be cautionedfor other than 24-hr stormshaving a Type-II SCS
distribution. Packagesnot adheringto these limitations would not be qualified as
TR-55 procedures.
A significantproblem in someof the commercial softwarepackagesis the use
of a trianlular-shaped unit hydrographfor convolutionto producehydrographsfor
stormsof-various durations.The SCS used a triangular shapeto conceptualizethe
peak flow rate of a curvilinear unit hydrograph,but has never endorseduse of other
than either the curvilinear shapediscussedin Section I2.5 ot the tabulatedhydrg;
graphsgiven in the TR-55 manual.For further reading,the SCS publisheda guide2e
for the useof the 1975TR-55 intendedto clarify proceduresin the original technical
release.
PrevailingSCSTR-55Method
The 1986editionof TR-55,27 ratherthan the 1975version,is recommended for use.
. It incorporatesseveralyearsof resultsof researchand experienceswith the original
edition. The revisionsinclude the following:
EXAMPLE 15.3
A 1280-acreurbanTennesseewatershedhasa6.0-hrtimeof concentration,CN: 75
from Table15.4,and5 percentof the areais ponded.The25-year,24-httainis 6'0 in'
Find the 25-yearpeak discharge.
TABLE 15.4 RUNOFFCURVE NUMBERSFOR URBANAREAS (see Sec. 4.9 foT
other values)
Curvenumbers for
Cover descriotion soilgroup'
hydrologic
Average percent
Cover type and hydrologiccondition imperviousareaD A B c
Fully developed urban areas (vegetationestablished)
Open space(lawns, parks, golf courses,cemeteries,etc.)"
Poor condition (grasscover <50%) 68 79 86 89
Fair condition (grasscover 50-757o) 49 69 79 84
Good condition (grasscover > 757o) 39 6l 74 80
Impervious areas
Pavedparking lots, roofs, driveways,etc.
(excluding right- of-way) 98 98 98
Streetsand roads
Paved;curbs and storm sewers(excluding
right-of-way) 98 98 98 98
Paved;open ditches(including right of-way) 83 89 92 93
Gravel (including righrof-way) 76 85 89 9r
Dirt (including right-of-way) 72 82 87 89
Westerndeserturban areas
Natural desertlandscaping(pervious areas
only)' 63 77 85
Artificial desertlandscaping(impervious
weed barrier, desertshrub with 1-2-in.
sandor gravel mulch and basin borders) 96 96 96 96
Urban districts
Commercial and business 85 89 92 94 95
Industrial 72 81 88 91 93
Residentialdistricts by averagelot size
f acre or less(town houses) 65 77 85 90 92
j acre 38 61 75 83 87
I acre 30 57 72 81 86
I acre 25 70 80 85
I acre 20 5l 68 79 84
2 aqes l2 46 65 77 82
Developingurban areas
Newly gradedareas(pervious areasonly, no
vegetation)" 77 86 91
Idle lands (CNs are determinedusing cover
types similar to thosein Table 4.7).
'Average runoff condition, and 1" : 9.25.
'The averagepercent impervious area shown was used to developthe composite CNs. Other assumptionsare as
follows: impervious areas are directly connected to the drainage system,impervious areas have a CN of 98, and
pervious areas are consideredequivalent to open spacein good hydrologic condition. CNs for other combinations
of conditionsmay-becomputedusingFig. 15.9 or 15.10
" CNs shown are equivalent to those of pasture. Composite CNs may be computed for other combinations of open
spacecovol type.
dComposite CNs for natural desertlandscapingshould be comppted using Fig. 15.9 or 15.10 basedon the impervi-
ous areapercentage(CN : 98) and the pervious area CN. The pervious area CNs are assumedequivalent to desert
shrub in poor hydrologic condition.
eComposite CNs to use for the designof temporary measuresduring grading and construction should be computed
using Fig, 15.9 or 15.10basedon the degreeofdevelopment (impervious areapercentage)and the CNs for the newly
graded pervious areas.
Source: U.S. Soil ConservationService,2T
0.0
n5 >
o
e
r.o I
I
70 60 50
CompositeCN Total impervious
arca (Vo)
TABLEls.s /aVALUESFORRUNOFFCURVENUMBERS
300
u tnn
o
P0
R
I
3 100
S R o
60
40
01 0.6 0.8 l
Time of concentration, Z; (hr)
Figure 15.11 Unit peak discharge(q*) for SCS Type-I rainfall distribution. (After
U.S. Soil ConservationService.)
9 100
Po Ro
ci 60
30
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 810
Time of concentration,Zr (hr)
Figure 15.12 Unit peakdischarge(q,) for SCSType-IA rainfall distribution.(After
U.S. Soil ConservationService.)
15.2 PEAK FLOW FORMULASFOR URBAN WATERSHEDS 329
1000
800
600
^ 500
E 400
{,
s 300
o
90
d
€ 2oo
€
6
o
=
P 1oo
80
60
50
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 810
Time of concentration,Z" (hr)
Figure 15.13 Unit peak discharge(q,) for SCSType-II rainfall distribution. (After
U.S. Soil ConservationService.)
700
600
500
400
€< 300
-*
d ,nn
E
E
=
5 roo
80
60
40
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 810
L
330 CHAPTER15 URBANAND SMALLWATERSHEDHYDROLOGY
0 1.00
0.2 0.97
1.0 0.87
3.0 0.75
5.0 0.72
Solution. From Fig. 16.17, the Type-II storm appliesto Tennessee. From
Table15.5,I":0.667.Thus I,fP: 0.11.FromFig. 15.13, q,: 96 csm/in.
From Chapter4, tberunoff from 6.0 in. is 3.28 in. Since5 percentof the area
is ponded,the peak flow is adjustedusingTable 15.6,giving 4 : 0.72. Thus
g : (96 csm/in.)(3.28in.)(2.0 mr')(0.72): 453 cfs rr
The SCS recommendsthat TR-20, rather than the tabular method,be used if
any of the following conditions apply:
FORSMALLRURALWATERSHEDS
15.3 PEAKFLOWFORMULAS
SCSTP-149Method
TR-55 is the SCS procedure for urban watersheds,TR-20 is the unit-hydrograph
procedurefor larger agriculturalwatersheds(seeChapter24), andTP-149wasdevel-
bped to allow esiimation of peak flow rates from small (5-2000 acres)agricultural
watersheds.3o It consistsof a seriesof 42 charts from which the peak dischargeof a
24-hr ruinfall can be determined.
Input to the procedure is the drainage area, averagewatershedslope, storm
distributiontype (I or II), watershedcompositecurve number, and depth of rainfall.
Figures15.15ind 15.16illustratethe numerouschartsin the TP. Shownare type-I
and type-Il curvesfor moderatelyslopedwatersheds, with CN : 70 for both. Similar
chartsare availablefor the combinations given in Table 15.7.Applicationsof TP 149
to watershedshavingcurve numbers other than the 5-unit incrementsof Table 15.7,
or for slopesother ihan I, 4, or 16 percent, can be accomplished by arithmetic or
logarithmic interpolationbetween adjacent chart values'
332 CHAPTER15 URBANAND SMALLWATERSHEDHYDROLOGY
^^^ e
h\or@e R g ?3eR3= F H =HEF==
'/,
1000 1000
800 800
7N 700
600 600
500 7 500
400
,4 z 400
300
200 ,<\ 7
r!
l
z 300
200
o
P!
.E
€ 8 0
& 7 0
rno
'z
..\"\
2\
4 W 100
80
70
3 a o 60
50 l L
50
'//.2
40 L'// 40
30 & t/,,
.M 7 30
a 20
ffi
7
l$
v'
t0 10
8
,7
H 8
7
6 /ttl l/,v ,/: o
5 )
h 9 r @ o o o o o o o o o O O O O O O O O O
- N - + n € r @ o
R g?fi€FAt 8
N
Stormdistribution Slope
rype Slopetype range (%) Curvenumber,CN
I,il Flat, TVo 0-3 60,65,70,75,80,85,90
LU Moderate,4To 3-8 60,65,70,75,80,85,90
I,il Steep,167a 8-30 60,65,10,75,80,85,90
FORSMALLRURALWATERSHEDS333
15,3 PEAKFLOWFORMULAS
1000
800
700
600
s00
400
300
200
;90
IUV
100
E
€ 8 0 80
r.1 70 70
60
fi o o 50
50
40 40
30 30
20
10 10
8 8
7 7
o 6
5 5
n€F-€= R 3?38RAE = = x = = x x
X ; + E 6 F d 6
Drainage area(acres)
EXAMPLE 15.4
Comparethe peakflow ratesfrom Type-I and Type-II stormsusingFigs. 15.15and
15.16.Assumethat only stormtype changesand all other conditionsare equal.
Solution. A 4-in. rain over200 acreson a watershedwith CN : T0lesultsin
: II
Qo : 52 cfs for a Type-I storm (Fig. 15.15) and Qp 9l cfs for Type
(Fig. 15.16).Thus the storm distributiontype makesa significantdifferencein
results of peak flow estimationusing SCS techniques. I r
334 CHAPTER15 URBANAND SMALL WATERSHEDHYDROLOGY
Qp: 4,AQ,
( 1s .3)
where qois the peak dischargein m3/sec,A is the drainageareain sq. km., Q is the
net rain depth in cm, andq, is the unit peak dischargefrom
Rainfall
rype t,/P co c1 c2
SyntheticUnit-Hydrograph
PeakRateFormulas
Peak flow rates from small watershedscan also be determinedusing the synthetic
unit-hydrographtechniquesdescribedin Chapter 12. A storm having a duration
definedby Eq. 12.22wirl produce,accordingto Snyder'smethodof synthesizingunit
hydrographs, a peak dischargefor 1.0 in. of net rain given by Eq. 12.17,or
64oct'A
o^' - t m ( 15.s )
Similarly, the peak flow rate resulting from a storm with duration D given by
Eq. 12.22or 12.23is, accordingto the SCS methodfor constructingsyntheticunit
hydrographs,equal to
^ 484A
U^: - (15.6)
where /o is the time from the beginningof the effectiverain to the time of the peak
runoff rate, which by definitionis the watershedlag time plus half the stormduration.
Both of Eqs. 15.5and 15.6 apply to 1.0 in. of netrain occurringin the durationD.
Either can be multiplied by P"", for other storm depthswith equal durations.Peak
flows for stormswith durationsother than D would need to be determinedby unit-
hydrographmethods.
Discharge-Area
and RegressionFormulas
A multitude of peak flow formulas relating the dischargerate to drainageareahave
beenproposedand applied.Gray3rlists 35 suchformulas,and Maidment32compares
many others.Most of theseempiric equationsare derivedusingpairsof measurements
of drainagearea and peak flow rates in a regressionequationhavingthe form
Q: CA* (15.7)
where Q : the peak dischargeassociatedwith a given return period
A : the drainagearea
C, ffi : regressionconstants
Popular discharge-areaformulas in the form of Eq. 15.7 include the Meyers
equation33
O : 10,000405 ( 1s.8 )
336 CHAPTER15 URBANAND SMALLWATERSHEDHYDROLOGY
U.S.GeologicalSurveyIndex-FloodMethod
The U.S. GeologicalSurveyindex-floodmethoddescribedin Section27.4 is a graph-
ical regional c&relation of the recurrenceinterval with peak dischargerates. The
stepsinvolvedin the derivationof a regionalflood index curve are outlined in Section
27.4.The first stepin applyingthe techniqueto a watershedis to determinethe mean
annual flood, defineOas ttre flood magnitudehaving a return period of 2.33 years.
Mean annual floods for ungaugedwatershedsare found from regressionequations
similar in form to Eq. 15.7.For example,the USGSreport3aon flood magnitudesand
frequenciesin Nebraskagives,in cfs,
Qz'zt
= CA0T (1s.e)
where A : the contributing drainage arcain mi2
C : aresionalcoefficientobtainedfrom Fig. 15'17
Once the mean annualflood magnitudeis obtained,other annual flood magni-
tudes can easily be determinedfrom the appropriate index-flood curve (see Fig.
26.4c).The usqof suchcurvesin urban hydrologyis limited becausethe USGS data
network for the index-floodmethod seldomincludeswatershedssmallerthan 10 mi2.
The USGSregressionequations,describedlater, areapplicablefor watershedsin the
'
1-10 mi2rangeand larger.
CyprusCreekFormula
Extreme$ flat areasposeparticular difficulties to the hydrologist,includingestimates
of infiltration, runoff volgme,and,peakrunoff rates.Flooding in theseareastends!o
be shallow and widespread.Flow velocitiesare low, and water standson the surface
for relative)ylong periodsof time. Theseareasare often distinguishedby networksof
straight drainageihannels that have been constructedto store and eventually dis-
chargethe excessrain.
The Scs developeda procedure3s to calculatethe'instantaneous peak flow
flatland areas based on first calculatingthe capacity of canals that would be
to limit flat-xeaflooding for the designstorm to a duration that would prevent
crop damage,and then to apply a multiplier to this rate to obtain the instant
peakfor the designof drainagestructures.The procedureis illustrateil in Fig. 15. 18.
OOIfr
N .oe jtoo
6 . 1
'o? ' r l
.t\ t
lo.S
t "
:.9
9;
a =
E d
x(.)
s !
. Y v
ra)
P>,
- €
92,
F\9
I'o
i : t6 r
9
a F
= Y
€x
;T{ 20
U ',;
E O
(J.n
x E O
;r o ti=
u d:;<
r i t r -
o d c
: E.e
.$e b"
338 CHAPTER15 URBANAND SMALLWATERSHEDHYDROLOGY
InstantaneousPeak
o
o
Drainage Ditch CaPacitY
"Removal" Rate
Based on
Iime
"removal" rate and peak in-
Figure 15.18 Illustration of relation befweenCyplys Creek
stJntaneousflow. (After Soil ConservationService'35)
time for
The selectedduration was} hours,consideredto be the maximum allowable
called the Cyprus Creekformula, was developed to
inundationof crops.An equation,
flow rate, called the 24-hr removal rate. The equation,
determinethe canal design
curve
based on rainfall depth,-contributingdrainage area,and the SCS composite
number is
Q: CA5/6 ( 1s .10)
where Q : reqrriredchannelcapacity fot 24-ht removal (cfs)
C : drainagecoefflcient
A: drainageareaGq mi)
bY
The drainagecoefficient,C,fot Eq. 15.10is found from an equationdeveloPed
Stephensand Mi1ls36
C : 16.39+ (14.75Q,",) (15.1)
where
designeventfrom Fig' 4'I4'
Q"", : the scS direct runoff (in.) for the 24-hr
peak flow rate is
Once Eq. 15.10is solvedfor the given frequency,the instantaneous
drainage areas from 1 to about
obtainedfrom Fig. 15.19.The procedureis limited to
200 squaremiles.It is suggestedthat ratios of the peak instantaneous rate to the 24-hr
equal to 1.0. For flatland areas
canaliemoval rateUetirniLO b values greaterthan or
that the peak flows
that havepart of the areain storm ,"wJts, the SCS recornmends
fromFig. ts.tqu.increasedbytheamountsindicatedinFig. 15.20.TheSCSfurther
that are
recomniendsrestrictingur" of thit procedureto watershedsthat haveslopes
methods such as TR-20, TR-55'
lessthan 0.002. For stJeperslopewatersheds,other
TP l4g, or regressionequationsare recommended'
i)c<
- <
o11 €
& N
e&EEh+-il1e
I q
t * .
;>
3lj!.) - N o n o o Q a a o
4 q = = - N $ A O -
z ^ , = * - N
d q
;i^
- Y
.- (.)
e # F
e f q
+ + t r
o . a
t r o
< o .
E E b
c6
e
!
= >
()
!
r , €
+ ';
o
c{
, L
t * c ' t
q 67)
9 t s
o 9 H
i 5
>, jl
,* -Q
N v v
- -
qca
,-!t
. \ 4
-l,o: ,
- - ( J
: o 6 @ r € v l n n q - : o
N N
0 ) d
L r
3rX
: r I
eleX ;;oung e8ere^V JnoH-tZ runrxrxehtr 01 luod snoeupluelsuJJo oqed
340 CHAPTER15 URBANAND SMALLWATERSHEDHYDROLOGY
s40
o
!l
o
9 ^ ^
i 4rl
0
Percentageof Area Servedby Storm Sewers
Figure 15.20 Effect of urban storm sewerson peak dischargefor urban areas.
(After U.S. GeologicalSurvey.aT)
EXAMPLE 15.5
Usethe Cypro, Creek methodto determinethe peak 50-yr flow rate fron a 1.0 sq mi
drainageareathat hasa CN : 80,is 50 percentstormsewered,andhasa50-yr,24-hr
rainfall depthof 12.0inches.
Solution. From Fig. 4.I4, thedirectrunoff for 12 inchesof rain is 9.45in. The
drainagecoefficient,C, is found from Eq. 15.11,
: 155.t
C : 16.39+ (14.75X9.45)
15.3 PEAK FLOW FORMULASFOR SMALLRURALWATERSHEDS 341
U.S.GeologicalSurveyRegressionEquations
for UrbanAreas
The U.S. GeologicalSurvey,in cooperationwith the FederalHighway Administra-
tion, conducteda nationwidestudy of flood magnitudeand frequencyin urban water-
sheds.37 The investigation involved26ggaugedbasins at 56 citiesin 31 states,includ-
ing Hawaii. The locations are shown in Fig. 15.21.Basin sizesrangedfrom 0.2 to
100 mi2.
Multiple linear regression(see,Chapter27) of a variety of independentparame-
ters was conductedto developpeak flow equationsthat could be applied to small,
ungaugedurban watershedsthroughoutthe United States.Similar USGS regression
. equationsfor large rural basinsare describedin Chaptet27'
The simplestform of the developedregressionequationsinvolvesthe three most
significantvariablesidentified.Thesewere contributing areaA (mi2),ba-sin^develop-
ment factorBDF (dimensionless), andthe correspondingpeak flow RQ,(cfs)for the lth
frequency from an identicalrural basin in the sameregionasthe urbanwatershed.The
latter vaiiable accounts for regional variations,and estimatescan be developedfrom
any of the applicable USGS flood frequency reports (seeSection27.4). The three-
parameter equations for the 2-,5-,IO-,25-,50-, 100-,and500-yearflowsaregiven
as37
-
ez: l3.2Ao.zt(13 BDFl-o.azpnotz
(Ls.r2)
-
es : 10.6Ao.rz(13 BDF)-o.3eReo18
( 1s . 1
3)
t0(13- BDnl-otuRQ?dn (15.14)
Qto : 9.5rAo
Qt5 : 8.68Ao
ts(13- BDF)-o'z+P9o'to (1s.1s)
Qso: 8.o4Ao
ts(13- BDFl-o'zzR03o" (1s.16)
ts(13- BOrT-ot'RQ?r!& (15.17)
Qno: 7.70Ao
Qsoo
- BDF)-'*RQ1i&
: 7.47A0'16(13 ( 1s . 18 )
Thesewere developedfrom data at 199of the 269 original sites.The other siteswere
deletedbecauseof the presence.ofdetentionstorageor missingdata. All theseequa-
tions havecoefficientsof determinationabove0.90.
Figure 15.22showsthe correspondence of estimatedand observedvaluesused
in devedping Eq. 15.15. Forty percentof the valuesfall within one standarddeviation
of the line.
regression Graphs for other recurrence intervals are similar to the 1O-year
graphshownin Fig. 15.22.
i a
O N
o v
N E
> p
li rii
E
- ' E
h
E
- ^ a
>'
s - _
q
. A o
,F
it .-r :
'o
3
r {
g
o ()
E
o /
B
- o
r d
l n
l V z
--l \Oa
I 0".
I
I
r)U . '
I
I j t
I r E l
A f
L,/
I ol E'J
I
,g q
--j g
I
, l
: : F
: -
(,)
i
I
PROBLEMS 353
15.5,
rainfall duration?
The 4-hr unit hydrographfor a 5600-acrewatershedis
Time (hr) n 1 4 6 8 10 t2
0 400 1000 800 400 200 0
0 (cf9
: discussthe
Rework Example 15.2 basedon a C : 0.2 and C 0'4' Compare and
effect of C on the dischargeat the outfall'
AwatershedhasareaA.Startingwithatriangular.shapedunithydrographwithabase : 484A/to'
lengthof 2.67t, and a heightof [0, deriveEq. 15'9 (seealsoEq' t2'25)' Qo
State and carr units of eachterm usedin the derivation'
UsingtheSCSdimensionlessunithydrographdescribedinChapter12,determinethe
peak
peaidischarge
^of for a net storm of 101n.in 2 hr on a 400-acrebasinwith a time to
+ nt and i lag time of 3 hr. Comparewith Eq' 12'17'
rainfall at a
A 10.00-mi2watershedwith a 100-min time of concentrationreceives
rate of 2.75 in.lhr for a period of 200 min'
a. Determinethe peak d-ischarge (cfs)from the watershed1f C : 0'4'
rainfall.
b. Estimatethe dischargerate lcfs) 150 min after the beginningof
c. Estimate the dischar"gerate from the watershed 40 min after the beginning of
rainfall.
E * n
{
* F 6 0
F
/
9 4 0
o
o
E ) i
o - "
s?
o
o 2 0 100
-= -Time{min)-after-be€ianing-of rainfall
354 CHAPTER15 URBANANDSMALLWATERSHED
HYDROLOGY
1s.13. A storm gutter receivesdrainagefrom both sides.On the left it drains a rectangular
600-acreareaof t" : 60 min. On the right it drains a relatively steep300-acrearea
of t" : 10 min. The f index on both sidesis 0.5 in.ihr. Use the intensity-duration-
frequency curves in Fig. 15.7 to determinethe peak discharge(cf$ with a25-year
recurrenceinterval for (a) the 600-acreareaalone, (b) the 300-acrearea alone,and
(c) the combinedareaassumingthat the proportion of the 600-acreareacontributing
to runoff at any time r after rain beginsis l/60.
t5.14. A drainagebasin has a time of concentrationof 8 hr and producesa peak Q of
4032 cfs for a 10-hr storm with a net intensity of 2 in./hr. Determinethe peak flow
rate and the time base(duration)of the direct surfacerunoff for a net rain of 4 in./hr
lasting (a) 12 hr, (b) 8 hr, and (c) 4 hr. State any assumptionsused.
15.15. A 1.0-mi2parking lot has a runoff coefficientof 0.8 and a time of concentrationof
40 min. For the following three rainstorms,determinethe'peakdischarge(cf$ by the
rationalmethod:(a) 4.0 in./hr for 10 min, (b) 1.0in./hr for 40 min, and (c) 0.5 in./hr
for 60 min. State any assumptionregarding area contributing after various rainfall
durations.
15.16. The concentration time varies with dischargebut is relatively constant for large
discharges.From this statement,why do engineersfeel confidentin usingthe rational
formula?
15.17. Determinethe 50-yearflood for a20-mi2 basin at the northwestcorner of Nebraska.
Use the index-flood method and assumethat Fig. 26.4 appbes.
1s.18. Determinethe entire frequencycurve for the basin in Problem 15.17 and plot it on
probability paper.
15.19. Use the index-flood method to determinethe 10- and 50-yearpeaksfor a 6400-acre
drainagebasin near Lincoln, Nebraska.Assumethat Fig. 26.4 applies.
15.20. For the drainagebasin in Problem 15,19 determinethe probability that the 20-year
peak will be equaledor exceededat leastonce (a) next year and (b) in a 4-yr. period.
Referto Section26.1.
15.2L. For a 100-mi2drainagebasinnearLincoln, Nebraska,usethe index-flood methodto
determinethe probability that next year's flood will equal or exceed3000 cfs.
15.22. UseFig. 26.4 to determinethe return period (years)of the meanannualflood for that
region.How doesthis comparewith the theoreticalvalue for a Gumbel distribution?
How doesit comparewith a normal distribution?Refer to Section26.6.
ts.23. Usethe Cyprus Creekmethodto determinethe 25-yr peak dischargefor the watershed
describedin Example 15.3. Assumethat the watershedis nearly flat.
15.24. You are asked to determinethe magnitudeof the S0-yearflood for a small, rural
drainagebasin (nearyour town) that hasno streamflowrecords.Statethe namesof at
leasttwo techniquesthat would provide estimatesof the desiredvalue.
't5.25. The drainageareas,channellengths,and relevantelevations(underlined)for several
subbasinsof the Oak Creek Watershedat Lincoln, Nebraska,are shownin Fig. 24.8.
The watershedhas a SCScurve numberof CN : 75 which may be usedto determine
the direct runoff for any storm.Assumethat IDF curvesin Fig. 27.13 applyat Lincoln.
Treat the entire watershedasa singlebasinand determinethe 50-yearflood magnitude
at Point 8 using:
a. The rational method.
b. The SCSpeak flow graph,Fig. 15.8.
c. Snyder'smethod of syntheticunit hydrographs,Eq. 15.5.
d. The USGS index-flood method. Figure 26.4 applies.
REFERENCES 355
15.26. RepeatProblem 15.25 with SubareaI excluded.compare the results with Prob-
lem 15.25 and comment on the effectivenessat Point 8 for the 5O-yearevent of the
BranchedOak Reservoirat Point 9. (This reservoirwill easilystorethe 100-yearflood
from Area I.)
1s.27. RepeatProblem 15.25 for SubareaA'
15.28. RepeatProblem 15.25 for SubareaI'
15.29. Describecompletelyhow the magnitudeof the 30-yearflood for a watershedis deter-
mined by the USGS index-flood method.
15.30. A rural watershedwith a composite cN of 70 is being urbanized. Eventually'
36 percentof the areawill be impervious.Determinethe increasein runoff that can
be expected for a 6.2-in.rain.
15.31 Using the peak flow for the SCS dimensionlessunit hydrographin Ch. l2,_determine
the piak dischargefor a net storm of 10 in. in Zhr on a 400-actebasinwith a time to
peak of 4 hr and a lag time of 3 hr.
L5.32. A timber railroad bridgein Nebraskaat Milepost 27I.32 ontherailroad systemshown
in the sketchis to be replacedwith a new concretestructure.The 50- and 100-year
flood magnitudesare neededto establishthe low chord and embankmentelevations,
respectively.Determine the designflow rates using the scs TP-149 method. The
bridge drainsthe zone marked,about45 acres.The moderatelyslopedbasinlies in a
rype-n stormregion,the curve numberis 70, and the 24-hr 50- and 100-yearrainfall
depthsare 8.6" and g.4" respectively'
Bidge27l.32
The
15.33. Repeatproblem 15.32usingthe FHWA HEC-19 peakflow SCSdesignmethod.
time of concentration is 0.2 hrs. Valuesof 1ocan be determinedfrom the relationships
, in Fis. 414. Provide the answersin both metric and English units.
REFERENCES
"A Critique of Current Methods in Hydrologic Systems
1 . J. Amorocho and W. E. Hart,
Investigations," Trans.Am. Geophys.Union 45(2),301-321(Jwe 1964)'
p. jingh, ..NonlinearInstantaneousUnit-HydrographTheory," ASCE J. Hyd. Div.
2. f.
90(HY2), Par I, 313-347(Mar' 1964).
356 CHAPTER15 URBANANDSMALLWATERSHED HYDROLOGY
"ContinuousHydrographSynthesiswith an
3. W T. Sittner, C. E. Schauss,and J. C. Monro,
API:Iype HydrologicModel," WaterResourcesRes.5(5), 1007- 1022(1969).
4. J.E.Nash,"TheFormoftheInstantaneousUnitHydrograph,"Int.Assoc.Sci.Hyd.3@5),
r14-L2r(r9s7).
"Mathematical Models of CatchmentBehavior," Proc.
5. D. R. Dawdy and T. O'Donnel,
ASCEJ. Hyd. Div.91(HY4), 124-127(Iuly 1965).
6. S. L. S. Jacoby,"A MathematicalModel for Nonlinear Hydrologic Systems,"J. Geophy.
Res. 7l(20), 48t | - 4824(0ct. 1966).
7. R. Prasad, "A Nonlinear Hydrologic System ResponseModel," Proc. ASCE J. Hyd.
Div. 93(HY4)(1967).
"Hydrology of Urban Runoff," J. ASCE 85, 41-
8. A. L. Tholin and C. T. Keifer,
106(Mar. 1959).
"Digital Simulationin Hydrology:StanfordWater-
9. N. H. Crawfordand R. K. Linsley,Jr.,
shedModel IV," Department of Civil Engineering,Stanford University, Stanford, CA,
Tech.Rep.No. 39, July 1966.
10. JohnC. Schaake,Jr., "synthesisof the Inlet Hydrograph,"Tech.Rep. 3, Storm Drainage
ResearchProject, JohnsHopkins University,Baltimore, MD, June 1965.
"WaterPollution Aspectsof UrbanRunoff," Federal
11. AmericanPublic WorksAssociation,
Water Pollution Control Administration, 1969.
"Urban Water ResourcesRe-
12. Arnerican Society of Civil Engineers,First Year Report,
search,"Sept. 1968.
13. W. Viessman,Jr., "Modeling of Water Quality Inputs from Urbanized Areas," Urban
Water ResourcesResearch, Study by ASCE Urban Hydrology Research Council,
Sept.1968,pp. A79-A103.
"Characterization,
14. S. R. Weible,R. B. Weidner,A. G. Christianson,and R. J. Anderson,
Treatment,and Disposal of Urban Storm Water," in Proceedingsof the Third Interna-
tional Conference,International AssociationonWater Pollution Researcft(S. H. Jenkins,
ed.). Elmsford,NY PergamonPress,1969.
"Pesticidesand Other
15. S. R. Weible,R. B. Weidner,J. M. Cohan,and A. G. Christianson,
Contaminants in Rainfall and Runoff," '/. Am. Water Works Assoc. 58(8),
1675(Aug.1966).
16. Division of WaterResources,Departmentof Civil Engineering,University of Cincinnati,
Cincinnati. OH. "Urban Runoff Characteristics,"Water Pollution Control ResearchSe-
ries. EPA. 1970.
17. Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., University of Florida, Gainewille, Water ResourcesEngineers,
Inc., "Storm Water ManagementModel," Environmental Protection Agency, Vol. 1,
r971.
18. E. Kuichling, "The Relation Betweenthe Rainfall and the Dischargeof Sewersin Popu-
lous Districts,"Tians.ASCE,20(1889).
19. W. W. Horner, "Modern Procedurein District SewerDesign," Eng. News 64,326(1910).
"Relation BetweenRainfall and Runoff from Small Urban
20. W. W Horner and F. L. Flynt,
Areas," Trans.ASCE 20(140),( 1936).
21. R. L. Rossnriller,"The Runoff Coefficient in the Rational Formula," EngineeringRe-
searchInstitute, Iowa State University,Feb. 1981.
"Experimental Examination of the
22. J. C. Schaake,Jr., J. C. Geye1,and J. W. Knapp,
RationalMethod," Proc.ASCEJ. Hyd. Div.93(HY6) (Nov. 1967).
"Airport Drainage," Advisory
23. FederalAviation Agency, Departmentof Transportation,
Circular, AIC 150-5320-58.Washington, D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrintingOfflce, 1970.
Chapter16
HydrologicDesign
Prologue
The PurPoseof this chaPteris to:
DESIGNPROCEDURES
16.1 HYDROLOGIC
in either the peak flow
Proceduresfor estimatingdesignflood flows (interestcan be
historical or projected
rate or the entire hydrogiaph)includemethodsthat examine
and methodsthat
flood flowsto arrive at i sultauteestimate(flow-basedmethods),
storms to flood flow rates
evaluatethe stormsthat producefloods,andthen convertthe
In eachcase,the analysis can be based on selectinga
(precipitation-basedmethods).
flood (callfrequency-based meth'
i"rign rr"qo"ncy and determiningthe ass,ociated
and_ narrowing the final
ods), developingdesignsfor a ringe of flood frequencies
(called risk-based methods)' or
choice on the basisof long-term c6sts and benefits
designingonthebasisofanestimateoftheprobablemaximumstormormanmum
RooAtnit could occur at the site (calledcritical-event methods).
basedon frequency-
Minor Structure Design Minor structuredesignis largely
Severalsteps in the hydrologicapproachto
basedor sometimesrisk]basedmethods.
to most design handbooks and adoptedtech-
minor structtJredesign are comrnon
niques.The generalsteps (eachis illustrated subsequently) are:
to the time
1. Determinethe duration of the critical storm,usually equated
concentrationof the watershed.
t Choosethe designfrequencY.
3. Obtain the storri OeptltUaseaon the selectedfrequencyand duration'
in
4. Qomputethe net direct runoff (severalmethodswere presented
ter 4).
5. Selectthe time distribution of the rainfall excess'
6.Synthesizetheunithydrographforthewatershed(seeChapterl2).
T.Applythederivedrainfall_excesspatterntothesyntheticunithydrograph
get the runoff hYdrograPh.
8. Establish the frequen-cyiftn" calculatedflood (usuallyassumedequalto t
designstorm frequencY).
DESIGNPROCEDURES
16.1 HYDROLOGIC 361
Major Structure Design Hydrologicdesignaspectsof maior structuresare consid-
erably more complexthan thoseof a small dam, crossroadculvert, or urban drainage
system.A designstorm hydrographfor a'large dam still is required but it is put to
greater use. The designstorm hydrographis routed to determinethe adequacyof
spillwaysand outlets operatedin conjunction with reservoir storage.The economic
selectionofthe spillwaysizefrom the variouspossibilitiesdictatesthe final designand
is a function of the degreeof protection providedfor downstreamlife and property,
project economy,agencypolicy andconstructionstandards,andreservoiroperational
requirements.Major structuredesignis largely basedon critical eventmethodspre-
sentedin Section16.5.
Flow-BasedMethods
For designlocationswhererecordsof streamflows are available,or whereflows from
anotherbasin can be transposedto the designlocation, a designflood magnitudecan
be estimateddirectly from the streamflows by any of the following methods:
'
1. Frequencyanalysisof flood flows at the designlocation or from a similar
basin in the region.
2. Useof regionalflood frequencyequations,normally developedfrom regres-
sion analysis(seeChapter 26) of gaugedflood data.
3. Examination of the stream and floodplain for signs of highest historical
floods and estimationof the flow rates using measurementsof the cross-
sectionand slopeof the stream.
Methods
Precipitation-Based
Where stream-gaugingrecordsare unavailableor inadequatefor streamflow.estima-
tion, designfloods can be estimatedby evaluatingthe precipitation that would pro-
ducethe flood, and then convertingthe frecipitation into runoffby any ofthe rainfall-
runoff methodsdescribedin Chapters10-15 or 2l-27. Typical methodsinclude:
Frequency-BasedMethods
Regardlessof whetherflow or precipitation dataareused,designsmost often proceed
by selectinga minimum acceptablerecurrenceinterval and using proceduresfrom
Chapter27 to determinethe correspondingworst condition storm or flood that could
be equalledor exceededduring the selectedrecurrenceinterval. Criteria for selecting
designrecurrenceintervals are summarizedin Section 16.3. Resultsfrom frequency
analysisof flood flow data normally provide reliable estimatesof 2-, 5-, 10-, and
25-yearflows.Extrapolationbeyondthe rangeof the period of flow recordsis allowed,
but is lessreliable.
Risk-BasedMethods
Recenttrends in designof minor (and major) structuresare toward the use of eco-
nomic risk analysesrather than frequgncy-based designs.The risk methodselectsthe
structuresizeas that which minimizestotal expectedcosts.Tfreseare madeup of the
structurecostsplus the potential flood lossesassociatedwith the particular structure.
The procedureis illustrated in Fig. 16.1.The total expectedcost curve is the sum of
o
b0
q
CriticalEventMethods
Becauseof the high risk to lives or property below major structures,their design
generallyincludesprovisionsfor a flood causedby a combinationof the most severe
meteorologicand hydrologic conditions that are possible.Instead of designingfor
somefrequencyor leastexpectedtotal cost,flood handlingfacilities for the structures
are sizedto safelystoreor passthe most critical storm or flood possible.Methodsfor
designingby critical eventtechniquesinclude:
16.2 DATAFORHYDROLOGIC
DESIGN
The designof any structurerequires a certain amount of data, even if only a field
estimateof the drainageareaand a descriptionof terraintype and cover.The following
material identiflessomegeneraldata types and sources.
PhysiographicData
The hydrologic study for any structurerequires a reliable topographicmap. United
StatesGeologicalSurveytopographicmapsusually are available.The mappingof the
United Statesis almost completewith 15-minute quadrangles,and many of these
areasaremappedby 7.5-minutequadrangles.County mapsand aerialphotoscan also
be usedto advantagein making preliminary studiesof the watershed.
364 DESIGN
CHAPTER16 HYDROLOGIC
drainage
Based on an area map, a careful investigation of the watershed's
information can be obtained from USGS maps
behaviormust be made. Additional
Soil types and the inflltration and erosive
that depict predominantrock formations.
or univer-
characteristicsof soilscanbe securedfrom U.S. Soil Conservationdistricts
sity extensiondivisions.
of an
The drainageareascontributing to large dams require stricter analysis
in designing minor structures. The possibility of a
area,shydrotogyitranis necessary
for large
uniformly intenserainfall over the entire basin is an unrealisticassumption
The influenceof temporal and spatial variations of the rainfall should thus
watersheds. "worst possible" rainfall values are
be considered.For major dams, the estimated
in reservoir
generallyconvertedto a designdischargehydrograph,which is then used
reservoii and spillway size, surcharge storage, and
routing calculationsto propoition
maintain power requirements or sustained down-
, any additional outlets neededto
in hydrologic
streamflow for navigation,irrigation, or watersupply.The basicconcern
downstream interests using a realistic estimatefor
designof a large Aamis to protect
the designstorm hYdrograPh.
purpose the
Topographic'rnuf o"tuit necessarilyshifts with the type and .of
pi"ta reconnaisiance always increases the understanding of
structurebeing design"a.
insignificant the structule might be.
an area,shydrology*nomatter how
HydrologicData
the regionunder
one difficulty in hydrologicdesignis that of gettingadequatedatafor
data canbe-acquiredfrom pr-eviously published-reports issuedby
study.ConsiOerabie
is a list of federal agencies
governmentalagenciesand/or universities.The following
that PublishhYdrologicdata:
'
egricultural ResearchService
Soil ConservationService
Forest Service
U.S. ArmY CorPsof Engineers
National Oceanicand AtmosphericAdministration
Bureauof Reclamation
DePartmentof TransPortation
U.S. GeologicalSurvey' TopographicDivision
U.S. Geological.Survey,WaterResources Division
governments,inter-
Additional dlta often canbe procuredfrom departmentsof state
statecommissions,and regional and local agencies'
MeteorologicData
and Atmospheric
The National WeatherService, couchedin the National Oceanic
source of meteorologicdata published in a variety
Administration, is the primary
Report (HMR) series. Figure 16.2
of forms, including their Hyirometeorologic
showstheapplicablereportsforvariousgeographicandtopographicregionsofthe
DESIGN-FREQUENCYCRITERIA
365
16.3 HYDROLOGIC
Figure16.2HydrometeorologicalreportseriescoverageofconterminousUnitedStates.
(U.S.Bureauof Reclamation')
CRITERIA
DESIGN-FREQUENCY
16.3 HYDROLOGIC
S e l e c t i o n o f f r e q u e i s m o s t o f t e n b a s e d o n p o t e n t i a l
d a m a g e t o p r o p e r r : l o s s e s s u c h a s i n t e r r u p t i o n o f
commefce'A stanc
the worst conditio
involved,a greal a
an
A11projects involve somerisks to property
design can proceed thror.t
human tife li absent'the
tn
quencylevel and designof the leastcost structure
alternativetoleastStructurecost,economicriskana]
rather than
the final designfrequencyis optimized
for several trequencret
would accommodatestorms
is u*"J. itr"r" costsincludenot only the actualconstfuction
leasttotal expectedcost
"o** du9 to interruption of servicesand
costsbut also the flood dama!;;irk una
economicanalysescan be used'
commerce.Either annual or p"resentworth
366 CHAPTER16 HYDROLOGICDESIGN
MinorStructures
The designfrequenciesshown in Table 16.1 are typical of levels generallyencoun-
tered in minor structuredesign.An exampleof variationsthat do occur is the design
frequencyof a culvert,which undercasesof excessivebackwatercould effectivelyhalt
trafflc.
The Soil ConservationServicerecommendsthe use of a2l-year frequencyfor
minor urban drainagedesignif there is no potential loss of life or risk of extensive
damagesuch as first-floor elevationsof homes.A 100-yearfrequencyis commonly
recommendedwhen extensiveproperty damagemay occur.t
Highwaycrossroad
drainage"
0-400 ADT' 10yr 0.10
400-1700 ADT 10-25yr 0.10-0.04
1700-5000 ADT 25 yr 0.04
5000- ADT 50 yr o.o2
Airfields 5yr 0.20
Railroads 25-50 yr 0.04-0.02
Stormdrainage 2-10 yr 0.50-0.10
Levees 2-50 yr 0.50-0.02
Drainage ditches 5-50 yr 0.20-0.02
'ADT : averagedaily traffic. (After Ref. 3).
Large Dams
Damsrequirehydrologicanalysisduringthe designof the original structureandduring
periodic safetyevaluations.Significanteconomicand humanlossesarepossiblewhen
large quantitiesof water are rapidly releasedfrom storage.
Initial heightsof retardedwater behind the dam, disregardingthe total volume
of stored water, can produce destructiveflood wavesfor a considerabledistance
downstream.Basedon two criteria, the TaskForceon SpillwayDesignFloodsrecom-
meridedthe classificationof large damsas li,stedin Table 16.2.The type of construc-
tion has not been included in this grouping, althoughit affects the extentof failure
resulting from overtopping.
Many of the federalagencieshaveadopteddefinitionsfor hydraulic elementsof
dams.The following list is usedby the Soil ConservationService:
FORI-ARGEDAMS
TABLE16,2 DESIGNCRITERIA
danger
lmpoundment
Potential
Failure damage Potential'
Storage Height
(acre-ft)o (ft) Loss of life Damage Spillwaydesignflood
Category (6)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Emergency
/ :Minimum spillway
spillwaycrestJ
Emergency
x r freeboard
Surcharge Normalpoollevel\
storage v I
Flood control
retardingstorage Reservoir
Minimum
Pool
Qo
reservoirpoollevelsandstoragezones'
Figure 16.3 Multipurpose
SmallDams
provide
Small damscustomarilyare designedusingtwo or more levelsof frequencyto
Figure 16.3
an emergencyspillway and ensure an adequateallowable freeboard.
(MF)-
showsa iypicit small dam with normal freeboard(NF) and minimal freeboard
The freeboardvaluesfor earth dams with riprap protection on the upstreamslope'
100-mph
shownin Tablq 16.3, atebasedon waverunup causedby storm winds with
wind velocities.Minimal freeboardpertainsto wind velocitiesof 50 mph. The fetch
shore. If
is definedas the perpendiculardistancefrom the structureto the windward
smoothconcrerc;atirerthan riprap is usedon the upstreamface' the freeboardvalues
shown shouldbe increased50 percent'"
DESIGN-FREQUENCYCFIITERIA
16.3 HYDROLOGIC 369
Fetch (mi)
<1 4 3
I +
2.5 6 5
5 8 o
10 10 7
Soarce:After Ref. 4.
of
The U.S. Soil conservation Service designcriteria for principal spillways
should be
small dams are given in Table 16.4. The SCS TechnicalReleaseNo. 60
of this table.sDesign frequency_requirementsare
consultedfor full interpretation
SCS classifles
selectedto fit the planned or foreseeableuse of the structures.The
structuresinto three grouPs:u
SingIe Lessthan
D6
or multiples 30,000 None !D5 0 r25
Greaterthan
30,000 None 0.5(Pso + Ploo) 0.5(Prs+ Pso)
All Anyt D
r 100 rD5 0
I Product of reservoir storagevolume V, (acre-feet) times effective height of dam 11, (feet).
2Precipitation depths for indicated return periods (years).
3Applies to irrigation dams on ephemeralstreamsin areaswhere mean annual rainfall is less than 25 in.
aDL = designlife (years).
5Class (a) dams involving industrial or municipal water are to use minimum criteria equivalent to that of Class (b).
6In the case of a ramp spillway, the minimum criteria should be increasedfrom Prr to Pt66.
?Applies when the failure of the upstream dam may endangerthe lower dam.
Soarce.'Soil Conservation Servtce.
. TEMPEMrure
'76
80 .F
'10 '72
142230343842 46 505254 565860 62 64 66 68 74 78
800
a
-.:
=
z
p
h
a
H
d
1.0 1.5
ABLE WATER IN INCHES
Figure 16.4 Diagram for precipitable water determination from 1,000 to 700
millibars.(U.S. Bureauof Reclamation.)
L
372 16 HYDRoLoGIc
CHAPTER DESIGN
EMPEMTre
l8 26 66 70 74
200
Figure 16.5 Diagram fbr precipitable water determination from 800 to 200
millibars.From 1281.103-D-1908.(U.S. Bureauof Reclamation.)
16.4 DESIGNSTORMS 373
MaiorStructures
16.4 DESIGNSTORMS
Once the designfrequencyhasbeenestablished,the next stepin a structuredesignis
the determinaiionof six ,io.- puru-eters: the stormduration,the durationof rainfall
excess,the point depth, any ireal depth adjustment,the storm intensity and time
distribution, and the areal distribution pattern'
Duration
The length of storm usedby the SCS in designingemergencyand freeboardhydro-
graphsior small damsis of 6-hr durationor /c, whicheveris greater' Often, the minor
it*"tu.. being designedcannotbe justified economicallyon the basisof this length
of storm. Foi many minor structures, particularly urban drainage structures, a
designflood hydrogiaph is basedon a storm duration equal to the time of concen-
trati-onof the wateisneA.fnis procedureusesthe rational method of Chapter 15 or
the synthetic unit hydrographs of Chapter 12 along with a critical storm pattern
produced by arranging the rainfall excesspattern into the most critical sequence.
fn" SCS uies 24-hr durations for all urban watershedstudies'
Durationsof approximately6hr or lessare satisfactoryfor small watersheds,but
the lengthsof stormiln large areasrequire storm depths for periodsof up to 10 days'
Freque-ncy-based valuesare availablefor durationsof from 2 to I0 daysfor locations
within the United States.toSimilar data are also availablefor other selectedareas
outsidethe United States.Generally,however,designcriteria for large damsrequire
estimatesof storm depthsthat do not havefrequencylevelsassigned.
Durationof RainfallExcebs
Initial rainfall during most stormsinfiltrates or is otherwiseabstracted,and the dura-
tion of excessrainTf,is lessthan the actual rain duration by an amount.equalto the
time that initial abslractionsoccur. Excessrain duration 7s can be estimatedfor a
6-hr storm as a function of the curve number CN and precipitation P from
374 DESIGN
CHAPTER16 HYDROLOGIC
125" 120"
€i 7t?
"d, \
,-o-
tv
Bureau,
Figure 16.6 The 10-mi2or less PMP for 6-hr duration (in.). (U.S. Weather
NOAA.)
storm
Fig. 16.8. This family of curves was developedby the Sclrlt y-h:I" P is the
A CNof 100 represents zero
O""pttruna CNis a losi parameterdefined1lhaptgr {.
lossessothatZg:6hrforCN:l00.Table16.6isusedtofindthedurationof
is the
excess rain for any storm duration greater than 6 hr. The rainfall ratio
(T'iUle 16.7) divided by the total precipitation
absrractionP* losi before runoff
to
amount P. The time ratio from Table 16.6 is multiplied by the rainfall duration
obtain Ze.
\
\
0 s0 r00 2?0 3?0 490 5P
90. 85' 6u
95"
Depth
available.
386 CHAPTER16 HYDROLOGIC
DESIGN
1.0
0.9
0.8
X \ o 0.7
0.6
.=a 0.5
0.3
v.z
0.1
I 2 3 4 s 6 Figure16.18 A6-hrdesignstormdistri-
Time(hr) bution for SCSdam design.(After Ref. 12.)
Rainfall
distribution
f--l ryp"r
ffi rvwIe
i--l rypeu
llffil rvnerrl
rF- ooo
V v
(b)
for zonesI'
Figure 16.19 SCS 24-hr rainfall distributions:(a) 24-hr rainfall distributions
for scs rainfall distributions'(After Ref' 16')
IA, II, and III and (b) approximateboundaries
388 CHAPTER16 HYDROLOGICDESIGN
1.00
0.90
r ORO
; o.7o
E o6n
tr nsn
; 0.40
E o.3o
o.20
0.10
Time (hr)
Figure 16.20 Distribution of 6-hr PMP for any area
west of the 105' meridian. (After Ref. 6.)
Time,
hr
Figure 16.21 Triangulardesignhyetograph.
Areal Distribution
precipitation depths can and do vary from point to point during a storm. Areal
variation in designstorm depth is normally disregardedexceptin major structure
designs.The usual approachin major structureanalysisis to selecta design(usually
elliptical) or historic (transposed)isohyetalpattem for the PMP or SPS depth and
assignprecipitation depthsio the isohyetsin a fashionthat givesthe desiredaverage
depih over the basin. The averagedepth is determinedby the isohyetal method
illustrated in ChaPter2.
Four majorlypes of storm patterns are shown in Fig. 16.22 fot areasup to
400 mir. Thesewere identifiedby iluff in his analysisof midwesternstormpatterns.ll
The letters H andL representareaswith high and low precipitation depths,respec-
tively. The typical isohyetalpatternfor SPSstormshasbeenestablishedas generally
Valley
elliptical in itrapeas shownin nt. 16.23.This patternis usedby the Tennessee
t t t l
Scale: miles
l1
B 45
C 114
D 279
E 546
F 903
G 1349
H 2508
4458
(After Ref.18.)
l r r r r l l l
1 0 5 0 1 0 2 0
: miles
A l6
B 100
C 320
D 800
E 1800
F 3700
G 7100
(After Ref. 19.)
. known. Ratios for 50-, 100-, and 200-nr2 areasare equal to those in Table 16.10
multiplied by 0.91, 0.94, and 0.97, respectivd. For uniform rainfall the 95 percent
ratios of the table are recornmended.With extreme Variability the 5 percent ratio
applies.The 50 percentratios approximateaverageconditions'
EVENTULrnoos
16.5CRTilCAL
392 CHAPTER16 DESIGN
HYDROLOGIC
20,000
10,000 \
+ 72-hperiod
5,000
4,000
\\\
3,000
o
2,000
1,000
500
s=
,*Nr"
400
300
\\ \
200
o
I
\
100
50
40
\
30
\ \
20
10
40 60 80 100 120 140
of SPS
IsohyetPercentage value
future event, and then design accordingly. These methods include the use of
the probable rnaximum precipitation PMP, probable maximum flood PMF, record
high storm depths, record high floods, multiples of frequency-basedfloods, and
paleohydrology.
ProbableMaximumPrecipitation
Probablemaximum precipitation depthsfor drainagebasinsin the United Statesare
providedin the respectiveNational WeatherServiceHMRs2oidentified in Fig. 16.2.
The probablemaximum stormis deflnedasthe most severestorm consideredreason-
ably possibleto occur.The resultingprobablemaximumflood is customarilyobtained
by usingunit hydrographsand rainfall estimatesof the PMP preparedby the National
rily'eather
Service2l(seeFigs. 16.6 and 16.26).
EVENTMETHODS 393
16.5 CRTTTCAL
ON 400 miz
POINTTO MEANRAINFALL
TABLE16.10 RATIOOF MAXIMUM
Mean rainfall(in.)
Rainfallperiod
(hr) 1.0 1.5 2.O 2.5 4.0 5.0
5% Probabilitylevel ratios
(Storms with extreme variation in intensity)
0.5 5.20 3.00 2.r8 1.70 r.4r 1.30 t.26 1.22
1 5.50 3.21 2.29 1.80 1.48 1.35 1.30 1.25
2 5.80 3.38 2.44 1.90 1.55 1.41 r.33 r.28
3 6.05 3.54 2.53 1.99 1.61 1.46 r.36 1.30
6 J.t I 2.69 2.r2 r.72 1.52 1.43 1.35
l2 4.01 2.86 2.25 1.83 1.60 1.50 1.40
18 4.14 2.96 2.33 1.90 1.65 1.54 1.43
)4 4.27 3.05 2.40 1.96 r.69 1.57 1.45
48 3.25 2.55 2.08 1.77 1.63 1.50
50% Probabilitylevelratios
(Stormswith averagetimedislributions)
0.5 2.66 2.02 1.5'1 1.32 1.22 1.16 |.14 l.l2
I 3.03 2.r5 1.65 L39 r.27 1.20 1.18 1.16
L 3.46 2.29 r.75 1.46 1.32 1.24 Lzr 1.19
3 3.77 2.42 1.85 1.52 1.38 t.28 1.23 t.22
6 2.59 1.98 r.63 r.43 1.33 r.28 1.26
12 2.78 2.12 r.75 1.50 r.39 1.32 1.30
l8 2.89 2.20 1.81 1.57 1.43 1.35 1.32
JA 3.00 2.28 1.87 1.60 1.47 1.38 1.33
48 3.r7 2.44 ,1.99 .1.68 1.53 r.46 1.38
95%Probability levelratios
(Stormswith uniformintensities)
0.5 2.38 1.53 r.28 1.18 r.16 1.13 1.11 1.10
I 2.75 1.72 1,38 1.23 1.20 l.l7 1.15 1.r4
2 3.15 1.90 1.47 1.28 1.24 1.20 1.18 1.16
J 3.46 2.02 1.53 1.33 1.27 1.22 r.20 1.18
6 2.24 t.67 r.43 1.31 1.27 1.24 1.21
t2 2.50 1.78 1.50 1.38 1 . 3I 1.28 1.25
l8 2.67 1.89 1.53 r.4l 1.33 1.30 1.27
)4 2.77 1.92 1.58 r.43 1.35 t.32 1.29
48 3.07 2.04 r.64 r.47 1.40 1.36 1.33
Sorrce.'After Huff.lr
\ ,/ \\ - - - - -20.1(3)
-"..- I
\ zo.t /
€ s 0
ii JU
20 o 048-11
= {6gtrQs9ae
10
5
3
2
I
N-h o R 9 -3 ' 8 8 8 8 8 3 8 3 o o o o o
I i;;". .N 6
6
-A o o o o o
* N o h o
Drainage area (mi2)
In cases where estimates of PMP have not been made. volumes of rainfall to be
expected can also be approximated from Creager rainfall envelope curves of the world
record rainfalls as depicted in Fig. 16.28. Maximum flood flow data for 883 sites up
to 25,900 sq km formed the basis for the Crippen and Bue envelope equation given by
: A)31
6rlosA+caGogA)2+ca(log (16.2)
4o lgfc r+
where qo is the maximum flow (m3/sec),A is the drainage area (sq km) and the
coefficientsare from Table 16-11 usingFigure 16.29.
StandardProjectStorm
The standardproject stormis anotherrainfall depththat is usedin the designof large
dams. This value is usually obtainedfrom a survey of severestormsin the general
vicinity of the drainagebasin. The storm selectedas the SPS may be oriented to
produce the maximum amount of runoff for the SPF. Alternatively, severestorms
experiencedin meteorologically"similar" areascan be transposedover the study
atea.
396 CHAPTER16 HYDROLOGICDESIGN
2000
1
1000
600 A
400
200
/:fr>y%^"1", ndia
? 1oo
g ffi"*"[,,"1,
runkiKO , Formo t a -
anlalca
; 6 0 Fr-
aquio, Pldl .ppineIr landr
s 4 0 Ihra]l, TX
imethport, I A -
& 2 0 -n"irpfii,W
10 t-L{
lHoit,MO-
--J-f-1-
reaDe Arses, Bglqeqla
6 I Plumb. -
?oint,Jamaica I | |
2
4
IT
ft-
ri--ftTl- t-
ssen, Bal
Figure16.28Creagercurvesofworld'sgreatestrainfalls.(AfterRef.18')
6 -
S B (hE +
u) r
N
+
f O h 6 + i h n
€ o $ i o N
Q E ( o d d i r d d r ;
e a e 6
h n
d
n
N O N N
n h n
6
oa
Fcr
3 .* @'a q q q q q
@ n h a r
F * 9 - : . f + d r
,'! o
r r r @ r
i O O i O
A
FA g 3
" ' o * = v
: < = x x x
Y Y Y - - !s
E
O a ' o ^
o 6.?f) o + s o @
6 h n o €
Jjas5
b.E 9-
q g 8d' @ + d r
* @ € d
$
N
:! o F
O N N O O
> o 9
g € o i n €
f E a ^ N O O N 6
J = = z + rd ro; + \c;-;
* E - d i r
E
= ^^ €
d
N i h O
o o d s
E o e*v 9 r d o i v i . j
d
F< a' 6 N r o n
€ r 6 h o
;
; s H o+ + . . , j . . l 6
. L ( E v
- : d N i
= E ^
* E 5 oq i i : E
E E e
N d c n N d
6
t
r
Eec' o 6 n h n
n n d l q d l ^ ^ ^ -
o d
- . o o c^ \ \ 9 n
-
E= P- E* =' E 9 d O @ € d
* : f + $ h
F 6 - o r
4 . 2
E PF a
tr E g-
\ q c t \ q
N h o o a
g ?
@ 9 0
6 I 3 = - o * < i d
. E X
E . Eg J + s o { 6
E o =
6 €Pu "
* h h o s
n € n r i
* O
i * 6 6 5
. E o g S t r r t 1 9
J @ E d * o o I
i * * i 6
t r F F {
o ^ N : O O A E 5 5 - E d
c + o
408 DESIGN
CHAPTER16 HYDROLOGIC
i:::\
V:
including storm
Figure 16.36 Children's artist rendering of urban undergroundsysteT,
A 1976 by David Macaulay.Reprintedwith per-
driins. From UNDERGROUND,Copyrighl
missionof HoughtonMifflin Co' Al1 rights reserved'
and
detention in gutters, house drains, catchbasins,and the storm sewer systems,
interceptionin extensivelylandscapedlocations'
Two items normally accountedfor in urban storm drain designare:
many
1, Infil,tration. The ability of the soil to infiltrate water dependson
given
characteristicsof the soil as noted in chapter 3. The rangeof values
in the following table is typical of variousbare soils after t hr of continuous
rainfall'
RATEs
rvircnr- |NFILTRATIoN
Soilgroup (in./hr)
Infiltration
U.S.NationalFlood lnsuranceProgram(NFIP)
In 1968, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development(HUD), later
to
called the FederalEmlrgency ManagementAgency (FEMA), initiated the NFIP
identify flood hazard areasand to provide occupants of floodplains with mapping of
the flood-proneareasand accesstolorv-costflood insurance'The NFIP requireslocal
gou"rn-"nt5, to adoptand implementflood managementprogramsthat preventdevel-
opmentsin excessof national standards'
Since the inception of the National Flood InsuranceProgram, flood hazatd
The
areas have been mapped in over 18,000 communities in the United States.
programcost over $t.O Uittion to complete and has since converted to a maintenance
effort of updating and expandingthe maps as developmentsoccur'-Each of these
for
studieshas required eithei approximateor detailedevaluationof peak flow rates
discharge, called the base flood, has
a range of recurrenceintervals. The 100-year
beendeterminedin all cases.The portion ofthe floodplainoccupiedby the baseflood
4'10 oHAPTER
16 HYDRoLoGIc
DESIGN
has been mapped,allowing communitiesto determinewhether a property is in the
100-yr floodplain,and in many cases,what water surfaceelevationwould be experi-
encedat the property during the baseflood.
Figure 16.37illustratesthe typical NFIP mappingand floodplainmanagement
procedure.Surveyedvalley and channelcross-sectionsare used in determiningthe
100-yr flow depth, allowing the hydrologistto delineatethe lateral extentof flooding
duringthe 100-yrflood. Then afloodwaywidth is generallydeterminedasthat portion
of the floodplain that is reservedin order to dischargethe 100-yearflood without
cumulativelyincreasingthe water surfacemore than 1.0 ft. This procedureis illus-
trated in Fig, 16.38.The floodwayis most often centeredover the main stream
channel,but can be offset or even split into severalzones.
Developmentwithin the floodwayis allowed only if compensatedby relocating
the floodway or mitigating the water surfaceincreasedue to the development.The
flood fringe is that portion of the floodplain outsidethe floodwayin which develop-
ment is allowed,up to a point of full encroachmentby buildings,roadbeds,berms,and
so forth. As much as sevento ten percentof the total land area of the United States
lies within the 100-yearfloodplain.The largestareasof floodplainare in the southern
parts of the country, and the most populatedfloodplainsare alongthe north Atlantic
coast,the GreatLakesregion,and in California.
The floodplain mapping effort produced a large amount of data and analyses
useful to designhydrologists.The productsof the program include:
Floodway
Flood Fringe Flood Fringe
_ ',100_year"Floodplain
i
I
I
Channel
100Year FloodPlain
Encroachment
the floodwaywidth'
for determining
Figure 16.38 Procedure
3.The100-and500-yearmappedfloodplaindelineationsatscalesranging
from 1:4800to 1:24,000'
4. The 100-yearfloodwaydata and mapping'
wave haz-
5. Coastalhigh hazard irea mapping 1*"u* subjectto significant
ards).
6. FloodwaYflow velocities'
7. Insurancerisk zones'
|.FloodlnsurancestudyReportsprovidegeneralprogramandcommunity
floodway
backgroundinformation,tauutateaflood dischatgedata,tabulated.
surcharge information' tabu-
datalncluding velocity, floodwaywidth, and
of the 10-' 50-' 100-' and
lated flood insurance'zonedati, and profi'les
for riverine flooding'
500-yearflood elevationversusstreamdistances
of the 100-
2. Flood InsuranceRateMaps (FIRM maps)provide delineations
and500-yearfloodplains,basefloodelevations'coastalhighhazardareas'
andinsuranceriskzonesonaplanimetricbaseatascalebetweenl:4800
and 1:24,000.
3.FloodBoundaryHazardMapsprovidedelineationsofthel00-and500-
crosssections
yearfloodplains,locationsof surveyedfloodplainand channel
of the floodway
100-year on a
usedin hydraulic analyses,and delineations
1:4800and 1:24'000'
planimetricor topographicbaseat a scalebetween
HydrologYfor FloodPlainStudies
NFIP studiesare basedon
Flood flow frequency estimatesfor gaugedlocationsin
records.Annual peak
log-pearsonType III (seechapter 27; analysisof streamflow
recommendedby FEMA'
flows and historical data arcfitted accordingto procedures
412 CHAPTER16 HYDROLOGIGDESIGN
U.S.Flood Hazards
Despiteconsiderableeffort and expenditurein identificationof floodplainsand flood
hazardareas,dam failuresand other catastrophiescontinueto resultin severedamage
to life, property, and the environment.Floods from hurricanes,intenserainstorms,
and rapid snowmelt or structure failure have all contributed to the loss of life. A
tabulationof eventscausingmore than 100 deathsin the United Statesis providedin
Table 16.15. As indicated, the majority are hurricane related, principally concen-
trated in the east-coastand Gulf of Mexico regionsas sfown in Fig. 16.39.
Monetary lossesfrom floodsare also large.Table 16.16showsa numberof past
U.S. floods producingover $50 million in flood damageseach,given in 1966dollars.
Collectively, these floods have produced flood dam4gesin billions of dollars, dis-
tributed through the yearsas shown in Fig. 16.40. I
The Federal InsuranceAdministration evaluatedthe floodplain areas in the
communitiesmappedby FEMA. By using demographicand economicinformation,
projectionsof future property at risk of flooding could be made.Results.suggest that
billions of investments in flood damageable property have occurred in floodplains.
Table 16.17lists the breakdown,by state,of estimated1990 developmentvalue that
will be in harm's way.
Damages (1985 $)
rg2o 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 8s
Damage($ millions)
1 California 163,323,1,92
2 Florida 131,548,814
3 Texas 72,376,950
Louisiana 45,402,322
5 Arizona 45,094,183
6 New Iersey 38,945,265
7 New York 32,005,900
8 Illinois 26,880,755
9 Massachusetts 23,8t3,115
l0 Pennsylvania 18,888,390
tl Virginia 17,441,420
12 Maryland 16,330,448
13 Washington t6,245,009
L4 Ohio t5,273,r47
15 Michigan 13,449,078
16 North Carolina 12,993,067
l7 Wisconsin 12,r8r,725
18 Georgia 11,832,494
1,9 Connecticut tt,1r7,290
20 Missouri 11,654,861
2l Indiana r0,786,741
22 Minnesota 10,655,t64
z3 Nebraska 10,360,574t
/)A
Oklahoma 9,501,778
25 Alabama 9,274,903
26 South Carolina 9,220,305
2'7 Tennessee 8,037,425
28 Colorado 7,137,757
29 Oregon 6,861,790
30 Mississippi 6,134,073
3l New Mexico 5,519,278
JZ Kansas 5,279,t94
33 Iowa 5,26r,678
3+ RhodeIsland 4,312,117
35 Kentucky 4,r70,637
36 North Dakota 3,924,872
3 t Urah 3,812,936
38 Nevada 3,437,813
39 Arkansas 3,005,rs0
40 Delaware 2,954,467
4I Maine 2,416,322
4) West Virginia 2,098,262
43 New Hampshire t,991,453
44 South Dakota 1,430,610
4f Idaho 1,39t,498
46 Hawaii 1,323,90s
47 Vermont 1,091,099
48 Wyoming 1,081,460
49 Montana 881,661
50 Alaska 647,81,8
"status of Floodplain Hazard Evaluation Under the National Flood Insurance Program,"
Source: B. R. Mrazik,
Emergency ManagementAgency, Washington,DC, 1986.
_ fed9r91
17.3 SUBSURFACE DISTRIBUTIONOFWATER 429
locations it has become more important than overdrafts of groundwater
supplies.
Today,the hydrologistmust be concernedwith both the qualitli and quantity
aspecrs
of groundwater.Furthermore, there is emerging an increasing specialization
in
groundwaterquality modeling.This latter type of modelingis ge;erally
beyondthe
scopeof this text but information on this topic may be founOin'Refs. j-6.
17.2 GROUNDWATER
FLOW-GENERALPROPEFTIES
Understandingthe movementof groundwaterrequiresa knowledgeof
the time and
spacedependencies of the flow, the nature of thJporous medium and fluid, and the
,boundariesof the flow system.
Groundwaterflowsareusuallythree-dimensional.Unfortunately,the solution
of
suchproblemsby analytic methodsis complexunlessthe systemis symmetric.7,8
In
othercases,spacedependencyin oneofthe ioordinate direciions.uy 6"
so slightthat
assumptionof two-dimensionalflow is satisfactory.Many problemsof practical
im-
portancefall into this class.Sometimesone-dimensional flow can be assumed,thus
further simplifying the solution.
Fluid propertiessuchas velocity, pressure,temperature,density,and vis6osity
often vary_intime and space.When timi dependencyoccurs,the issueis
termed an
unsteadyflow problem and solutionsare usually difficult. On the other hand,
situa-
tions where-spacedependencyaloneexistsare iteady
flow problems.Only nomoge-
neous (single-phase)fluids are consideredhere. For a discussionof muliiple phase
flow, Refs.5 and g are recommended.
Bou-ndaries to groundwaterflow systemsmay be fixed geologicstructuresor free
water surfacesthat are dependentfor their position on the stateol the flow. A hydrol-
ogistmust be ableto definetheseboundariesmathematicallyif the groundwater
flow
problemsare to be solved.
Porousmedia through which groundwatersflow may be classifiedas isotropic,
anisotropic,heterogeneous, homogeneous, or severalpossiblecombinationsofthese.
An isotropic medium has uniform properties in all directions from a given point.
Anisotropic mediahaveone or more propertiesthat dependon a given diiection.
For
example,permeabilityof the medium might be greateialong a horizontal plane
than
alonga vertical.one.Heterogeneoas mediahavenonuniform-propertiesof umrotropy
or isotropy, while homogeneous media are uniform in their ihaiacteristics.
17.3 SUBSURFACE
DISTRIBUTION
OF WATER
4; sotLs,ANDGEoLocy
cHAprER17 GR.,NDWATER,
l. Soilwater zone.A soil water zonebeginsat the ground surfaceand extends
downward through the major root band. Its total depth is variable and
fi',,nH#,:?'l*?,T#*.Ji'.i,'"1:f,
:ffi::J;
,:'##l":ff
l;"lhr?ff
may be encounteredin this region: hygroscopicwater, which is adsorbed
from the air; capillary water, held by surfacetension; and gravitational
water, which is excesssoil water draining through the soil'
2. Intermediatezone.This belt extendsfrom the bottom of the soil-watetzone
to the top of the capillary fringe and may ghangefrom nonexistenceto
severalhundredfeet in thickness.The zoneis essentiallya connectinglink
between a near-ground surface region and the near-water-tableregion
' through which infiltrating fluids must pass.
3. Capiltary zone. Acapillary zoneextendsfrom the watertable (Fig.I7 '2) to
a height determinedby the capillary rise that can be generatedin the soil.
The capillary band thicknessis a function of soil textureand may fluctuate
not only from region to region but also within a local area.
4. Saturatedzone. In the saturatedzone, groundwaterfills the pore spaces
completelyand porosity is thereforea direct measureof storagevolume.
Part of this water (speciflcretention) cannot be removedby pumpirygor
drainagebecauseofmolecular and surfacetensionforces.Specificretention
is the ratio of volume of water retained againstgravity drainageto gloss
volume of the soil.
CONSIDERATIONS
17.4 GEOLOGIC
The determinationof groundwatervolumesand flow ratesrequiresa thoroughknowl-
edgeof the geologyof a groundwaterbasin.In bedrock areas,hydrologiccharacteris-
tics of the rocks,that is, their location,size,orientation,and ability to storeor transmit
water,mustbe known. In unconsolidatedrock areas,basinsoften containhundredsto
thousandsof feet of semiconsolidated to unconsolidatedfill depositsthat originated
from the erosionof headwaterareas.Suchfllls often contain extensivequantitiesof
storedwater. The characteristicsof thesebasin fills must be evaluated.
A knowledge of the distribution and nature of geohydrologicunits such as
aquifurs,aquifugis, andaquicludesis essentialto proper planningfor developmentor
managementof groundwatersupplies.In addition,bedrockbasinboundariesmustbe
locatedand an evaluationmadeof their leakagecharacteristics.
An aquifer is a water-bearingstratumor formation that is capableof transmit-
ting waterin quantitiessufficientto permit development.Aquifers may be considered
17,4 GEOLOGICCONSIDERATIONS 431
P^^L
...u,ritlge Discharge
arc?
area
E]
F
(/)
a
TT]
F
F
zp
(b)
as falling into two categories, confined and unconfined, depending on whether a water
table or free surface exists under atmospheric pressure. Storage volume within an
aquifer is changed whenever water is recharged to, or discharged from, an aquifer. In
the case of an unconfined aquifer this may easily be determined as
AS:SIAV (17.1)
432 CHAPTER17 GROUNDWATER,SOILS,AND GEOLOGY
Topography
To understandhow a groundwatersystemoperates,it is essentialto know something
aboutthe region's surface.A topographicmap shouldbe compiledshowingall surface
water bodies,including streami, iakis, and artificial channelsand/or ponds,as well
as land surfacecontours.Furthermore,an inventory of pumping wells, observation
wells, and explorationwells shouldbe madefor purposessuchas identifying types of
soilsand rocks,pinpointingdischargelocationsandrates;and determiningwatertable
elevations.
SubsurfaceGeologY
The geologicstructureof a groundwater'basin governsthe occurrenceand movement
of the grirndwater withinlt. Specifically,the number and types of water-bearing
formations, their vertical dimensions,interconnections,hydraulic properties, and
outcrop patternsmust be understoodbefore the systemcan be analyzed.uOnce the
subsuriaceconditions have been identified, contour maps of the upper and lower
SUMMARY 433
boundariesof aquifers,watertable contourmaps,and mapsof aquifercharacteristics
can be prepared.Well-drillers logs, experimentaltest wells, and other geophysical
explorationmethodscan be usedto obtakr the neededgeologic data.s-e'13'14
17.5 FLUCTUATIONS
IN GROUNDWATER
LEVEL
Any circumstancethat alters the pressureimposedon undergroundwater will also
causea variation in the groundwaterlevel. Seasonalfactors,changesin stream and
river stages,evapotranspiration,atmosphericpressurechanges,winds, tides,external
loads,various forms of withdrawal and recharge,and earthquakesall may produce
fluctuationsin the water table level or piezometricsurface,dependingon whetherthe
aquifer is free or confined.eIt is important that an engineer concernedwith the
developmentand utilization of groundwatersuppliesbe awareof thesefactors.The
engineershould also be able to evaluatetheir importance relative to operation of a
speciflcgroundwaterbasin.
17.6 GROUNDWATER-SURFACE
WATERRELATIONS
Notwithstandingthat water resourcedevelopmenthas often been basedon tL pr"-
dominantuseof either surfacewateror groundwater,it mustbe emphasizedthat these
two componentsof the total water resource are interdependent.Changesin one
componentcan havefar-reachingeffectson the other. Coordinateddevelopmentand
managementof the combinedresourceare critical. Linkage betweensurfacewaters
and groundwatersshouldbe investigatedin all regionalstudiesso that adverseeffects
can be noted if they exist and opportunitiesfor joint managementunderstood.
In Part Three it was shown how surface stream flows are sustainedby the
groundwaterresource,and it was also pointed out that groundwatersare replenished
by infiltration derived from precipitation on the earth's surface.
Undergroundreservoirsare often extensiveand can serveto store water for a
multitude of uses.If withdrawalsfrom thesereservoirsconsistentlyexceedrecharge,
mining occursandultimate depletionof the resourceresults.By properly coordinating
the use of surfacewater and groundwatersupplies,optimum regional water resource
developmentseemsmost likely to be assured.Several studiesdirected toward this
coordinatedusehavebeeninitiated.r5'16
r Summary
The importance of groundwaterto the health and well-being of humans is well
documented.Groundwateris a major sourceof freshwaterfor public consumption,
industrial uses, and the irrigation of crops. For example, more than half of the
freshwaterused in Florida for all purposescomes from groundwatersources,and
about 90 percent of that state'spopulation dependson groundwaterfor its potable
watersupply.The needto husbandthis resourceis clear.Quantity and quality dimen-
sionsare both important.
4g4 CHNPTENTZ GROUNDWATER,SOILS,AND GEOLOGY
Groundwaterprotectionandmanagementpracticesmustbebasedonanunder.
groundwateris^distributed
standing of groundwatersources,the rianner in which
soil characteristicsof the region'
below the earth's surface,geologic,topogiaphic,and
andtheinterconnectionsbetweengroundwaterandsurfacewatersources.
REFERENCES
"Ground Water,"Mech'Eng' (Jan' 1960)'
1 . J. G. Ferris, ..GrouniwaterProtection," Final Report of the National
L. The Conservationrounoaiion,
GroundwaterPolicy Forum, Washington,D'C'' 1987'
p"rru.u, diUiu- G' Gray' and Gegpe-F Pirltder'.Groundwater
E. F. Wood, Ra'ymonde.
CoitaminationfromHazardousWastes'EnglewoodCliffs'NJ:Prentice-Hall'1984'
in the United States.
;. ffi;;; R'pu,ri"t, unJ f. euurt" s, Grouidwater Contarnination
ehitadelphia:University of PennsylvaniaPress' 1983'
R.A.FreezeandJ.A.Cir"..y,Groundwater'EnglwoodCliffs'NJ:Prentice-Hall'19'19'
of llydrology' New York: McGraw-Hill' 1993'
D. R. Maidment (ed.), ii"aLook ,,Niurnerical
J. Boonstraand N. A. O" nlJa"r, Modeling of GroundwaterBasins,"Interna-
The Netherlands'1981''
tional Institute for Land Reclamationand Improvement'
Wiley' 1965'
R. J. M. DeWiest,Geolrydrology'New York:
Wiley' 1960"
D. K. Todd, GroundwaterHydrology' New York:
..croonowu# n"gi#, of the United States," GeologicalSurvey water
R. c. Heath,
Supply PaperNo. 22a2' iishiniton, D'C-: U'S' GovernmentPrinting Office' 1984'
proteciion "The Report to Congress:^Waste DisposalPrac-
1 1 . U.S. Environmentat ig"""y,
summary'U'S' EPA' PB 265-364'
tices and Their Eft'ectson Groundwater,"Executive
1977.
States,"U'S' Geological
tz. o. E. Meinzer, "The occurrence of Groundwaterin the united
Survey,Water-SupplyPaperNo' 489'"A 1923'
1 3 . H. H. Cooper, Jr. and i. n. lacoU, GeneralizedGraphical Method -for Evaluating
Trans'Am' Geophys'Union
Formation constants una so*-u.izing well-Field History,"
27, 526-534(1946).
"Outline of Methodsfor EstimatingCrounlw11e1fupplies"' U'S' Geolog-
1 4 . O. E. Meinzer,
D C:' 19?2-
ical Survey,Water-SupplyPaper638-C, Washington'
"Conjurrliu" Op"tution of Dams and Aquifers"' Proc' ASCEJ' Hyd' Div'
1 5 . Nathan Buras,
S9(HY6) (Nov. 1963).
16. F'B.Clendenen,..AComprehensivePlanfortheConjunctiveU{ilizationofaSurface
water SupplyDevelopment:Solano
Reservoirwith undergroun'Js,orug" for Basin-wide 1959.
project california,,, po.to. oi Eni thesis,university of california, Berkeley,
Chapter1B
Mechanicsof Flow
r. Prologue
The purposeof this chaPteris to:
i I
Presentthe principlesof groundwaterflow.
I Describesoil propertiesthat affect groundwaterstorageand movement.
. Describethe relevanthydrodynamicequations.
. Relatethe mechanicsof groundwaterflow to modelingregional groundwater
systemsand calculating flows to wells and other groundwater collection
devices.
18.1 HYDROSTATICS
Water locatedin pore spacesof a saturatedmedium is under pressure(calledpore
pressure),which cin be determinedby insertinga piezometerin the mediumat a point
of interest.If LocationA (Fig. 18.1)is considered,it can be seenthat pore pressure
is given by
P:h"l
(18.1)
43r.
436 CHAPTER18 MECHANICSOF FLOW
FLOW
18.2 GROUNDWATER
Analogiescan be drawn betweenflow in pipesunder pressureand in fully saturated
confinid aquifers.The flow of groundwaterwith a free surfaceis also similar to that
in an open channel.A major differenceis the geometryof a groundwatersystemflow
channel as compared with common hydraulic pipe flow or channel systems'The
problem "un eutily be recognizedby envisioninga dischargingcross section com-
posedof a numbei of small openings,eachwith its own geometry,orientation, and
iir" ,o that the flow velocity issuingfrom eachpore varies in both magnitudeand
direction. Difflculties in analyzingsuch systemsare apparent. Computations are
usually basedon macroscopicaveragesof fluid and medium propertiesover a given
cross-sectional area.
Unknown quantitiesto be determinedin groundwaterflow problemsare density,la
pressure,and velocity if constanttemperatureconditionsare assumedto exist'r In
general,water is consideredincompressible,so the number of working variablesis
ieduced.An exceptionto this is discussedlater relative to the storagecoefficientfor
a confined aquifei. Primary emphasishere will be placed on the flow of water in a
saturatedporousmedium.
18.3 DARCY'SLAW
Darcy's law for fluid flow through a horizontal permeablebed is statedas'
O: - K A dh
- (18.3)
dx
LAW
18.3 DARCY'S 437
h : z *
P-+c (18.4)
v
where h - the piezometrichead
the elevationabovea datum
p : the hydrostaticpressure
C _ an arbitrary constant
If the specificdischargeS = QIA is substitutedin Eq. 18.3,
q: -K*(,.t) ( 18 .s )
,
Note that 4 also equalsthe porosity n multiplied by the pore velocity Vo.Darcy's law
is widely used in groundwaterflow problems.Severalapplicationsare illustrated in
later sections.
No is definedherein as
PQd (18.6)
No:
lL
where q : the specificdischarge
d : the mean grain diameter
P : fluid densitY
p : dynamic viscositY
For many conditions of practical importance (zones lying adjacent to collecting
devicesare an exception),Darcy's law has been found to apply'
Of specialinterestis the fact that the Darcy equationis analogousto Ohm's law
where i:thecurrent
R : the resistance
E : the voltage
current and velocity are analogous,asareK andI f R, andE anddhldx.The similarity
of the two equationsis the basis for electric analog models of groundwaterflow
svstems.2'3
I
438 CHAPTER18 MECHANICSOF FLOW
EXAMPLE 18.1
:
Water temperaturein an aquifer is 60'F and the rate of water movement t .2 ft I day.
The averageparticle diameterin the porous medium is 0.08 in. Find the Reynolds
number and indicate whetherDarcy's law is applicable.
. Solution. Equation 18.6 gives the Reynoldsnumber as
X*:#
This may also be written as
qd
N--'
t)
18.4 PERMEABILITY
The hydraulic conductivity K is an important paramet€rthat is often separatedinto
two components,one related to the medium, the other to the fluid. The product
k:Cdz (18.8)
can be written
X:4 (18.e)
lL
(18.s2)
#o;+frat:o
The total differential dry'is equal to zero,and ry'must be a constant.A seriesof
curves {(r, y) equalto a successionof constantscan be drawn and will be tangentat
all points to the velocity vectors.Thesecurvestrace the flow path of a fluid particle
and are known as streamlinesor flowlines. An important property of the stream
function is demonstratedwith the aid of Fig. 18.2. Consider the flow crossinga
vertical sectionAB betweengfueamlines definedas f1 and tltr.lf the dischargeacross
the sectionis designatedas Q, it is apparentthat
f*t
Q : I d,t' (18.s4)
J,t,^
and
Q:Qt-Q, (18.55)
udx-lody:O (18.s7)
and
dy u
(18.58)
dx t)
'
One significantpoint of differencebetween{ and ry'functionsis that equipoten-
tial lines exist only when the flow is irrotational. For two-dimensional flow the
condition of irrotationality is said to exist when the z componentof vorticity (. is
ZA[O; Ot
This indicatesthat when the velocity potential exists,the criterion for irrotationality
is satisfied.
Once either streamlinesor equipotentiallines in a flow domain are determined,
the other is automaticallyknown becauseof the relations in Eq. 18.48.Thus r
and
- H*)
r: [(Xo. (18.6lb)
It is enough then to determineonly one of the functions, since the other can be
obtainedusing relationsEqs. 18.61aand 18.61b.The complexpotentialgiven by
(r8.62)
Of
where l, the squareroot of -1, is widely used in analytic flow net analyses'a's
specialimportanceis the fact that
y2w:V26+iYzt1r:g (18.63)
CONDITIONS
18.8 BOUNDARY
surfaces).
Impervious boundariesmay be artificial objects zuch as.concretedams, rock
strata,oi soil stratathat arehighiy impervious.In Fig' 18.3the imperviousboundary
448 CHAPTER18 MECHANICSOF FLOW
This is a linear relation in $, and therefore equal vertical falls along CD must be
associatedwith successiveequipotential drops. One important groundwater flow
problem is to determinethe location of the line of seepage.
The surfaceof seepageDE of Fig. 18.3 representsthe location at which water
seepsthrough the downstreamface of the dam and trickles toward point E. The
pressurealongDE is atmospheric.The surfaceof seepageis neither a flowline nor an
equipotentialline.
ImPervious laYer
18.9 FLOWNETS
Flow nets, or graphicalrepresentationsof families of streamlinesand equipotential
lines, are widely used in groundwaterstudies to determine quantities, rates, and
directions of flow. The use of flow nets is limited to steadyincompressibleflow at
constant viscosity and density for homogeneousmedia or for regions that can be
compartmentalizedinto homogeneoussegments.Darcy's law must be applicableto
the flow conditions.
The mannerin which a flow net canbe usedin problem solvingis bestexplained
with the aid of Fig. 18.4. This diagram showsa portion of a flow net constructedso
that eachunit b.oundedby a pair of streamlinesand equipotentiallines is approxi-
mately square.The reasonfor this will be clear later.
A flow net can be determinedexactly if functions Q and $ are known before-
hand.This is often not the case,and as a result, graphicallyconstructedflow nets are
widely used. The preparation of a flow net requires application of the concept of
square elementsand adherenceto boundary conditions. Graphical flow nets ard
usually difficult for a beginnerto create,but with reasonablepractice an acceptable
net canbe drawn.Variousmechanicalmethodsfor graphicalflow net constructionare
presentedin the literature and are not discussedhere.5'e
After a flow net hasbeenconstructed,it can be analyzedusingthe geometryof
the net and by applylngDarcy's law.
Rememberingthat h : p/y + z, we find thatFig' 18'4 showsthat the hydraulic
gradient G2betweentwo equipotentiallines is given by
o r:x (18.6e)
h- Ll
Equalpotential lines
(0 = constant)
Lm
r d "
Qz
composedof approximatelysquareelements,
Lm: L,s and Lq = K Lh (18'71)
sections
wherc his the total headloss over the n spaces.If the flow is divided into m
by the flowlines,then the discharge per unit width of the medium is
o:iu:Y (r8.72)
Line of seepage
Tangent
Surface of
seepage
tt
a<90o,0<90"
(a) ft)
(After
Figure 18.5 Some entranceand exit conditions for the line of seepage'
Casagrande.lo)
18..!O VARIABLEHYDRAULICCONDUCTMry 451
CONDUCTIVITY
18.10VARIABLEHYDRAULIC
It is commonfor flow within a porousmedium of one hydraulic conductivityto enter
another region with a different hydraulic conductivity. When such a boundary is
crossed.flowlines are refracted.The changein direction that occurs can be deter-
mined as a function of the two permeabilitiesinvolved in the manner of Todd and
DeWiest.2'a Figure 18.7illustratesthis.
consider two soils of permeabilitiesK, and K, which are separatedby the
boundary lR shown in Fig. 18.7. The directions of the flowlines before and after
crossingthe boundary are definedby angles0, and 0r'
in Eq. 18.73produces
Introducingtheseexpressions
K t _ K ,
(18.74)
tan 0, tan 02
For refractedflow in a saturatedporous medium, the ratio of the tangentsof
anglesformed by the intersectionof flowlineswith normals to the boundary is given
by the ratio of hydraulic conductivities.As a result of refraction, the flow net on the
K2 sideof the boundarywill no longerbe squaresif the equipotentialline spacingDB
is maintained.To adjust the net on the K2 side,the relation
Lhu Kl
( 18 .7s )
Lt%- It
can be usedwhere Lhb + Lh".
Equipotentiallines are also refractedin crossingpermeability boundaries.The
relation for this is
K, tan at
_ (18.76)
K2 tan a,
18.11ANISOTROPY
In many caseshydraulic conductivity is dependenton the direction of flow within a
givenlayerof soil. This condition is saidto be anisotropic.Sedimentarydepositsoften
fit this aspect,with flow occurring more readily along the plane of depositionthan
acrossit. Where the permeability within a plane is uniform but very small acrossit
as comparedto that along the plane, a flow net can still be usedafter proper adjust-
ments are made. A discussionof this is given elsewhere.a's'11'12 Nonhomogeneous
18.12 DUPUIT'S THEORY 453
'sometimesbe analyzed by
aquifers require special considerationbut may Yslng
outsidethe scopeof this
representativeor averageparameters'A detailid study is
book.3-5'r2
THEORY
18.12DUPUIT'S
free surfacecan be analyzed
Groundwaterflow problemsin which one boundaryis a
flow. This theory is foundedon two
on the basis of Dupuit's theory of unconfined
ptptl in tgO:.t' First, if the line of seepageis only slightly
assumptionsmadeby
and, correspondingly,equlp:ten-
inclined, streamlinesr""y b" consideredhorizontal
slopes of the line of seepage tl"
tial lines will be essentiallyvertical. Second, -utfd
at" known to be satisfactorily
hydraulic gradient *r "fit. Whel fleld conditioos
to Dupuit's theory
representedby theseusru-ption*, the resultsobtainedaccording
"o'-pur"veryfavorablywiththosearrivedatbymorerigoroustechniques'
into a mathemdt-
Figure 18.8 is u,"fol in translatingthe foregoingassumptions
th" figut" which has a base'ateadx dy
ical statement.Consideran elementgiien in
the x direction and consid-
and a vertical height h,Writing the cJntinuity equaiionin
ering steadYflow to be the case,
(18.77)
infloqo : velocitSo X area,o
The velocity at x : 0 is given by Darcy's law as
: 0 is
Thus the dischargeacrossthe elementat x
- K- - a h . d Y (18.7e)
Qo: *h
expansionas
The outflow at x = dx is obtainedby a Taylor's series
-K*.h aY\+ ' ' (18.80)
Qor: ,_ " + o-
-dv
Ax,.
_ _ *(-**n
..
6x\ dr
_
/
I* - o,: K dxa,
" !(n*) tt*.
dx\ 6x/
r,-o,:ryy*W) , (18
Assuminsthat thereis no movementin the vertical direction.theseare the
i componentsof the inflow and outflow.Furthermore,still dealingwith steadyflow,
; changein storagemust be zero. As a result, I
)
Kd:dy * Kd:dy : o
2
+fg)
lx\Ex / 2
*(#)
ay\6y /
o8
and since (K dx dy)12 is constant,this reducesto
A2h2
- r . Azhz
-:0
6x' 0y'
or Y 2 h z: 0 (18.
Consequently,. accordingto Dupuit' s assumptions,Laplace's equation for
functionh2 must be satisfied.la
In the particular casewhererechargeis occurring as a resultofinfiltrated
reachingthe water table, a simple adjustmentmay be made to Eq. 18.85. If
rechargeintensity(dimensionallyLT-t) is specifiedasR, thenthe total rechargeto
elementof Fig. 18.8 is R dx dy and the continuity equationfor steadyflow beco
*4!*(#.#).Rdxdy:s (18
or more simply,
v2h2+?o:o
Now, applyingDupuit's theory to the flow problem illustratedin Fig. 18.9,
assumingone-dimensionalflow in the x direction only, we obtain the discharge
unit width of the aquifer given by Darcy's law:
O: -Kh#
In this instanceh is the height of the line of seepageat any position x along
imperviousboundary.For the one-dimensionalexampleconsideredhere, Eq. 18
18.12 DUPUIT'STHEORY 455
fto=50ft
free surface
(b)
becomes
d 2h2
--;-;: (18.e0)
u
clx'
Upon integration,
h2:ax*b ( 18.e 1)
wherea andb are constants.
Then for boundarv conditions at x : O,h : hs,
b=ht (18.e2)
Differentiationof Eq. 18.91yields
^. dh = A ( 18.e 3)
Ztl';-
ax
-QIK. Making this substitution,we obtain
Also from Darcy's equation,h dhldx :
-2Q
o:-T- (18.e4)
h2=-2f*+nt (18,e5)
456 .CHAPTER18 MECHANICSOF FLOW
(often calledDupuit' s parabola)'
This is the equationof a free surface.It is a parabola
andonotingthat at * : L,
If the existenceof a surfaceof seepage.afBi. ignor.d,
h : hr, we f,nd that Eq. 18'95becomes
2QL (18.e6)
hL: _ x n ra
or (18.e7)
o
- = L2 o l-n?)
L'"
EXAMPLE 18.3
RefertoFig.ls.ga.GiventhedimensionsshownandarechargeintensityRof
: 1000 ft using Dupuit's equation'Assumerthat
0.01 ftlday, find the Oi."ft"tg" ut x
K: 8.
Solution. Note that
Q=n
dx
or
Q=Rxi.C
Atx:0,
.
Q: Qo
therefore,
Q: Rx -l Qo
Also,
- dh
Q -Kh=
nh
- oh Rx ' r Qo
i:
IntegratingYields
- Kh,l,,
: o*,il'
* o^*1, -"lo
2lo" 2lo
and inserting the limits, we obtain
-K(h'-Lh7):ry
o )
* QoL
L r
- K(h?- h'r) RL
1)^:----:----
z L 2
PROBLEMS 457
Then since Q : Rx + Qo,
K(h'^- h?\
o R(.
,)
+ -
2L
- . -
R 0 . 0 1 7 . 5 : 0.075gpd/ft2
-
o : 0.075(1000 _ soo)+ 8(50, 40r)
2000
0.075x 500 , 8 x 9 0 0
2000
3 7 . 5+ 3 . 6
4Ll gpdlftz T I
r summary
Understandingthe movementof groundwaterrequiresa knowledgeof the time and
space dependencyof the flow, nature of the porous medium and fluid, and the
boundariesof the flow system.In particular, groundwaterdevelopmentand manage-
ment dependon understandingthe storagepropertiesofthe associatedsoils and rocks
'
and the ability of thesesubsurfacematerialsto transmit water. Fundamentalto the
mechanicsof groundwaterflow is Darcy's law (Eq. 18.3).Usingthis equationalong
with a knowledgeof the hydraulic conductivity K, estimatesof flow can be had. The
hydrodynamicequationspresentedin this chapter serve as models for a variety of
groundwatgrflow calculations.Applications are given in Chapters19 and 20.
PROBLEMS'
18.1. What is the Reynoldsnumber for flow in a soil when the water temperatureis 55oF,
the velocity is 0.5 ftlday, and the mean grain diameteris 0.08 in.?
18.2. The water temperaturein an aquifer is 60'F, the velocity is 1.0 ftlday. The average
particle diameterof the soil is 0.06 in. Find the Reynoldsnumberand indicatewhether
Darcy's law applies.
18.3. ReworkProblem 18.2assumingthe temperatureis 65"F and the velocity is 0.8 ftlday.
18.4. A laboratory test of a soil gives a standardcoeff,cientofpermeability of 3.8 x 102
gpdlft2.If the prevailingfield temperatureis 60"F,find the field coefficientof perme-
ability. "
18.5. ReworkProblem 18.4 assumingK" is 3.8 x r02 gpd/ft2and the temperatureis 65'F.
18.6. Given the well and flow net datain the following flgure, find the dischargeusinga flow
net solution.The well is fully penetrating;K : 2.87 X 10-4 ftlsec, a: 180 ft,
b = 43 ft, and c : 50 ft.
18.7. ReworkProblem 18.6assumingK : 8.2 x 10-5 mlsec,a: 85 m, b : 2l m, and
c:26m.
458 CHAPTER18 MECHANICSOF FLOW
Stagnation flowline
5
4
3
2
Axis of I
symmetry -1
-2
-3
/
REFERENCES
1. Henri Darcy, Lesfontaines publiquesde la ville de Dijon. Paris: V. Dalmont, 1856.
2. D. K. Todd, GroundwaterHydrology. New Yorkl V/iley, 1960.
3. William C. Walton, GroundwaterResourceEvaluation.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970.
4. R. J. M. DeWiest,Geohydrology.New York: Wiley, 1965.
5. M. E. Harr, Groundwaterand Seepage.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962.
6. SalamonEskinazi,Principles of Fluid Mechanics.Boston:Allyn and Bacon,7962-
"Flow of Groundwater,"in EngineeringHydraulics (Hunter Rouse,ed.) New
7. C.E. Jacob,
York Wiley, 1950.
Chapter '1I
Wellsand Collection
Devices
r Prologue I
Thepurposeof this chapteris to:
. Presentmethodsfor calculatingconfined and unconfinedsteadyradial flow
toward a well.
. Describeproceduresfor dealingwith unsteadygroundwaterflow conditions.
. Describea method for estimatingflow to an infiltration gallery.
Impervious
RADIALFLOWTOWARDA WELL
19.2 STEADYUNCONFINED
Q: hrxYKrfi (le.1)
where 2rrxy : the areathrough any cylindrical shell, in ft2 with the well as its
. axis
Kr: the hydraulic conductivity (ftlsec)
dyfdx : the water table gradient at any distancex
Q: the well discharge(ft'lsec)
Integratingover the limits specified,we find that
f,2 r.. fo,
Il -gYr : 2rrK1ly ay (re.2)
Jt n Jhl
462 CHAPTER19 WELLS AND COLLECTIONDEVICES
2rrKr(h2z- h?)
Q n f12 _ 2
( 1e.3)
- ^ - g
converting K, to the field units of gpdlftz, Q to gpm, and ln to 1og,we can rewrite
Eq. 19.4as
1055Qlog(r2lrr)
------;-;----;;- (1e.s)
,ar:
" n;- ni
If the drawdownin the well doesnot exceedone half of the original aquiferthickness
ho,reasonable estimatesof Q or Krcanbe obtainedby usingEq.19.4 or tr9.5,even
if the heighth, is measuredat the well peripherywhere1L: r*, the radius of the well
boring.
EXAMPLE 19.1
An 18-in. well fully penetratesan unconfinedaquifer of 100-ft depth.Two observa:
tion wells located100 and 235 ft from the pumpedwell areknown to havedrawdowns
of 22.2 and 21.ft, respectively.If the flow is steady and K1 : 1320 gpdlft2, what
would be the discharge?
Solution. Equation 19.4 is applicable,and for the given units this is
K(h?- h?)
Q :
1055Iog(r2/r1)
=
log(r2/r') rwQ35l1'00) :0.37rlt
hz: 100-21=79ft
ht= 100- 22.2: 77.8ft
t32O(792- 77.82)
Q : 1055x 0.37107
634.44gPm lr
RADIALFLOWTOWARDA WELL
19.3 STEADYCONFINED
The basic equilibrium equationfor a confined aquifer can be obtainedin a similar
manner, using the notation of Fig. I9.2. The sameassumptionsapply. Mathemati-
cally, the flow in ft3lsecis found from
o : 2nxmXr!
"dx
(1e.6)
Integrating,we obtain
h"-h,
O:2rrK'm
" :#
(re.7)
ln\r2/h)
.I9.4 WELL IN A UNIFORMFLOWFIELD 463
--12+l
EXAMPLE 19.2
Determinethe permeabilityof an artesianaquiferbeingpumpedby a fully penetrating
well. The aquifer is 90 ft thick and composedof medium sand. The steady-state
pumpingrate is 850 gpm. The drawdownof an observationwell 50 ft awayis 10 ft;
in a secondobservationwell 500 ft awayit is 1 ft.
Solution
52SQroe?Jr')
Kf:
m(h2 - h')
528 x 850 x log 10
90x(10-1)
: 554gpdlfr2 rl
FIELD
19.4 WELL IN A UNIFORM"FLOW
Original
piezometric
surface
EXAMPLE 19.3
Find the dischargeto the well of Fig. 19.3by using an applicableflow net. Consider
the aquiferto be 35 ft thick, 4 : i.65 x 1d-4 fps, and other dimensionsas shown'
Solution. UsingEq. 18'72,we find that
n : * *n'
whereh:35*25:60ft
m : 2 X 5 : 1 0
, n:I4
3.65X10-4x60x10
t4
: 0.0156cfsper unit thlcknessof the aquifer
The total dischargeQ is thus
r r
Q : 0.0156 X 35 : 0.55 cfs ot 245 gPm
19.5 WELLFIELDS 465
When more than one unit in a well fleld is pumped,there is a compositeeffect on the
free water surface.This consequence is illustratedby Fig. 19.4in which the conesof
depressionare seento overlap.The drawdownat a given location is equalto the sum
of the individual drawdowns.
If, within a particular well field, pumpingratesof the pumpedwells are known,
the compositedrawdownat a point can be determined.In like manner,if the draw-
down at one point is known, the well flows can be calculated'
If the drawdownat a given point is designatedas m, andsubscripts1,2, ' 'n
are usedto relate this drawdownto a particular well(e.g ., mt fefers to the drawdown
for I7,), for the total drawdownmr at somelocation'
n
sr : (1e.e)
lTlr: ^Z lTli
lt can be seenthat the drawdownfor a well pumped atrate Q canbe computedif ho,
ro, and r are known. It follows then from Eq. 19.9 that for n pumped wells in an
unconfinedaquifer
considerednegligible
r, : the distancefrom well i to the point at which the drawdownis being
investigated
19.6THEMETHODOF IMAGES
connectedto
Figure L9.5 Drawdown in a pumping well whose aquifer is
a stream'
FLOW
19.7 UNSTEADY
directly from
when a new well is first pumped, alargeportion of the dischargecomes
u.nder these circum-
the storagevolume releasedas the cone of depression_d91elons,
the yield of
stancesthe equilibrium equationsoverestimatepermeabilityandtherefore
is usually the situa-
the well. When steady-stateconditionsare not encountered-as
approaches can,be
tion in practice-a nonequilibrium gOgltlgl must be used' Two
method of C. V. Theis or a simplifiedprocedure suchasthat
taken,t^heratherrigorous
proposedby Dcob.l1'12
consideration
In tgjS treis publisheda nonequilibriumapproachthat takesinto
an analogybetween
time and storagecharacteristicsof the aquifer.ll His methoduses
flow to a well' The
heattransferdescribedby the Biot-Fouiier law and groundwater
boundary conditions'
method providesa solution to Eq. 18.41 for given initial and
constantthickness'
Application of the methodis appiopriatefor confinedaquifersof
of flow must be
For'use under conditions of unconhneOflow, vertical components
468 CHAPTER19 WELLS AND COLLECTIONDEVICES
O f * " - o"
s : -4rrT ', (1e.13)
J, ;
in which Q : (constant) pumping rate (L3T-r units), Z : aquifer transmissivity
(LtT 'units), and a is a dimensionless
variabledefinedby
, ,s"
u : r--4tT (re.r4)
where r is the radial distancefrom the pumpingwell to an observationwell, S. is the
aquiferstorativity(dimensionless), and r is time. The integralin Eq. 19.13is usually
known asthewellfunctionof u andiscommonlywritten asW(u).It maybe evaluated
from the infinite series
a 1
w(u): _'0.577216
- ln u * u - =+ - + -]-- (1e.1s)
2x21 3x3l
Usingthis notation,Eq. 19.13can be written as
"( : -
Qw(u) (1e.i6)
4irT
The basic assumptiopsemployedin the Theis equation are essentiallythe sameas
thosein Eq.I9.7 exceptfor the nonsteady-statecondition. Some valuesof the well
function are given in Table 19.1.
In American practice,Eqs. 19.13 and 19.I4 commonly appearin the following
form,
rI4.6Qf* "-' ,
t: (re.r7)
, J,;o'
I . 8 71 2S "
,: n
(1e.18)
where 7 is given in units of gpd/ft, Q hasunits of gpm, and / is the time in dayssince
the start of pumping.
Equations19.13and 19.14canbe solvedby comparinga log-logplot of a versus
I4z(z)known as i type curve, with a log-1ogplot of the observeddatar2ft versuss. In
plotting type curves,W(u) ands are ordinates,z and rt ft areabscissas. The two curves
are superimposedand movedaboutuntil segmentscoincide.In this operationthe axes
must remain parallel. A coincidentpoint is then selectedon the matchedcurvesand
both plots marked.The type curve then yieldsvaluesof u and W(u) for the desired
point. Correspondingvaluesofs and r'ft aredeterminedfrom a plot ofthe observed
FLOW
1g7 UNSTEADY 469'
values for
data. Inserting these values in Eqs. 19.13 and 1,9.1'4and,rearranging,
transmissibilityI and storage
"cancoefficientS" can be found'
often this procedure be shortenedand simplified' when r is small and t
in the seriesof
large, Jacobfound that valuesof u arc generallysmall'12Thus terms
and the expressionfor Zbecomes
fql te.tS bpyondthe secondonebecomenegligible
264Q(loet2 - log tt) (1e.1e)
'
h"- h
which can be further reducedto
264Q (re.20)
T _
Lh
: - n)lloe t' - log t')l
where Ah drawdownper log cycle of time l(ho
Q : well discharge(gPm)
ho,h : as definedinFig' I9.2
T : the transmissibilitY(gPd/ft)
- paper' The
Field data on drawdown(ho h) versust arc dtaftedon semilogarthmic
a straightline
drawdownis plotted on an arithmetic soale,Fig. 19.6. Thisplotforms
and
*to*" slopepermits computingformation constantsusing Eq' 1'9'20
0.3Tto
\^- : -r ' (1,9.2t)
obtainedthrough
with rothe time correspondingto zerodrawdown.Equation 19.21is
manipulationof Eq. 19'13.
470 CHAPTER19 WELLS AND COLLECTIONDEVICES
, = t4 = 4e,8oo
sd/ft
r\too'
tl
II
I
EXAMPLE 19.4
Usingthe following data, find the formation constantsfor an aquiferusinga graphical
solution to the Theis equation.Dischargeequals540 gpm.
Distancefrom Average
pumpedwell, drawdown,
r (ft) 1 2/ t s (ft)
50 1,250 3.04
100 5,000 2.16
-
150 il,250 1,.63
200 20,000 r.28
300 45,000 0.80
400 80,000 0.51
500 125,000 0.33
600 180,000 0.22
700 245,000 0.15
800 320.000 0 .l 0
FLOW
19.7 UNSTEADY
1.0
0.9 't
0.8 | , I I
0.7 W(u)vs. u
€ o.o
? 0.s
€E o.+
B
E 0.3
5 6 7 891x105
I rrzldav)
' Figure L9.7 Graphicalsolutionto Theis'sequation'
Solution.Plotsversusr2ftand}V(a)versusaasshowninFig.lg.T.Determine
Eqs' 19'7 and 19'8:-
the match point as noted and computeS" and Z using
lr4t6Q
T : w(u)
s
1 1 4 . 6X 5 4 0 -
: --18- ^ 1.9 : 91,860gpdift
c -----
uT
u"
1.87r'1t
_ 0.09x 91,860: 0,22 tr
1.87X 20,000
EXAMPLE 19.5
7"andstorage
of transmissibility
usingthedatagiv.enin Fig. 19.6,findthe_coefficient :
S, for an aquiflr, givenQ: 1000gprn andr 300ft'
coeffrcient
Solution.FindthevalueofAhfromthegraph,5.3ft.ThenbyEq.|9.20
- - Tx31000
2640 264
T: -ff:-
: 49,800gpd/ft
Note from Fig. 19.6 that ts : 2.6 min. Converting to days, we find q6il)ti-
becomes \--l
'
, 0 - 1 . 8 1x l b - ' d a y s
0 . 3 x 4 9 , 8 0 0 X 1 .X
81 0 - 3
and s": (3oo)'
: 0.0003 I T
EXAMPLE 19.6
Find the drawdownat an observationpoint 200 ft awayfrom a pumping well. Given
that T : 3.0 x 10a gpd/ft, the pumping time is 12 days,S" : 3 X 10-4, and
0 = 3oogpm,
Solution. From Eq. L9.L8,u can be computed,
x 104x l2l : 6.23x I}-s
u : u.87 x (200)'x 3 x L0-41113.0
Referringto Table 19.1 and interpolating,we estimateW(u) to be 9.1. Then,
using Eq. 19.17, the drawdownis found to be
s : [114.6x 9.1 x 300]/[3.0x 104]: 10.41ft rr
EXAMPLE 19.7
A well is beingpumpedat a constantrate of 0.0038 m3/s.Giventhat I : 0.0028m2ls,
r : 90 meters, and the storagecoefficient : 0.00098, find the drawdown in the
observationwell for a time period of (a) 1,000 sec.and (b) 20 hours.
Solution
1e.8LEAKYAQUIFERS
a_)
imper-
The foregoinganalyseshavedealtwith free aquifersor thosecopfinedbe#een
strata are not com-
vious str-ata.1nt"ulity, many casesexist wherein the confining
PletelYimPerviousand water is at
aquifer. The flow regime is altere<
about 1930,leakYaquifershaveber
De Glee, Jacob,Hantush, DeWies
ers.t'to-'uA thorough treatmentc
interestedreadersshouldconsulttheindicatedreferences.
WELLS
19.9 PARTIALLYPENETRATING
of the well' The
ln many actual situations there is only partial penetration
previouslyfor full
questionthen arisesasto the applicability of proceduresdeveloped
Penetration. ln 1957Hantush
Numerousstudiesof this problemhavebeenconducted'7'2't'28
aquiferbecomes
reportedthat steadyflow to a well just penetratingan infinite leaky
aquiferthickness'28
very nearlyradial at a distancefrom the well of about1.5timesthe
increasingly
As depth of penetrationincreases,the approachto,radial flow becomes
apparent.Therefore,computationofdrawdownsforpartiallypenetrating'wellsare
provided that the
made using equationsfoi total penetration with relative safety,
aquifer thickness'At
distancefr"o-ifr" pumped we11ls greaterthan 1.5 times the
other relations
points closerto the weli, it is frequJntly possibleto use a flow net or
develoPedfor this region.
GALLERY
19.10FLOWTO AN INFILTRATION
conduit constructed
An infiltration gallery may be defined as a partially pervious
part of this flow will be
acrossthe path of t6" to"uigroundwater flow iuch that all or
parallel to a streamso that
intercepted.Thesegalleries-areoften built in a valley area
under gravity-flow
they can convey the collected flow to some designatedlocation
.ondition*.Figurelg.Sshowsatypicalcrosssectionthroughagallerywithone
'perviousface. pervious wall
corrrputation of dischargeto an inflltration gallery with one
(Fig. f g.Sjis accomplished inihe manneroutlinedby Dupuit-2e Severalassumptions
tangentof the angleof
mustbe madelo effectthe solution.They are that the sineand
inclination ofthe water table are interchangeable; that the velocity vectorsare evefy-
is incompressibleand
where horizontal and uniformly distribuied; that the soil
effects are negligible'
isotropic; and that the gallery is of sufficient length that end
do limit the utility of
While permitting u ,oluion oi the problem, theseassumptions
the results.
Basedontheseassumptions,andfollowingtheproceduregiveninSec-
per unit width' using the
tion 18.12,Eq. 18.97canbe usedto calculatethe discharge
L
474 CHAPTER
19 WELLS AND COLLECTIONDEVICES
Ground surface
Intersection of assumed
and actual water tables
X+
throughan infiltrationgallery.
Figure 19.8 Cross-section
nomenclature
of Fig. 19.8,Eq. 18.97becomes
K . - "-
s :;(hi he)
This equationindicatesthat the computedwatertableis parabolic.This is often called
Dupuit's parabola.Figure 19.8 showsthat the computedwater table differs from the
actual water table in an increasingmanner as the gallery face is approached.It is
thereforeapparentthat the computedparaboladoesnot accuratelydescribethe real
water table. The differences,however,are small except near the point of outflow,
providing the initial assumptionsare satisfled.The calculateddischargeapproximates
the true dischargemore closelyas the ratio of Z/h, increases.
EXAMPLE 19.8
19.11SALTWATER
INTRUSION
The contaminationof fresh groundwaterby the intrusion of salt water often presents
a seriousquality problem. Islands and coastalregions are particularly vulnerable.
Aquifers locatedinland sometimescontaiq highly salinewaters as well. Freshwater
BASINDEVELOPMENT 475
15.12 GROUNDWATER
BASINDEVELOPMENT
19.12GROUNDWATER
To use groundwaterresourcesefficiently while simultaneouslypermitting the maxi-
mum dJvelopmentof the resource,equilibrium must be establishedbetweenwilh-
drawals and replenishments.Economic, legal, political, social, and water quality
aspectsrequire full consideration.
Lasting suppliesof groundwaterwill be assuredonly whenlong-termwithdrawls
arebalanceJby rechargeduringthe correspondingperiod. The potentialof a ground-
water basin can be assessedby employingthe water budgetequation,
)r-)o:As
where the inflow ) l includesall forms of recharge,the total outflow ) O includes
everykind ofdischarge,and AS representsthe changein storageduringthe accounting
perioO. The most significant forms of recharge and dischargeare those listed in
Table t9.2.
A groundwaterhydrologistmust be able to estimatethe quantity of water that
canbe economicallyand safeiyproducedfrom a groundwaterbasinin a specifiedtime
period. He or sheshouldalsobe competentto evaluatethe consequences of imposing
variousrates of withdrawal on an underground supply.
Developmentof groundwaterbasins should be based on careful study, since
groundwaterresourcesare finite and exhaustible.If the various types of recharge
balance the withdrawals from a basin over a period of time, no difficulty will be
encountered.Excessivedrafts, however,can depleteundergroundwater suppliesto a
point whereeconomicdevelopmentis not feasible.The mining of waterwill ultimately
depletethe entire supply.
ANDDISCHARGE
OFRECHARGE
TABLE19,2 SdUETONT"TS
Recharge Discharge
i-_
476 CHAPTER19 WELLS AND COLLECTIONDEVICES
r Summary
The collection of groundwateris accomplishedprimarily through the constructionof
wells, and many Tactorsinfluence the numerical estimation"of their performance.
Some situation, ur" amenableto solutionthrough the utilization of relatively simple
mathematicalexpressions.Others dependupon sophisticatedapplicationof the hy-
drodynamicequationsundervariousConditionsof nonuniformity of aquifermaterials
and a variety oiboundary conditions.The readeris cautionednot to be misledby the
simplicity oi ,o-" of thqsolutionspresentedand to observethat many of theserl\
to speciaiconditions and are not applicableto all groundwater-flowsituations.(. , )
The rate of movementof water through the ground is of a different magnr'tudd
than that through natural or artificial channelsor conduits.Typical flow ratesrange
of
from 5 ft/day ti afew feet per year. Theselow ratesof flow exacerbatethe impact
groundwater sourcesand complicate cleanup since natural
contaminani spills on
flushing from the site may take many yearsto occur'
The methodsdescribedin this chapterfor estimatingflows to collection devices
arebasedmainly on the principlesof fluid flow embodiedin Darcy's law. Applicafions
arelimited to flowsin the laminar range,but undermostconditionsencounteredin the
field, Darcy's law applies.Examplesof the ure of equationsdescribingthe mechanics
of flow to wells andinfiltration gilleries were given in this chapter.Both steady-state
and unsteadvflow conditions were addressedas well'
PROBLEMS
coefflcient of
19.1. A 12-in. well fully penetfatesa confined aquifer 100 ft thick. The
permeabilityis 60d gpd/ft'. Two test wells located40 and 120 ft awayshow a differ-
ence in drawdown U-"i*een them of 9 ft. Find the rate of flow delivered by the well.
of
1g.2. A l2-in. well fully penetratesa confined aqpifer 100 ft thick. The coefficient
permeability is 600 gpd/ft2. Two test wells located 45 and 120 ft away show a
the
difference in drawdoin between them of 8 ft. Find the rate of flow delivered by
well.
well' The
19.3. Determine the permeability of an artesianaquifer for a fully penetrating
ft thick. The steady-state pumping
aquifer is composedof medium sand and is 100
rate is 1200 gpm. The drawdown in an observation well 75 ft away is 14 ft, and the
observation well 500 ft away is l.2ft. Find Kin gallons per day
drawdownin a second
per squarefoot.
ftj/day/ft'
Lg.4. Considera confined aquifer with a coefficientof transmissibilityT of 680
Att:5min,thedrawdowns:5.6ft;at50min,s:23'Ift;andat100min's:
28.2 ftrThe observationwell is 75 ft awayfrom the pumpingwell. Find the discharge
of the well.
19.5. Giventhefollowingdata:0:59,000ft3lday'T:630ft3/day't,,3}days'r:1ft'
the draw-
and s" : 6.4 x L6,4. Considerthis to be a nonequilibriumproblem.Find
down s. Note that for
a:8.0x10-e W(a): 13'sa
u:8.2 X 10-e W(u)= 19.94
' PROBLEMS 477
Time sincepumping started (min) 1,3 2.5 4.2 8.0 11.0 100.0
Drawdowns (ft) 4.6 8.1 9.3 12.0 15.1 29.0
Averagedrawdown,
r"/t h (ft)
1,250. 3.2+
5,000 2.t8
tt,250 .1.93
20,000 r.28
45,000 0.80
80,000 0.56
125,000 0.38
180,000 0.22
245,000 0.15
320,000 0.10
478 CHAPTER19 WELLSANDCOLLECTION DEVICES
"We
19.13. are given a well pumping at arate of 590 gpm. An observationwell is locatedat
r : 180 ft. Find S and Z using the Jacobmethod for the following test data.
0.43
0.94
l 08
1.20
r.34
26
78
99
t3r
t'73
2.00
2.06
2.12
2.15
2.20
2.23
66r
732
843
926
IO34
r134
o
|.46 2t8
1.56 266 2.28 1272
1.63 303 2.30 1351
1.68 331 2.32 I4t9
1.71 364 2.36 r520
l 85 481 2.38 1611
1.93 5'13
19.18. Over a 100-mi2surfacearea, the averagelevel of the water table for an unconfined
aquiferhas dropped I 0 ft becauseof the removalof 128,000 area-ftof waterfrom the
aquifer.Determinethe storagecoefficientfor the aquifer.The specificyield is 0.2 and
the porosityis 0.22.
19.19. Over a 100-mi2 surface area, the averagelevel of the piezometric surface for a
confined aquifer in the Denver area has declined 400 ft as a result of long-te1m
pumping.Determinethe amountof the water (acre-ft) pumpedfrom the aquifer' The
porosity is 0.3 and the coefficient of storageis 0.0002.
L9.20. Find the drawdownat an observationpoint 250 ft awayfrom a pumping well, given --
:
thatT = 3.1 x 104 gpdlft,the pumpingtime is 10 days,S" 3 x 10-4, andQ
280 gpm.
19.21. Find the permeabilityof an artesianaquiferbeingpumpedby a fully penetratingwell.
The aquiier is 130 ft thick and is composedof medium sand.The steady-statepump-
ing raie is 1300 gpm. The drawdownin an observationwell 65 ft awayis 12 ft' and
in a secondwell 500 ft awayit is 1.2 ft. Find Kyin gpdlft2.
19.22, An 18 in. well fully penetratesan unconflnedaquifer 100 ft deep.Two observation
wells located90 and 235 ft from the pumpedwell are known to havedrawdownsof
22.5 ft and20.6 ft respectively.If the flow is steady arld Ky: 1300 gpd/ft2, what
would be the discharge?
: 0.0028m2ls,
19.23. A well is being pumpedat a constantrate of 0.004 m3/s.Given thatT
r : 100meters,and the storagecoefficient : 0.001, find the drawdown in the obser-
vation well for a time period of (a) t hr, and (b) 24 hours'
= 0.0028mzls,
19.24. A well is being pumpedat a constantrate of 0.003 m3/s.Given thatT
the storage"oiin"i"nt = 0.001, and the time since pumplng began is 12 hours,find
the drawdownin an observation well for a radial distance of (a) 150 m, and (b) 500 m'
REFERENCES
1 . J. W Clark, w. viessman, Jr., and M. J. Hammer,water supply and Pollution conffol,
2nd ed. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell' 1965.
"Field TestsDeterminePotential Quantity, Quality of Ground Water
2. John F. Hoffman,
Supply," Heating, Piping, and Air Conditioning(Aug' 1961)'
3 . D. K. Todd, GroundwaterHydrology, New York: Wiley, 1960'
Chapter20
ModelingRegional
GroundwaterSYstems
r Prologue
The PurPoseof this chaPteris to:
MODELS
GROUNDWATER
20.1 REGIONAL
(mathematical)
Groundwatersystemsmodels may be of the analog or the digital
type most
variety. The focus of this chapter is on the digital type of lodel, the
commonly employedtoday. Such models are characterized by a set of equations
These models.may be
,"pr"r"nting the ihysical i.o""*"* occurring in an aquifer.
are discussed
deierministt or pio-babilisticin nature, but only deterministic-models
featuresof the
here. They describethe cause-effectrelations stemmingfrom known
physicalsystemunder study'
482 CHAPTER20 MODELINGREGIONALGROUNDWATERSYSTEMS
Approximate equations
Simplify equation so numerically resulting
that solutions may in a matrix equation
be obtained by that may be solved
analytical methods using a computer
l _ t_
model'
a mathematical
Figure 20.1 Logic diagramfor develqping
Worthington'OH')
(Courtesyof theNationalWaterWellAssociation,
Figure20.2Typesofgroundwatermodelsandtypicalapplications.(Courtesyof
OH')
Worthington,
theNationalWaterWellAssociation,
elementsby
or otherwise,definedsubregion.Next, the region is divided into discrete
superimposing a rectangularor polygonal grid (see Figute 20'4)'
' (s. and z) and
once th-egrid is determined,the controlling aquiferparameters
grid element. If solutetransport is includedin the
the initial conditionsare setfor each
dispersion properties must also
model, additional parameterssuchai hydrodynamic
hive been met, the model can be operated
be specifigd.Atter atl of thesespecifications
(history matching). comparisons of
and its output comparedwith recordedhistory
with counterpart model predictions permit
recordedvaluesof headand other features
considered
parameteradjustmentsto be madeuntil observedand computeddata are
by the modelerto be in closeagreement.
to analyzea
Upon completion of thelodel's calibration, it can be applied
options. The model's prediction of the
variety of managementand/or development
can be a valuable aid to decision-making
outcomesof these alternative strategies
include: the
processes.Examplesof the types oI problems that can be addressed
of use; the impact on an aquifer of
utilty of an aquifer to suppoit various levels
the effects on underground storageof
varying naturaiand artificial rechargerates;
rate of movement of subsurface contam-
weli lo-cation,spacing,andpumpingrate; the
inants;and saltwaterintrusion.
caution
while numerical groundwatermodelshavemuch to recommendthem,
and interpreted appropriately. Prickett
must be exercisedto enJurethat they are used
three waysin
notesthat overkill, inappropriatepiediction, and misinterpretationare
To avoid these pitfalls, both the modeler
which groundwater-#"t, can Uemisused.s
484 CHAPTER20 MODELINGREGIONALGROUNDWATERSYSTEMS
(courtesv
use' ortheNation
arwater
illiiT3:':,",*itlffi,ffi:ff tlSl
and user must understandthe underlying assumptionsupon which the model was
founded,its limitations, andits sourcesof errors.Usedwisely,modelscanbe powerful
decision-makingaids. Used inappropriately,they can lead to erroneousand some-
times damagingproposals.
20.2 FINITE-DIFFERENCE.METHODS
(a)
A.r
Ly ..,--V ^t
,
/_-/ | 1"
', / 1 . 1 , /
4Finitedifference
/ , , . , a
/ srld DlocK
(b)
boundaries.(b) Finite-dif-
Figure 20.4 (a) Map view of aquifershowingwell field and
t At' is the spacing
i"r""n"" grid{oi aquifir study,wGre Ax is the spacTqii lhu *ection'
thicknesg.Solid dots: block-center nodes;open
in tt" y-at"rtion, and f is itre aquifer
of the National Waterwell Association, worthing-
circles:source-sink nooo tcoo*sy
ton. OH.)
486 CHAPTER20 MODELINGREGIONALGROUNDWATERSYSTEMS
s#P.N#ot:s!+w (20.r)
t, I o
m,1
eAx'--- Node
I
Subregion Ay l,,i
/
I
-
Boundary
\ ofregion of
\ integration
a m,n
l, nd
for a finite-
Figure 20.5 Subdivisionof a region of integrationinto computationalelements
differenceProblemformulation.
BoundaryConditions
In order to integrateEq.20.l,the governingboundary conditionsmust be-specified'
Chap-
Two typesof bJundary condition aie discussedhere.Otherswere presentedin
ters 18 and 19.
chosen
Where the region of integrationis limited by a political or arbitrarily
boundary,it is oftei the policy to employ a constant-gradient boundary condition'10
change
In this "ur", unar.umption is madethat the gradientof the watertable will not
llvel may rise or fall. Where streams with
alongthe boundaryeventhoughthe water
are encountered, stream boundary condi-
interconnectionsto the groundwatersystem
as
tions are employed.Constant-gradientboundariesare expressedmathematically
a h l \ (20.2)
*:81x'!)
where g\x, y): a constant specifiedat the location x, y throughoutthe period of
simulation (dimensionless)
/z : hydraulic head (L)
s : direction perpendicularto the boundary (L)
Streamboundariesare expressedas
h : f(x, Y, t) (20.3)
wheref(x,y,/)=anunknownfunctionoftimeatthelocationx'y
(dimensionless)
h = hydraulic head (L)
488 CHAPTER20 MODELINGREGIONALGROUNDWATERSYSTEMS
o: rfrtr (20.4)
where h:head(L)
Al = dummy variable denoting the length of the side of the subregion
perpendicularto s (L)
s : dummy variable denoting the direction of flow perpendicularto the
boundary (L)
p : volumetricdischarge(LilT)
Z : transmissivityat the boundary (IllT)
Use of this equationat a boundary is illustrated by the notation of Fig. 20.6.
Considerthe flow from left to right in the x direction acrossthe left-handsideof the
elementalregiondepicted.The node i - I, j lies outsidethe regionof integrationand
thus it may be assumedthat no information aboutit is available.An assumptionmay
be madeto circumventthis problem.It is that the transmissivityacrossthe boundary
is uniform and equal to Tt,t.
In finite-differenceform the head changeterm in Eq. 18.26 can be statedas
ah _hi.j-hi-l,j
(20.s)
6x A,x
But the headh,-r,, doesnot exist, and anotherapproximationis required,
h,,i - h,-r,i : hi*r,j - hi,j (20.6)
Thesetwo expressionsare then substitutedin Eq. 20.4 to yield
f,,,u#'LY
Q;-r/",i: (20.7)
Boundary
where
6 h= r .
dx
'i a
_ 1^ ' i'
.
At the beginningof each time step, a new volumetric flux is calculatedalong each
constant-gradient boundary.This is accomplishedby usingthe headsand transmissiv-
ities computedin the previoustime interval. .
Surfacestreams are sometimes treated as constant-head boundaries in ground-
water problems. The assumption is adequate where the water level in the surface body
is expectedto remain unchanged during the time period of the modeling process. In
many instances, however, surfaceflows, and hence heads, are significantly affected by
withdrawalsor rechargesto the interconnectedgroundwatersystem.They may then
be a limited sourceof water supplyfor the groundwater.system.To accommodatethe
surfacewater-groundwaterlinkage, a leakageterm may be applied.toThis expression
may take the form
= -fi{n,.,.r
leakage,,r,1 h,i,o) (20.8)
Flow Model
One.Dimensional
To illustrate the finite-difference approachto groundwaterproblem solving, a one-
dimensionalconceptualizationis discussed. Although mostpractical-scalemodelsare
two- or three-dimensional in character, their developmentis only an extensionof the
one-dimensional case. For details of some of the more complex modelsthe reader
should consult the appropriate references.6-8'i0-1sThe book by McWhorter and
Sunadais easy to read and includes excellentexample problems.8The treatment of
one-dimensional flow taken here follows the approach of that reference.
490 CHAPTER20 MODELINGREGIONALGROUNDWATERSYSTEMS
Flow
hi*t
-----w IlD-constantatt>0
Confined aquifer
l+Ay+l
flowcase.(After
groundwater
Figure20.7 Gridnotationfor a one-dimensional
McWhorter andSunada.8)
The ireaA appearingin Eq. 20.10 is the cross-sectional area of flow and is
obtainedasthe productof Al and b. Sincewe are dealingwith a unit width of aquifer,
A.r : 1 and sinceb is a constantby definition here, Eq. 20.10 mtry be written
hl - "h,!
i-t
o,- -': -7"i ' (20.11)
Ay
where 7 : Kb. A similar expressionfor the flow from element ito i * 1 may be
obtained:
(20.r2)
Equations20.11 and 20.12 representthe inflow and outflow from elementi. Consid-
ering that continuity conditionsmust be met, this changein flow acrossthe element
*urt b" balancedby the changein storagewhich occursduring the time step.This is
siven as
(20.1s)
- +
ffirr;, +hi-) nllr ##]
tur+^, (20.16)
In this casethe spabederivativesare centeredat the beginningof the time stepand the
singleunknownls h!*^'. Equation 20.16 canbe solvedexplicitly at eachelementfor
the headat the next period of time. The solutiondependsonly on a knowledgeof the
492 CHAPTER20 MODELINGREGIONAI-GROUNDWATERSYSTEMS
EXAMPLE 2O.T
Refer to the one-dimensionalflow problem of Fig: 20.8. Let us assumethat the
elementlength is 4 m and that the thicknessof the confinedaquiferis 2 m. It is further
: 0 and that
assumedthit the headat the left and right sidesof the region is 8 m at /
the head on the right side takes on the value 2 mfot all t greatet than zero. K :
0.5 m/day and S 0.02. As shown in the figure, there are five elements.Using the
:
notation of eq. 20.16,the initial condition is hf; : 8.0 m. Use the explicit methodto
determinefuture heads.
Solution
8m
A)=4m
h,;",: *, ",,411
+ hg) 0 f , --s(Ay),1
rful
f# @?
and substitutingnumerical values,we get
,n, : 1.0(ol) ^f. - 2(1.0)(0.1)l
/,1' (ffi(2.0 + 8.0)
+ 8.olt
drn+Fl
: 3 . 1 + 3 . 0 : 6 . 1 3m
:
h2, + hg\+ nZ'lt-
#(h2, #] I
) : 5.4 m
: 0.31Q.0+ 8.0) + 6.13(0.37
For element3
-
hg':ffi(h:'+h9\+l,l'[r
ffi]
: 0 . 3 1 ( 6 . 1+3 8 . 0 )+ 8 . 0 ( 0 . 3 7: 7
) '4m
Element 2 doesnot have a head changeuntil the third time step.
4. The processdemonstratedis repeateduntil the headshavebeencalculated
for the total time period of interest.For this example,they will ultimately
reachequilibriumconditions. rl
METHODS
20.3 FINITE.ELEMENT
The mostwidely usednumericaltechniquesfor solvinggroundwaterflow problemsare
the finite-differenceand finite-elementmethods.The finite-elementmethodis similar
to the finite-differencemethodin that both approacheslead to a set of N equationsin
Nunknowns that canbe solvedby relaxation.6Nodesin the finite-elementmethodare
usually the corner points of an irregular triangular or quadrilateral mesh for two-
dimensionalapplications,while for three-dimensionalapplications,bricks or tetrahe-
drons are commonly used.The sizeand shapeof the elementsselectedare arbitrary.
They are chosento fit the applicationat hand.They differ from the regularrectangular
grid elementsusedin finite-differencemodeling.Elementsthat are closestto points
of flow concentratiensuchas wells are usually smaller than those further removed
494 CHAPTER20 MODELINGREGIONALGROUNDWATERSYSTEMS
6)
z
()
I
o
bo
o\
N
b0
H
,-
H
3
d
C)
C)
a
C)
o
a
b
Q
@
? ca
ra
U
o
6
a H
e
F
(.)
O
-.-----
d
e
o
a rrl
o
d
N J
ra p R
.$E
20.4 , MODELAPPLICATIONS 497
o
()
a
F \ $ H
Z-u----
E.l( o
H
o
s-
I
e \
\=e
1t "-
-o-
:d65'
r-O
t\-z
a
,
lo
U
E
o
U
9pc
H ' A
o o i
* O
d O
E =
H E
d 9
: : 4
J €
o >.o
F I X
ti ;i
N X
6 o ! l
L ;
hn:\
a;-Y
2O.4 MODELAPPLICATIONS 499
^o 8 2
.8 s4
d 8 6
A rl-- Computed trend
e 6 6 1/
\/
Eno V Measured water levels
P, 92
e 9 4
6 v
tse6
h q R
F 100
1,02
Y V
1956 1958 t959 1960 t961 t962 1964 1965 t967 1968 1969 1970 r97I 1972 1973
Year
andcomputed
Figure20.1.2 Measured trends'(AfterHuntoon'10)'
water-level
20.5 GROUNDWATER
QUALIW MODELS
Groundwaterquality hasbecomea major sourceof concernin recentyears.This has
comeaboutfrom the realizationthat many groundwatersourcesthat wereat onetime
consideredalmost pristine have now been degradedin quality by seepagesfrom
dumps, leakagefrom industrial waste holding ponds, and by other waste disposal
and/or industrial and agricultural practices.To deal with suchproblems,'therehas
been an expandingmovementto developquantitative techniquesto understandthe
mechanicsof groundwaterquality. Thesemodels,althoughnot as advancedas their
surfacewater counterparts,are now beginningto play an important role in water
quality management.
The subjectof groundwaterquality modelingis complexand underrapid devel-
opment.Accordingly,a thoroughtreatmentof the subjectis beyondthe scopeof this
book. The importance of this topic cannot be overemphasized,however, and the
readeris encouragedto consultthe referencesat the end of the chapter,specifically
Refs.6 and 26-30.
In 1974, Gelhar and Wilson developeda lumped parametermodel for dealing
with water quality in a stream-aquifersystem.The nomenclatureand conceptualiza-
tion of their model are shown in Fig. 20.14.2eThe rationale for using a lumped
parameterapproachwasthat when dealingwith changesin groundwaterquality over
long periods of time, temporal rather than spatial variationsare most important.
Changesin water table in the Gelhar-Wilson (GW) model are representedby
the following equation:
dh -q+e*q,-ep
'nd- t= (20.18)
This is just anotherform of the continuity equationrelating inflow, outflow, and the
changein storage(lefrhand term in Eq. 20.18).The changein concentrationof a
constituentis given by
,dc
Pndt- (e -l q, -t aph)c : ec. * q,c, (2o.re)
20.5 GROUNDWATERQUALITYMODELS
€. Ct
(b)
of the Gelhar-Wilsonmodel'(After
Figure 20.L4 Schematic
NovotnyandChesters.2a)
where c: concentration
c; : coflcefltrationof the natural recharge
c, : concentrationof the artificial recharge
c: a first-orderrate constantfor degradationof the contaminant
The GW model assumesthat dispersionis negligible.This assumptionmay be
made on the basis that the objective of the model iS to estimateregional-average
The model also provides for the determinationof hydraulic and
concentratiolrs.2e
soluteresponsetimes for the system.Theseare measuresof the lag that occursin the
moue-"ni of both water and constituentinputs to the system.Gelhar and Wilson
assumethat the responseof an aquiferto a specificinput can be likened to that of a
well-mixed linear reservoir.Their studiesshowedthat the model's determinationof
the concentrationof constituentsleavingan aquifer is representativeof the average
concentrationof the constituentin the aquifer.On this basis,,itappearsthat the model
502 CHAPTER20 MODELINGREGIONALGROUNDWATERSYSTEMS
r summary
Groundwaterin a regionalaquifer systemis constantlyin motion. The amountstored
at any time is affectedby artificial and natural-recharge,evapotranspiration,flow to
springs and surface water courses,and by collection devices such as wells and
infi ltration galleries.
Natural hydrologic statesmay be significantly affected by human activities.
Aquifer depletionshaving regional and national economicimplications are not un-
corlmon. Depletionof the Ogallala aquiferin the central United Statesby long-term
and extensivewater withdrawalsfor irrigation is a good example.On the other hand,
waterlevelshavebeenmadeto rise, sometimesinadvertently,by humanintervention.
Leaky irrigation canalsin central Nebraskawere at one time responsiblefor ground-
waterlevel risesin somefarming locationsof a magnitudesufficientto jeopardizeuse
of the land. Once major problemsof depletionor over-replenishmentoccur, they are
not easilydealt with. In general,a safe-yieldpolicy for groundwatermanagementhas
merit and shouldbe considered.6'30.
Regional groundwater flow problems are usually modeled by an equation
combiningDarcy's law and the equationof continuity.The resultingpartial differen-
tial equationoor setof equations,describesthe hydraulicrelationswithin the aquifer.
To effect a solution to the governingequation(s),the aquifer's hydraulic features,
geometry,and initial and boundary conditions must be determined.Unfortunately,
many groundwaterproblems exist for which exact analytic solutionscannot be ob-
tained.In suchcases,it is necessaryto rely on numericalmethodsfor modeling.Under
suchcircumstances,an approximatesolutionis obtainedby replacingthe basicdiffer-
ential equationswith another set of equationsthat can be solved iteratively on a
computer.Both finite differenceand finite elementmethodsare applicable.
The finite differenceapproachdescribedin this chapterreplacesthe governing
partial differential equationswith a setof algebraicequations.Thesecanbe solvedon
the computerto producea set of water table elevationsat a finite numberof locations
in the aquifer.
Once the groundwatermodel has been calibrated,it can be usedto predict the
outcomes(impacts) of alternativedevelopmentand/or managementstrategiespro-
posed for an aquifer. Such analysesare valuable adjuncts to decision-makingpro-
cesses.Models can, for example,simulate the effects of opening new well fields,
analyzechangedbperating practices for existing well fields, explore schemesfor
artificial recharge,and predict the impactsof proposedirrigation developmentplans.
Groundwatermodelscan be applied to unconfinedaquifers,semiconfinedaquifers,
confined aquifers,or any combinationthereof. They can accommodatelarge varia-
tions in aquiferparameterssuchashydraulicconductivityand storagecoefficient,and
they can be usedto analyzeunsteadyas well as steadyflow problems.
REFERENCES 503
PROBLEMS
20.t. Refer to Fig. 20.8. Assumethat the elementlength is 5 m and the thicknessof the
confined aquifer is 2.5 m. The head at the left and right sidesis 8.1 m at r : 0, and
the head on the right is 2.5 m for all r > 0. K : 0.5 m/day and S : 0.02. Use the
explicit method to determineheadsat future times.
20.2. Referto Fig. 20.8.Assumethe elementlengthis 10 ft andthe thicknessof the confined
aquiferis 8 ft. The headat the left and right is 21 ft at t : 0, and it drops on the right
sideto 8 ft for all t > 0. K: 1.5 ftlday-ands : 0.02. use the explicitmethodto
calculatefuture heads.
20.3. Referto Fig. 20.12.Asidefrom the trend, what elsecanyou deducefrom studyingthis
figure?
20.4. Discusshow you would go about designinga grid for a regional groundwaterstudy.
What types of boun{ary conditions might you specify?Why?
REFERENCES
1. J. W. Mercer and C. R. Faust,Ground-WaterModeling.Worthington,OH: National Water
Well Association,1981.
2. C.A.AppelandJ.D.Bredehoeft,"statusofGroundwaterModelingintheU.S.Geological
Survey," U.S, Geol. Survey Circular 737(1976).
"Utilization of Numerical Groundwa-
3. Y. Bachmat,B. Andres,D. Holta, and S. Sebastian,
ter Models for Water ResourceManagement,"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ReportEPA-600/8-78-012.
"Contribution of Ground-waterModeling to Planning," J. Hydrol' 43(Oct.
4. J.E. Moore,
r979).
"Ground-water Computer Models-State of the Att,'l Ground Water
5. T. A. Prickett,
r7(2),t2r-r28(r979).
6. R. A. Freezeand J. A. Cherry, Groundwater.EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,1979.
7. G. D. Bennett, Introduction to Ground Water Hydraulics, book 3, Applications of Hy-
draulics. Washington,D.C.: U.S. GeologicalSurvey,U.S. GovernmentPrinting Offlce,
1976.
8. D. B. McWhorter and D. K. Sunada, Ground Water Hydrology and Hydraulics. Fott
Collins,CO: WaterResources Publications,1977'
9. D. K. Todd,GroundwaterHydrology,2d ed.New York: Wiley' 1980'
"PredictedWater-LevelDeclinesfor Alternative GroundwaterDevelop-
10. P. W. Huntoon,
ments in the Upper Big Blue River Basin,Nebraska,"ResourceRep.No. 6, Conservation
and Survey Div., University of Nebraska,Lincoln, 1974.
"The Numerical Solution of Parabolic and
11. D. W Peacemenand H. H. Rachford, Jr.,
Elliptic DiffetentialEquations,"Soc. Indust. Afpl. Math. J.3,28-4I(I955)'
"Application of th€ Digital Computer for Aquifer
12. G. F. Pinder and J. D. Bredehoeft,
Evaluation,"WaterResourcesRes.4(4), 1069- 1093(1968).
13. I. Remson,G. M. Hornberger,and F. J. Molz, NumericalMethodsin SubsurfaceHydrol-
ogy. New York: Witey, 1971.
14. T. A. Prickett and C. G. Lonnquist,SelectedDigital ComputerTechniques for Groundwa-
ter ResourceEvaluation,Illinois StateWater Survey Bull. No. 55, 1971.
PARTFIVE
MODELING
HYDROLOGIC
Chapter21
lntroductionto Hydrologic
Modeling
r Prologue
The purposeof this chapteris to:
21.1 HYDROLOGIC
SIMULATION
Percentage
of inputsby Date of original
Code name Model name Agencyor organization judgmenf development
Continuous simulationmodels-Chapter23
streamflow
API Antecedent Frecipitation Index Model Private I 1969
USDAHL 1970,1973,1974 RevisedWatershedHydrology ARS I t970
SWM-IV Stanford WatershedModel IV Stanford University 10 1959
HSPF Hydrocomp Simulation Program-FORTRAN EPA 10 196l
NWSRFS National Weather Service Runoff Forecast System 10 t972
SSARR Streamflow Synthesisand Reservoir Regulation Corps 3 1958
PRMS Precipitation-Runoff Modeling System USGS 5 1982
SWRRB Simulator for Water Resourcesin Rural Basins USDA 10 r990
Rainfall-runoff event-simulation models-Chapter 24
HEC-1 HEC-I Flood HydrographPackage Corps I 1973
TR-20 Computer Program for Project Hydrology scs 5 I 965
USGS USGS Rainfall-Runoff Model USGS 10 t972
HYMO Hydrologic Model Computer Language ARS 1 r972
SWMM Storm Water ManasementModel EPA 5 t971.
Urbanrunoffsimulation
models-Chapter
25
UCUR University of Cincinnati Urban Runoff Model University of Cinci4natr z t972
STORM Quantity and Quality ofUrban Runoff Corps 3 r974
MITCAT MIT Catchment Model MIT 5 t970
SWMM Storm Water ManagementModel EPA 5 I9'71
ILLUDAS Illinois Urban Drainage Area Simulator Illinois State Survey I 1972
DR3M Distributed Routing Rainfall-Runoff Model USGS 5 1978
PSURM PennsylvaniaState Urban RunoffModel PennsylvaniaState University 5 1979
"Judgment percentagesare from U.S. Army WaterwaysExperiment Station.r
SIMULATION509
21.1 HYDROLOGIC
by repeatedtrials
inputs that arejudginent pafameters.Theseare normally validated
are primarily event simulation modelsbut
with the models.The urban runoff models
descriptions of urban models are deferred
havebeenisolatedin Table2 1. 1 becausethe
to ChaPter25.
modelsshown
Severalof the major eventand continuousstreamflowsimulation
23 and24.The Stanford and HEC-1 models
in Table2!.1aredescribedin chapters
most models listed in Table 2I't are briefly
are emphasized.For further referince, "Models and Meth-
described,alongwith about 100 other models, in the publication
ods Applicable to Corps of EngineersStudi-es."1 Fleming's text plesentscomplete
descriptionsof the SSARR, S'[iM, HSP, USDAHL' and other models'2
Classificationof SimulationModels
In recent decadesthe scienceof ct
water resourcesystemshas Passed
engineeringprocedure.The variedni
has causeda proliferation of catego
classiflcationsare Presented.
Limitationsof Simulation
systems'some
Becausesimulation entails a mathematicalabstractionof real-world
system behavior can^occur. The extent to which the
degreeof *i,,"p,",entation of "depends
on many factors' The test of a developed
model and systemoutputs vary
by demonstrating that the behavior is consis-
simulationmodelconsistsof u"iifi"uiion
tent with the known behaviorof the physical system'
resources
Even verified simulation models have limitations in usesfor water
models will allow performance assessments of
planhing and analysis.Simulation
particularly opti-
specificschemesbut cannotbe usedefficiently to generateoptions,
once a near-optimal plan is formulated^by some
mal plans, for stated objectives.
of simulation runs are normally effective for testing
othertechnique,a limited number
variablesusing ran-
and improving the plan by modifying combinationsof decision
Techniques for generating optimal plans are
dom or systeriaticsamplingtechniques.
describedin Section21'3'
proce-
Another limitation of simulationmodelsinvolveschangingthe operating
of the system being modeled' Programming
duresfor potentialor existingcomponents
for example,requires
u "o*pot", to handle reservoir storageand releaseprocesses'
rules, and considerable reprogramming is re-
large portions to define the operatin!
qoir"a if other operatingproceduresare to be investigated.
t-
512 oHAPTER
21 INTRoDUoTIoN
To HYDRoLoGIc
MoDELING
A'fourth limitation of simulationmodelsis the potential overrelianceon sophis-
ticated output when hydrologicand economicinputs are inadequate.The techniques
of operational hydrology can be used to obviate data inadequacies,but these also
require input. Controversyover the use of syntheticdata centerson the questionof
whetheroperationalhydrologyprovidesbetter information than that containedin the
input.
Utilityof Simulation
Computersimulation of hydrologicprocesseshas severalimportant advantagesthat
shouldbe recognizedwheneverconsideringthe merits of a simulation approachto a
problem that has other possiblesolutions.One alternativeto digital simulationis to
build and operateeither the prototype systemor a physically scaledversion.Simula-
tion by physical modeling has been applied successfullyto the analysisof many
componentsof systemssuchas the designof hydraulic structuresor the investigation
of streambank stability.However,for the analysisof complexwaterresourcesystems
comprisedof many interactingcomponents,computersimulation often provesto be
the only feasibletool.
Another alternative to digital simulation is a hand solution of the governing
equations.Simulation models,once formulated, can accomplishidentical results in
lesstime. Also, solutionsthat would be impossibleto achieveby hand are frequently
achievedby simulation.In addition, the systemcan be nondestructivelytested;prd-
posedmodificationsof the designsof systemelementscan be testedfor feasibility or
comparedwith alternatives;andmanyproposalscanbe studiedin a shorttime period.
An often overlookedadvantageof simulation includes the insight gained by
gathering,organizing,and processingthe data, and by mentally and mathematically
formulating the model algorithmsthat reproducebehaviorpatternsin the prototype.
Stepsin DigitalSimulation
A simulationmodel is a set of equationsand algorithms(e.g.,operatingpolicies for
reservoirs)that describethe real systemand imitate the behaviorof the system.A
fundamentalfirst stepin organizinga simulationmodelinvolvesa detailedanalysisof
all existingand proposedcomponentsof the systemand the collection of pertinent
data. This stepis called the systemidentification or inventory phase.Includeditems
of interestare site locations,reservoircharacteristics.rainfall and streamflowhisto-
ries, water and power demands,and so forth. Typical inventory items requiredfor a
simulatiol study and data needsthat are specificto someof the modelsare detailed
in subsequentparagraphs.
The second-phase is model conceptualiTation,which often providesfeedbackto
the first phasebf defining actual data requirementsfor the planner and identifying
systemcomponentsthat areimportant to the behaviorof the system.This stepinvolves
(1) selectinga techniqueor techniquesthat are to be used to representthe system
elements,(2) formulating the comprehensivemathematicsof the techniques,and (3)
translatingthe proposedformulation into a working computerprogramthat intercon-
nects all the subsystems and algorithms.
Following the systemidentification and conceptualizationphasesare several
stepsof the implementationphase. Theseinclude(1) validatingthe model,preferably
SIMULATION 513
21.1 HYDROLOGIC
for the
by demonstrating that the model reproduces any available observed behavior
(2) modifying the algorithms as necessary to improve the
actual or a similir system;
(3) putting the model to work by carrying out the simula-
accuracy of the model; and
tion exPeriments.
Model Protocoi
Five axiomsfor performingsuccessfulmodelstudies,adaptedfrom recommendations
by Friedrich,5are:
Componentsof HydrologicSimulationModels
Numerousmathematicalmodelshavebeen developedfor the purposeof simulating
various hydrologicphenomenaand systems.A generalconceptualmodel including
mostof the importantcomponentsis shownin Fig. 21.1;severalothersare described
subsequeht$.Irnportedwater in the lorygl leJtcould be input to reservoiror ground-
)
SIMULATION
21,1 HYDROLOGIC 515
System outflow
Snow accumulation
and melt
System outflow
Figure2l..l.Componentsofasurfaceandsubsurfacewaterresourcesystem.
allocationson
water storageor channelflow, or it might be guideddirectly to water
The routing of
the far rlgtriif either storageor distribuiion were deemedunnecessary.
parameter
channelflo* o, overlandflow could be accompdbhedby simple lumped
flow eq-uationsfor discrete segments of
techniques,or solutionsof the unsteady-state
and algorithms
the channelcould be used.In other words,the selectionof techniques
depends on the d9ere9of refinement desired as output
to fepresenteachcomponent
is justifled
and also on knowledgl of the system.A distributedparameterapproach
described in
only when availableinformation is adequate.Componentsof modelsare
ChaPters22-25.
DataNeedsfor HydrologicSimulation
aspart of the
The simulation6f all or part of a water systemrequiresa data inventory
(90 percent or mofe) are
initial planningproc"ts. Most modelinput datarequirements
or obtained from engineering
map or tield ariaitable,or canbe empiricallydetermined
inventory topics that encompasses
, handbooksand equations.A generallist of data
most hydrologic- economicmodelingneedsfollows'
NonmodelingAssessments
can be
After researchingthe availabledata and information, the needfor simulation
If a decisionis made to proceed,the appropriatesimulation model can be
assessed.
selected,a sequenceplanned,and data prepared'
Transformationof raw data into usabieform doesnot alwaysrequire a simula-
can
tion model.Much of the usualinformationneededfor waterresourcesassessments
be preparedby hand or by using analytical proceduresavailable in microcomputer
format.Typicalnonmodelinganalysesincludethefollowing:
1. Identify water-user groups and all basin sites for hydropower produc-
irrigation, flood damagereduction from
tion, reservoir-based-recreation,
518 CHAPTER21 INTRODUCTION
TO HYDRoLOGICMODELING
Digital simulation models are used in a different manner to study the storageand
movementof water in a porous medium. Distributedrather than lumped parameter
models are used to imitate observedevents and to evaluatefuture trends in the
developmentand managementof groundwatersystems.The equationsdescribingthe
flow of waterin a poroui mediumwerederivedin Chapter18 andmodelingof regional
systemswas discirssedin Chapter 20. This section deals primarily with techniques
used in solving the hydrodynamicequationsof motion and continuity, followed by
brief discussionsof (i) typical input requirements,(2) techniquesof calibrating and
verifying the models, and (3) the sensitivity of groundwatermodels to parameter
changeslAnexampleof the calibrationand applicationof a groundwatermodelis also
provided.
ModelTypes
Groundwaterstudiesinvolve the adaptationof a particular code to the problem at
hand. Severalpopular public domain computer codesfor solving various types of
groundwaterflow problemsare listedin Table2L2.The codesbecomemodelswhen
the systembeingsiudiedis describedto the codeby inputting the systemgeometryand
known internai operandi (aquifer and flow field parameters,initial and boundary
conditions, and water use and flow stressesapplied in time to all or parts of
the system).Codes have emerged in four general categories:groundwaterflow
codes,solutetransport codes,particle tracking codes,andaquifer testdata analysis
programs.to
Groundwaterflow codesprovide the user with the distribution of headsin an
aquifer that would result from a simulated set of distributed recharge-discharge
stressesat cells or line segments.From Darcy's law, the flow passingany two points
can be calculated from the head differential. The codes are used to model both
confined and unconfinedaquifers.Eachcan be structuredto model regional flow, or
flow in proximity of a singG well or wellfield. Steady-stateand transientconditions
canbe evaluated.Boundaiiescanbe barriers,full or partially penetratingstreamsand
lakes,leaky zones,or constantheador constantgradientperimeters.By application
of Darcy's 1aw,the seepagevelocitiesof groundwatercan be determinedafter solving
for the head differentials.
When groundwaterseepagevelocitiesareknown, the advection,dispersion,and
changesin concentrationof iolutes can be modeled.Solutetransportmodelsbuild on
groundwaterflow modelsby the addition of advection,dispersion,and/or chemical
reactionequations.If the chemical,dispersion,or dilution concentrationchangesdue
m groundwaterflow are not important, particle tracking codesmodel transport by
advectionand providean easiermethodthan solutetransportmodelsto track the path
and traveltimes of solutesthat moveunderthe influenceof headdifferentials.Aquifer
test data programsprovide userswith computersolutionsto many of the hand calcu-
lations (Ctrapter li) neededto graph and interpret aquifer test data for determining
aquifer and well Parameters'
I
\.
520 CHAPTER21 INTRODUCTION
TO HYDROLOGIC
MODELING
SolutionTechniques
With few exceptions,the hydrodynamic equations for groundwaterflow have no
analyticalsolutions,and groundwatermodelingreliesonfinite-dffirence and,finite-
elementmethodsto provide approximatesolutionsto a wide variety of groundwater
problems.The choice of method is normally driven by the systemto be modeled.
Other numericalmethodsincludeboundary integral methods,integratedfinitedffir-
ence methods,and analytic elementmethods.
Thesesolutions,as with streamflowsimulation models,are facilitated by first
subdividingthe region to be modeledinto subareas.Groundwatersystemsubdivision
dependsmore on geometriccriteria and lesson topographiccriteria in the sensethat
the region is overlaidby a regular or semiregularpattem of node points at which (or
betweenwhich) specificmeasuresof aquifer and water systemparametersare input
and other parametersare calculated.Approximate solutionsof simultaneouslinear
and nonlinearequationsare found by making initial estimatesof the solution values,
testingthe estimatesin the equationsof motion and continuity, adjustingthe values,
andfinally acceptingminor violationsin the basicprinciplesor making further adjust-
ments of-the parametersin an orderly and convergingfashion.
SIMULATION
21.2 GROUNDWATEFT 521
CaseExample
A typical finite-differencestudyinvolvingsurfacewaterand groundwatermodelingin
central Nebraskawas performed by Marlette and Lewis.tt The region involved is
shownin Fig. 2I.2.In additionto the surfaceirrigation systemrepresented by the
severalcanalsand laterals,over 1200wells withdraw waterfrom the aquiferbetween
the PlatteRiver and the Gothenburgand DawsonCounty canals.The aquiferrecharge
and withdrawal amountsas percentagesof precipitation, snowfall, pumped water,
deliveredcanal water, evaporation,and evapotranspirationwere estimatedusing a
mix of judgment andphysicalprocessevaluations.The resultingsetthat producedthe
bestcomparisonwith recordedeventsat the six observationwells showninFig.2l.2
is summarizedin Table 21.3. Samplesof the comparisonbetweenrecordedand
simulatedwaterlevelsin the DawsonCounty study during aZ-yearcalibrationperiod
are shownin Figs. 21.3 and2l.4.
The Prickettand Lonnquistmodelwasappliedin the DawsonCounty study.The
storagecoefflcientfor this unconfinedaquiferwas establishedby calibrationtrials as
0.25 and the adopted permeability was 61 mlday. Other trials were made using
variouscombinations of S andK, with S rangingfrom 0.10to 0.30andwith Kranging
between4I and I02 mlday. As with most unconfined aquifer models,water table
elevationswere most sensitiveto fluctuationsin the storasecoefflcient.Fisure 21.5 is
tt'iorX
'q;
\F
Aquiferrecharge/withdrawal
as a percentage
ot
Systemcomponent Allocationand appliedamounts appliedamount
o
o
6
B
0.999
d
0.998
A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N
1970 1971
Figure2L.3. Simulatedandrecordedwaterlevelsat observation
w e l l Di n F i g . 2 1 . 2 .:I8 2 ; i : 3 7 .
o
a
F
0.999
0.998
A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N
1970 l97l
a lu3
(J
o
q)
(.1
'F1
H
0)
i3
- 702
A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O
t9'70 r97|
changes
Figure 21.5. Water-level with constantpermeabilityandvarying
Well4 Fig. 21.2;K : 6Im/day;I : 97;J : 42.
storagecoefficients.
PROTOCOL
SIMULATION
21.3 HYDROLOGIC
The useof hydrologicsimulationas a tool in the decision-makingprocessis not new
but is of a different, more sophisticatedand more encompassingform. A model is a
rgplesentationof an actualor proposedsystemthat permitsthe evaluationand-rmanip-
21.g HYDROLOGICSIMULATIONPROTOCOL 525
useof
ulation of-manyyearsof prototypebehavior.This is the featurethat makesthe
thesetooii so attractiveand hoids suchpotential for the analysis of even the largest,
so well
mostcomplexsystems.It is alsothe prin-ipal featurethat makesthis approach
suitedto water resourcessystemplanning and analysis'
Apart from the useof cot1entionalhandmethodsand someelementarymodels,
planninghastraditionally beena practiceof judgment.This is changing,however,as
quantititive tools are developedthat permit the analysisof large numbersof alterna-
out but is
tives and plans.Judgment,a-nessentialelementof the process,is not ruled
to those in the planning
strengthenedthrough new insights that were not available
professiona few years ago. "What if ?"
Plannersare conti;ually required to anticipatethe future and ask
and "What's best?" questions.Quantitativeplanning techniques,suchas simulation
cost than
can provide detailedinformation aboutmore planning alternativesfor less
has occurred principally at
uny oth", approachavailable.Developmentof thesetools
universitiesand federal agencies.
L
526 CHAPTER21 INTRODUCTIONTO HYDROLOGICMODELING
MODELS
SIMULATION
21.4 CORPSOF ENGINEERS
In 1964,the U.S. Army Corps of Engineersdevelopeda specialtybranch locatedat
the HydrologicEngineeringCenter(HEC) in Davis,California. The facility provides
a centerforipplying academicresearchresultsto practical needsof the Corps fleld
offices.In addition, the centerprovidestraining and technical assistanceto govern-
menr agenciesin advancedhydrology,hydraulics,and reservoiroperations.
Over the years, a large number of analytical tools were developedat HEC.
Table 2I.4 summarizesthe computerprogramsin categoriesof hydrology,river/reser-
voir hydraulics, reservoir operations, stochastichydrology, river/reservoir water
HydrologyModels
HEC-I, Flood HydrograPhPackage September1980 Simulatesthe precipitation runoff
processin any comPlexriver
TABLE21.4 (Continued)*
super-critical. AnalYzes
allowableencroachmentfor a
given rise in water surface.
PROBLEMS
21.1. Simulation and synthesisare treatedseparatelyin Chapters'22and 23. List the most
distinguishingcharacteristicsof eachmethod and give an exampleof each.
21.2. Listatleastthreereasonsmanyofthedevelopedmodelsoftherainfall-runoffprocess
might not be usedby hydrologists.
21.3. You are askedto determinea designinflow hydrographto a reservoirat a site where
no recordsof streamfloware'available.I,!st generalstepsyou would take as a hydrol-
' ogist in developingthe entire designinflow hydrograph.
REFERENCES
"Models and MethodsApplicableto Corps of
1. U.S. Army WaterwaysExperimentStation,
EngineersUrban Studies,"MiscellaneousPaperH-74-8, National TechnicalInformation
Service,Aug.1974.
2. GeorgeFleming, ComputerSimulation Techniquesin Hydrology. New York: American
Elsevier,1975.
"HEC-I Flood HydrographPackage,"Users and Pro-
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
grammersManuals,HEC Program723-X6-L20I0, Jan.1973.
"Digital Simulationin Hydrology:StanfordWater-
+ . N. H. Crawford and R. K. Linsley,Jr.,
shedModel IV," Department of Civil Engineering,Stanford University, Stanford, CA,
Tech.Rep.No. 39, July 1966.
5 . A. J. Friedrich, "Managementof ComputerUse in SolvingEngineeringProblems,"U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers,Hydrologic EngineeringCenter,Davis,CA, 1979.
6 . National ResearchCouncil, Ground WaterModels-Scientific and RegulatoryApplica-
tions. Water Scienceand TechnologyBoard, Commissionon PhysicalSciences,Mathe-
matics,and Resources, National AcademyPress,Washington, D.C., 1990.
7 . C. E. Jacob,"Flow of Groundwater,"in EngineeringHydraulics (HunterRouse,ed.)' New
York: Wiley, 1950.
"The Numerical Solution of Parabolicand Elliptic
8 . D. W. Peacemanand N. H. Rachford,
DifferentialEquations,"J. Soc. Indust. Appl. Math.3' (1955).
"selectedDigital ComputerTechniquesfor Ground-
9 . T. A. Prickett and C. G. Lonnquist,
waterResourceEvaluation,"Ilinois StateWaterSurveyBull. No. 55,197I.
1 0 . D. R. Maidment, (ed.), Handbookof Hydrology.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993.
"Digital Simulationof Conjunctive-Useof Groundwater
1 1 . R. R. Marlette and G. L. Lewis,
in DawsonCounty, Nebraska,"Civil EngineeringReport, University of Nebraska,Lin-
coln, 1973.
12. W. K. Johnson,"Use of SystemsAnalysis in Water ResourcePlanning," Proc- ASCE J.
Hyd. Div. (1974).
1 3 .R. deNeufvi[e and D. H. Marks, SystemsPlanning and Design CaseStudiesin Modeling
Optimizationand EvaluatioiT . EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,I914.
14. D. P. Loucks, "stochasticMethodsfor Analyzing River Basin Systems."Cornell Univer-
sity Water Resourcesand Marine SciencesCenter,Ithaca, NY, Aug. 1969. ',
1 5 . A. Maass,(ed.),Designof WaterResourcesSystem*Cambridge,MA: HarvardUniversity
Press,1962.
t6. A. F. Pabst, "Next Generation HEC Catchment Modeling," Proceedings,ASCE Hy-
draulicsDivision Symposiumon EngineeringHydrology,SanFrancisco,CA, July 25-30'
1993.
Chapter22
Time":?J5:
Hydrologic
r Prologue
The purposeof this chaPteris to:
HYDROLOGY
22.1 SYNTHETIC
Hydrologic synthesistechniquesare classifiedas (I) historical repetition methods,
suchas masscurve analyses,which assumethat historical recordswill repeatthem-
sevlesin as many end-to-endrepetitionsas required to bracketthe planningperiod;
(2) random generationtechniques,such as Monte Carlo techniques,which assume
that the historicalrecordsare a numberof random,independentevents,any of which
could occur within a definedprobability distribution; and (3) persistencemethods,
such as Markov generationtechniques,which assumethat flows in sequenceare
dependentand thit the next flow in.sequenceis influencedby some subsetof the
previousflows. Historical repetition or random generationtechniquesare normally
applied only to annual or seasonalflows. Successiveflows for shortertime intervals
are usually correlated,necessitatinganalysisby the Markov generationmethod.
As with most subfieldsof hydrology,a number of computerprogramsfor time-
seriesanalysisandhydrologicdatasynthesishavebeendeveloped.One ofthe first, and
, one of the most widely app1i"d,wasthe U.S. Army Corps of Engineersmodel HEC-4
(seeSection21.a) pubfishedin I97IJ Its use is limited, though, to synthesizing
sequences of seriaitydependentmonthly streamflowsin a river reach.Other codess'e
are avarlableto thi hy-drologist,however. Additional models and descriptionsof
theory and applicationsof time-seriesanalysisof precipitation and streamfloware
detailedin a number of availabletexts and publications'10-l3
MassCurveAnalysis
One of the earliestand simplestsynthesistechniqueswas devisedby Ripplla to inves-
tigate reservoirptoragecapacityrequirements.His analysisassumesthat the future
inflowsto a reseivoirwill be a duplicateof the historicalrecord repeatedin its entirety
as many times end fo end as is necessaryto span the useful life of the reservoir.
Sufficient storageis then selectedto hold surpluswaters for releaseduring critical
periods when inflows fall short of demands.Reservoirsize selectionis easily accom-
pmfr"a from an analysisof peaks and troughs in the mass curve of accumulated
syntheticinflow versustime.15-17 Future flows can be similar, but are unlikely to be
identicalto pastflows.Randomgenerationand Markov modelingtechniquesproduce
seqUences t-hatare difJerentfrom, although still representativeof, historical flows.
-
HYDROLOGY 537
22.1 SYNTHETIC
EXAMPLE 22.1
Streamflowspast a proposedreservoir site during a 5-year period of record were,
respectively,in eachyear14,000,10,000,6000,8000,and 12,000acre-ft.use Rippl's
,nur. Crrru"method to determinethe size of reservoir neededto provide a yield of
9000 acre-ft in eachof the next 10 years.
solution. A lo-year sequenceof syntheticflows,usingRippl's assumptions,is
shown in Table Z2.l.Inflows are set equal to the historical record repeated
twice. rl
FOREXAMPLE22'1
TABLE22.1 STREAMFLOWS
Flows (thousandsof acre-ft)
Year r 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
Inflow 1 4 1 0 6 8 1 2 1 4 1 0 6 8 1 2
14 24 30 38 50 64 74 80 88 100
Cumulative inflow
90,000
80,000
^
I 70,000
Storagerequfued
B 60,000 for 9000-acre-ft/Yr ,' Cumulative draft,
draft is maximum , slopeof9000 acre-fl/Yr
50,000
U
30,000
. 20,000
10.000
1 2 3 4 5 6
Year
- cumulative
Eigarc 22.1 Mass curve for ExamPle 22.1:
inflow; --- cumulativedtaft.
538 CHAPTER
22 HYDRoLoGIc
TIMESERIES
ANALYSIS
RandomGeneratiOn
one method of generatingsequencesof future flows is a simplerandom rearrange-
ment of past records.If the streamis ungaugedand recordsare not available,a
probability distributioncan be selectedand a sequenceof future flows that follow the
distribution and haveprescribedstatisticalmomentsis generated.
Wheneverhistorical flows are available,a reasonablesequenceof future flows
can be synthesizedby first consultinga table of randomnumbers,selectinga number,
matchingthis with the rank-in-file numberof a pastflow, and listing thecorresponding
flow as the first value in the new sequence.The next random numberwould be used
in a similar fasion to generatethe next flow, and so on. Randomnumbershavingno
correspondingflows are neglectedand the next randomnumberis selected.Table-B.3
in Appendix B is a table of uniformly distributedrandom numbers(eachsuccessive
numberhas an equalprobability of taking on any of the possiblevalues).To illustrate
the use of Table B.3 in the random generationprocess,the first three yearsof a
syntheticflow sequencecould be generatedby selectingthe 53rd, 74th, and23rdfrom
the list of past flows. Alternatively, the flows in 1953, 1974, and 1923 could also be
selectedas the new randomsequence.
Most computershave random number generationcapabilitiesin their system
libraries. Rather than storing large tables of numberssuchas Table B.3, successive
random integersare usually generatedby the computer.
EXA]I/IPLE22.2
Annualflowsin CrookedCreekwere 19,000,14,000,21,000,8000,11,000,23,000,
1 0 , 0 0 0 , a n d 9 0 0 0 a c r e - f t , r e s p e c t i v e l y , f ol ,r2y,e3a, 4
r s, 5 , 6 , 7 , a n d 8 . G e n e r a t e a
5-year sequenceof annual flows, O,, by matching five random numberswith year
numbers.
Solution. Randomintegersbetween0 and 9 are generatedfrom the computer.
The Q, valuesin Table22.2 areselectedfrom the eight given flowsby matching
the respectiveyear numberwith the random number.The digit t has no corre-
spondingflow in the 8-year sequence,so the next random number, 2, places
the 14,000-cfs flow in Year 2 in the first position of the synthetic 5-year
sequence.rI
TABLE 22.2 DEVELOPMENTOF
s.YEAR SYNTHETIC
SEQUENCE
Randomdigit Q(acre-ft)
I o Skip
2 2 14,000
3 5 11,000
I
8 9,000
5 I 19,000
6 I
8.000
544 CHAPTER22 HYDROLOGICTIME SERIESANALYSIS
k--
?lz(' -:) . 'l-;
13 1
(22.r2)
i Summary
Hydrologicmodelingis often presentedas comprisingonly the deterministicmodels
of the rainfall-runoff processdescribedin Chapters2I,23,24, and 25. The fully
equippedhydrologistincorporatesthe synthetichydrology models describedin this
chapterin the analysisand designof water resotrces systems.A growing numberof
projects are constructedor operatedon the basis of synthetichydrology and time-
sedesanalysiseachyear.
PROBLEMS 545
PROBLEMS
22'2 and detet-
22.1. plot cumulativeinflows versustime for the S-yearrecord in Example yield of
mine by mass curve analysisthe size of the r_eservoirneededto provide a
12,000acre-ft in eachoithe next 24years. What is,the maximumyield possible?
sequenceof synthetic
use the annual rainfall trom Table 26.2to generatea lO-year
'r, t
assumption'
annual rain depthsfor Richmond using Rippl's masscurve
curve methods'Use
22.3. RepeatProblem 22.2 wingrandom generationrather than mass
numberJfrom taUl'n.: and match thesewith the last two digits of
i*o-Olglt.unaom
the yearnumbersin Problem26.32.
22.4. RepeatProblem22.2wingrandomgenerationtogenefateal0-yearsyntheticse-
standard and
qu"n"" of annual rain defths that has.a normal CDF with a mean 1
equal to that of ihe annual rain data from Problem 26'32'
deviation
follow a log-Pearson
tr< Repeat Problem 22.4 assumingthat the annual rain depths
statisiicsusethe mean, standarddeviation,and skewofthe
Type III distribution.For
logarithmsof annualrain at Richmond'
22.6. SelectagaugedStreaminyourgeographiclocationandprepareaquarterlymodel
Type III (c) Pearson
using (a) normal distribution, (Uitog-nbrmal distribution' and
distribution.
)a1 CanyouconvertthesimulationprobleminExamp|e22.4toalog_normaldistribution
given in the example?
simulation?What difficulties aie encounteredwith the data
22.8. Selectamonthofthunderstormactivityinyourregion.FrompublishedNoAAhourly
storms'for
duration of
rainfall data, flt a distributionto the time betweenstorms,and
data covering the month.
selected Preparea computerpfogram
20 yearsof recorded
of storms'
to randomly generatethe times betweenstormsand the durations
22.9. Flowsduring6yearsofrecordwereusedinsynthesizingthemasscurveshownonthe
following page.
a.UseRippl'sassumptionandthegraphtodeterminethemissingmagnitudeofthe
flow for the 12th Year.
yield of 2000 acre-
b Determinethe reservoircapacityrequired to allow an annual
ftlyr. RePeatfor 500 acte-ftlYr'
does this value relate
c. Determine the maximum yieid possibleat the site. How
statisticallYto the flows?
a table of randomprecip-
22.10. Describewith words and equationshow you would develop
havea mean of 4 in' and a standard
itation depthsthat follow a normal distributionand
deviationof3in.Useyourmethodtocalculatethefirstthreedepths.
is given below' use random
22.LI. A sequenceof uniformly distributedrandom numbers
generationto generatei 5_y"u, sequenceof annual rain depths that will follow a
have a mean of 25'8 in'' a standarddeviation
F"u..on fype iU distribution and will
of4'0in.,andaskewcoefficientof_2.2o.Randomnumberstobeusedare20,0I'
9 0 . 0 3 .a n d 8 0 .
to a PearsonType III
22.L2. Total July runoff from a basinis randomly distributedaccording
is 10,000 the
acre-ft', standard deviation is 1000 acre-ft' the
distribution. The mean
is 0.50. Start with Q1 :
skewis -0.6, and the lag-oneserialcorrelationcoefficient
flows if a sequence of randomly selected
10,000and find nu" -oiJuu.kov-generated
return periodsgives2, 100, 10,2, and 50 years'
546 CHAPTER22 HYDROLOGICTIME SERIESANALYSIS
30,000
25,000
20,000
9l
B
15,000
U 10.000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112
Year
Figtre 22.9 Mass curve.
REFERENCES
1 . U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,*HEC-4 Monthly Streamflow Sirnulation," Hydrologic
EngineeringCenter, 197l.
2. R. M. Hirsch, "synthetic Hydrology and Water Supply Reliability," Water Resources
Research, v. 15, no. 6, L979.
J. R. M. Vogel,andJ. R. Stedinger,"The Valueof StochasticStreamflowModelsin Overyear
ReservoirDesign Applications," WaterResourcesResearch,v. 25, no. 9, 1988.
A
D. K. Frevert,et al., "Use of StochasticHydrologyin ReservoirOperation," J. Irrigation
and DrainageEngineering,ASCE,v. 115,no. 3, 1989.
"An Evaluationof the Practicality and Complexityof SomeRainfall
5 . J. W. Delleur, et al.,
and Runoff Time SeriesModels," WaterResourcesResearch,v. 12, no. 5, 1976.
6. J. D. Salas, et al., "Applied Modeling of Hydrologic Time Series," Water Resources
Publications,Littleton, CO, 1980.
"Operational HydrologyUsing Residuals,"J. Hydraulics
1 . G. K. Young,and W. C. Pisano,
Division,ASCE,v.94, no. HY4, 1968.
"Applied StochasticTechniques,PersonalComputer Ver-
8 . U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,
sion 5.2. User'sManual," Earth SciencesDivision,Denver,CO, 1990.
"SPIGOT, A Synthetic StreamflowGenerationSoft-
9 . J. C. Grygier, and J. R. Stedinger,
ware Package," School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University
Ithaca.NY. 1990.
Chapter23
ContinuousSimulationModels
r Prologue
The purposeof this chaPteris to:
in Table2l'l ate
Severalof the continuoussimulationmodelsidentifiedearlier
model, version IV (swM-IV)' is presented
describedhere.The Stanford watershed
indetailastypicaloftheothermodels.Manyoftheothersare,infact,basedon
2g.1 CONTINUOUS STREAMFLOW SIMUIATIONMODELS 549
in the
SWM{V, and several simulate various componentsof the hydrologic cycle
independentcasestudies of
samemanner. Section 23.2 ptesentsand comparestwo
and how the
Stanford model studies,showinghow the parameterswere {etermined
modelswere calibratedand applied to the problemsbeing assessed'
STREAMFLOW
23.1 CONTINUOUS MODELS
SIMUI-ATION
API Model
of a
This model was one of the earlieststructuredto give a deterr.ninisticsimulation
It was originally testedon watersheds of 68 and
continuousstreamflowhydrograph.
g:i miz and must be calibrated^to each watershedto obtain a reliable method of r
givenin Fig. 23' 1'
simulatint the streamflow.lA flow diagramshowingthe structureis
ttie interrelations pertaining to of
Four basic components describe .this .model
hydrograph, an API (antecedent precipitation index,
streamflowin a river: a unit
groundwater
introduced in chapter 2 and iilustrated in Sec. 10'3), a relation for
recession,and a relation for computing the groundwater flow hydrograph asa function
This model generates both groundwater flow and
of the diiect runoff hydrograph.
precipitation values.The API model continues to enjoy
direct runoff dischargefrom
widespreadpopularity and use in simulation modeling'
Direct runoff
hydrograph
lunit-hydrograPh method)
Groundwater
outflow
hydrograph
StanfordWatershedModel lV (SWM-|V)
Crawford and Linsley designedthis digital computerprogram to simulateportions
(the land phase)of the hydrologic cycle for an entire waftished.2The model has
undergonemuchdevelopmentsinceits conceptionand is currently availablefrom the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under the name HSPF, which is a public
domain FORTRAN version (discussedsubsequently)of the original program. The
SWM-IV hasbeenwidely acceptedas a tool to synthesizea continuoushydrographof
hourly or daily streamflowsat a watershed,outlet.A lumped parameterapproachis
used and data requirementsare much less than for alternative distributedmodels.
Hour$ and daily precipitationdata,daily evaporationdata,and a variety of watershed
parametersare input.
The relationsand linkage of the variouscomponentsof SWM-IV are shownin
Fig.23.2. Hydrologicfundamentalsare usedat eachpoint to transformthe input data
into a hydrographof streamflowat the basinoutlet. Rainfall and evaporationdata are
first enteredinto the program.Incoming rainfall is distributed,as showninFig.23.2,
amonginterception,imperviousareassuchas lakes and streams,and water destined
to be infiltrated or to appearin the upper zone as surfacerunoff or interflow, both of
which contributeto the channelinflow. The infiltration and upper zone storageeven-
tually percolateto lower zone storageand to activeand inactive groundwaterstorage.
User-assignedparametersgovern the rate of water movementbetweenthe storage
zonesshownin Fig. 23.2.
Three zonesof moistureregulatesoil moistureprofiles and groundwatercondi-
tions. The rapid runoff responseencounteredin smaller watershedsis accountedfor
in the upper zone,while both upper and lower zonbscontrol suchfactorsas overland
flow, infiltration, and groundwaterstorage.The lower zone is responsiblefor longer-
term inflltration and groundwaterstoragethat is later releasedas base flow to the
stream.The total streamflowis a combinationof overlandflow, groundwaterflow, and
interflow.
TABLE23.1 ryPICALMAXIMUM
INTERCEPTIONRATES
Glassland 0.10
Moderateforest cover 0.15
Heavy forest cover 0.20
/-------'-------\
t.,
/r Actual
\. evaootransoiration
-'-r--- /
\ /
\--------1-------J
I
l* - - - - - - - - - - - - - -----\
F".""I
(: "iPrf) @
Channel inflow @
Channel inflow
Channel inflow
tt
zi Simulated
\ -k^-*ff^." t
, streamflow ,'
\ - - - - ; - - J
''E. h
a'.:
va'
x x
n l -
25 50 75 100
Percentase
oraretxTi*
SfttaffiTffi,:'JTl?J."pportunitv
Figure 23.3 Evapotranspiration relation used in the
Stanfordwatershedmodel. (After Crawford and Lins-
ley'1
and the rate of evapotranspiration from the lower zone is determined from the shaded
afea, or
E:Eo_% Q3.2)
2r
The variable r is the evapotranspirationopportunity, deflnedas the maximum water
amountavailablefor ET at a particular location during a prescribedtime period. This
factorvariesfrom point to point over any watershedfrom zero to a maximumvalue of
-.^ LZS
r : ,''J (23.3)
LZSN
where LZS : the current soil moisture storagein the lower zone (in.)
LZSN : a nominal storagelevel, normally set equal to the medianvalue of
the lower zone storage(in.)
K3 : an input parameterthat is a function of watershedcover as shown
inTable 23.2
The ratio LZSILZSN is known as the lower zone soil moisture ratio and is usedto
comparethe actuallower zone storagewith the nominal value at any time. Valuesof
ET opportunity are assumedto vary over a watershedfrom zero to r along.thestraight
line shownin Fig. 23.3. This assumedlinear cumulativedistributionof the parameter
over an area is also usedin evaluatingareal disftibutionsof infiltration rates.
TABLE23.2 ryHCALLOWER
ZONE
EVAPOTMNSPIRATION
PARAMETERS
Watershedcover
a -
_ v 2 b b
Net infiltration x-
zb t 2
i2/ r\ - b i2 u-t,-
Increasein interflow detention - l l - - f ts
2r\ c/ 2 2cb 2'
- c b
Increasein surfacedetention x-t
2rb 2rb
/ r \ / , t \ c - l
Percentageof increaseddetention r oo(-r:) r oo(-r "* _ r tr ) too2- _
ilbj
assignedto interflow
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 r.4 1.6 1.8 2.O
ratt" (-!ZL'J
Lowerzonesoilmoisture
o
o
I lncrease in overland
E flow surface detention
O b=L.0
c=1.5
100
; Y
8F 80
o 9 ^
b€R 60
, Inflection
\ 1
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
rati" (ffi)
Upperzonesoilmoisture
- (ffi)(--ri-)"''
e: roolr' (23.7)
]
where UZI| is determinedfrom
r J Z r r : r r l # k - r . o+] r . o (23.8)
rrzr2:rrlffi-z.+
o ]r . o (23.r0)
Upper Zone Storage The upper storagezone,as shownin Fig. 23.2; receivesa
large portion of the rain during the flrst few hours of the storm, while the lower and
groundwaterstoragezonesmay or may not receiveany moisture.The portion of the
upper zone storagethat is not evaporatedor transpiredis proportionedto the surface
runoff, interflow, and percolation.Percolation(upperzone depletion)from the upper
zoneto thelowerzonein Fig.23.2ocursonly whenUZS/UZSN exceeds LZS/LZSN.
When this occurs,the percolationrate in in./hr is determinedfrom
PERC -
: o.oo3(cBxuzs$(ffi (23.rr)
ffi)'
where CB is an index that controls the rate of infiltration. It rangesfrom 0.3 to 1.2
dependingon the soil permeability and on the volume of moisturethat can be stored
in the soil. The variablesUZS and UZSN are definedas the actual and nominal soil
moisturestorageamountsin the upper zone.The nominal value of UZSN is approx-
imately a function of watershedtopographyand cover and is alwaysconsideredto be
much smaller than the nominal LZSN value.The initial estimatesof UZSN relative
to LZSN are found ftomTable 23.4.
Watershed
1. Assumean initial value for LZSN equal to one quarterof the mean annual
rainfall plus 4 in. (usedin arid and semiaridregions),or one eighth of the
annual mean rainfall plus 4 in. (usedin coastal,humid, or subhumidcli-
marcsJ.
) Determinethe initial value of UZSN fromTable 23.4.
3. Assumea valuefor CB in the normal rangefrom 0.3 to I.2.
4. Simulatea period of record usingthe streamflow,rainfall, and evaporation
data and systematicallyadjust LZSN, UZSN, CB, and other parameters
until agreementbetweensynthesizedand recordedstreamflowsis satisfac-
tory. If the annualwaterbudgetsdo not balance,LZSN is adjusted;CB is
adjustedon the basis of comparisonsbetween synthesizedand recorded
flow rates for individual storms.
P,:1oo[#(-#t,"', (23.r2)
+:roofr'-(--rg
l"] (23.r3)
equations,
rnboth tn",*:r*
:, _ .,., (23.r4)
i'E;il, ]
Notefrom Fig.23.9 thatthe nominal storageLZSN equalsthe lower zonestorageLZS
when half or 50 percent of all the incoming moisture enters groundwaterstorage.
The outflow from the groundwaterstorage,GWE at any time is basedon the
commonly usedlinear semilogarithmicplot of baseflow dischargeversustime. This
techniquewasdelcribedin Section11.4andillustratedin Fig. 11.8.In modifledform
the baseflow equationis
GwF : (LKK4)[1.0 + KV(Gws)](sGw) (23.rs)
where LKK4 is definedby
LKK4:1.0-(KK24)t/e6 (23.16)
in which KK24 is the minimum of all the observeddaily recessionconstants(see
Secti,on11.4), whereeachconstantis the ratio of the groundwaterdischargerateto the
560 CHAPTER23 CONTINUOUSSIMULATIONMODELS
Inflection
9oo
oF ltt
\ i
*u" (;R)
Soilmoisture
(K n
groundwaterdischargerute 24 hr earlier. Thus the recessionconstantKK24
has values
Eq. 11.1)is determinedusingt : I day.The variableGWS in Eq.23.15
given
that dependon the long-terminflows to groundwaterstorage.Its value on any
day (e.i., the lth day)is calculatedas97 percenLofthepreviousday'svalue, adjusted
: ground-
foi any inflow to groundwaterstorage,or GWS; 0'97 (GWS'-1 * inflow to
water storageduring daYl)'
In Eq. 23.J{, SGW is a groundwater storage parametel that reflects the
term
fluctuationJin the volume of water storedand rangesfrom 0.10 to 3.90 in' The
groundwater
KV in Eq. 23.15 allows for changesthat are known to exist in the
recessionratesas time passes. when KV is zero, E,q.23.15reducesto Eq. 11.1and
the groundwaterrecessilon follows the linear semilogrelation- If the usual dry season
being
recessionrate KKz4is too largefor wet periods(whengroundwaterslofaggsare
from the streams)ihe parameterKV is hand-adjusted so that the
rechargedby seepage
value during
term i0 +-KVaGWS) will reduce the effective rate to some desired
reces-
rechargeperiods.Table 23.5illustratesthis computationby showingeffective
set equal to 1'0'
sion rates for variouscombinationsof KK24 and GWS when KV is
lost to deep or
The fraction of activeor deepgroundwaterstoragethat is either
or is diverted as flow across the drainage
inactive groundwaterstorage Gi;.b.D
basin boundary is input ur pu.u*tt"r K24L. This fraction is the total inflow to
RECESSION
TABLE23.5 EFFECTIVE FOR
RATES
VARIOUSCOMBINATIONSOF KK24
AND GWS WHEN l(/ : 1'0
GWS
0,5 1.0
n07
0.99 0.99 0.985 0.98
0.98 0.98 0.970 0.96 0.94
0.97 0.97 0.955 0.94 0.91
0.96 0.96 0.940 0.92 0.88
hydraulictechniques.
Averagevalues of lengths, slopes,and roughnessesof overland flow in the
Manning and continuity equationsare usedin SWM-IV to continuouslycalculatethe
surfacedetentionstorageD".The overlandflow dischargerate q is then relatedto D,.
As the rain supplyrate continuesin time, the amountof water detainedon the
surfaceincreasesuntil an equilibrium depth is established.The amount of surface
detentionat equilibrium estimatedby SWM-IV is
6
0.000818i0 no'6L1'6 (23.r7)
D":
s0'3
where /, is the time to equilibrium (min). Crawford and Linsley show that these
equationsvery accuratelyieproducemeasuredoverlandflow hydrographs.2
For eachtime interval Lt, an end-of-intervalsurfacedetentionD, is calculated
from the initial value D, plus any water addedAD (Fig. n.q to surfacedetention
storageduring the time interval, lessany ovedandflow dischargeQthatescapes from
.4.
562 CHAPTER23 SIMULATIONMODELS
CONTINUOUS
continu-
detentionstorageduring the time interval. This is simply an expressionof
itv. or
Dz:Dt+LD-4Lt (23.20)
(D: + D)/2' Equa-
The discharge@is found from Eq' 23.18usinga valueo! D .
tions 23.17- 2i.20 allow the completedetermination of overland flow using easily
found basin-widevaluesof the averagelength, slope, and roughness overlandflow'
same
Interflow The watertemporarilydetainedasinterflow storageis treatedin the
inflow to interflow detention was
fashion as overland flow detention storage.The
a daily recession constant similar
definedin Fig. 23.4.Theoutflowis simulatedusing
IRC is the
to that definedfor groundwaterdischarge.The interflow recessionconstant
to the interflow discharge 24 hr
averageratio of the interflow dischargeat any time
outflow from detention storage is
earlier.For each15-min time intervalmodeled,the
rNTF : LIFC4(SRGX) (23.2r)
where
()1n\
LIFC4:1.0-(tRc;'inu
Its
The variableSRGXis the water storedin the interflow detentionat any time.
applied to each time
value continuouslychangeswhen the continuity equation is
on the
interval. The end-of-inteival value of SRGX depends,accordingto continuity,
from the interflow
valueat the beginningofthe interval and any inflow to or discharge
detentionduring the interval.
a hy-
channel Translation and Routing The Stanfordwatershedmodelutilizes
to the watershed
drologicwatershedrouting techniqueto translatethe channelinflow
as
outlei. Clark's IUH time-ar"a to"ihod describedin Section 12.6is adoptedalmost
presentedinchapterl2.Inplaceofthenetrainhyetograph,theStanfordmodelviews
"inflow" hyetograph.This inflow is
the sum of all channelinflow componentsas an
routed
then translatedin time through the channelto the basinoutlet, whereit is next
caused by storage
through an equivalentstoragesystemto accountfor the attenuation
sensethat
in the-channelsystem.Roulingthrough the linear reservoir (linear in the
Eq. 12.35) is accom-
storageis assumedto be directly proportional to the outflow'
plishedfrom
or:7-KS1(1 -01) (23.23) I
)
STREAMFLOW
29.1 CONTINUOUS MODELS 563
SIMUI-ATION
where Oz: the outflow rate aI the end of the time interval
o t : the outflow rate at the beginning
I _ the average inflow rate during the time interval
Also,
KSI : vK *- 6Ltlz
* (23.24)
$-i
E
U
NationalWeatherServiceRiver Forecast
System(NWSRFS)
yet anotherversionof the Stanfordwatershedmodelwasdevelopedby the Hydrologic
The
ResearchLaboratory staff at the National WeatherServiceOffice of Hydrology.8
use in forcecasting river flows and stages by the
NWSRFS model wis developedfor
has been applied successfully to several river
National WeatherService.The model
River
basinsrangingin sizefrom 70 mi2in North Carolinato 1000mi2in Oklahoma'
does not require the detail incorporated in SWM for
forecastin! in"largeriver basins
the NWS model includes two major changes
smaller watersheds.For this reason'
fewer process
involvingthe useof a longertime increment,simplifiedprogramming,
for determining optimal watershed parameters
comput;ions, and a rapid procedure
that allow the model to reproduce historical flows accurately.
inputs and
A 6-hr time incrementis usedby the model, allowing fewer rainfall
of processes such as overland flow that
,nor" i.po.tant, fewer detailedcalcuiations
are thus completed mo_re rapidly than with
occur in'shorter time periods.Iterations
the National Weather Service optimization
the SWM. As with the OPSETmodel,
available
procedurefor determiningparametervaluesgivesthe model a strengthnot
with the SWM-IV.
Other modificationsincludeh
uPPerand lower zone retentionand
the uPPersoil zone to groundwate
groundwaterevapotranspirational
jointlY comPutedin the NWS versi
and ground-
natedand is replacedby three types ofrunoff: surfacerunoff, interflow'
water flow-representing fast, medium, and slow response'
instanta-
Input data for modll calibration consistof meandaily dischargesand
runoff events. Rainfall is input as a continuous
neoushydrographsfor a few selected
techniques.Be-
record of 6-hr basin-widemeansdeterminedfrom areal averaging
and in the detail of process simulation'the
causeof the changesin routing increment
outputfromtheNwsiersionissimilarinmakeuptotheSWM-IVoutput.
COEStreamflowSynthesisand ReservoirRegulation
Model (SSARR)
for large
Another widely used continuous streamflow simulation model designed
The SSARR model was developed
basinswas devllopedby the corps of Engineers.e
operation
primarily for streamflowand flood fo.ecastingand for reservoirdesignand
hydrologists at the National Weather
studies.i,rior to the developmentof NWSRFS,
model has been applied to both rain and
Service used.the SSARR model. The
snowmeltevents.
basin into
Applications of the model begin with a subdivisionof the drainage
and character consistent with subdivides,
homogeneoushydrologic units of i size
otherdistinguish-
channelconfluences,rJservoirsites,diversionpoints,soil types,and
fbr ail significantpoints throughoutthe
ing features.The streamflowsare computed
river sYstem.
566 23 CONTINUOUS
CHAPTER MODELS
SIMUI-ATION
duintutt data can be input at any numberof stationsin the basin.The part that
will run off is divided into the baseflow, subsurfaceor interflow, and surfacerunoff.
The division is based on indices and on the intensity of the direct runoff. Each
componentis simply delayedaccordingto different processes,and all are then com-
bined to producethe final subbasinoutflow hydrograph.This subarearunoff is then
routed through stream channelsand reservoirsto be combined with other subarea
hydrographs,all of which becomepart of the output.
Routingsthrough channelsand reservoirsare accomplishedby the sametech-
nique.This requiresan assumptionof shortstreamreaches,and occasionalallowances
for backwatereffectsare necessaryin the channelrouting process.Streamflowsare
synthesizedon the basisof rainfall and snowmeltrunoff. Snowmeltcanbe determined
on the basis of the precipitation depth, elevation,air and dew point temperatures,
albedo,radiation, and wind speed.Snowmeltoptions include the temperatureindex
method or the energybudgetmethod.
Input includesthe precipitation depths,the watershed-runoffindicesfor subdi-
viding flow among the three processes,initial reservoir elevationsand outflows,
drainageareas,bounds on usablestorageand allowabledischargefrom reservoirs,
total computationperiods,routing intervals,and other specialinstructionsto control
plots, prints, and other input-outputalternatives.
This model was one of the earliestcontinuousstreamflowsimulation models
using a lumped parameterrepresentationand has its primary strengthin its verified
accuracyindicatedby testsconductedin severallarge drainagebasinsincluding the
ColumbiaRiver basin and the Mekong River basin.
HydrocompSimulationProgram(HSP)
A commercial version of the Stanford water model was developedat Hydrocomp,
Inc., namedthe HydrocompSimulationProgram.toAmong severaladvantages incor-
poratedin HSP are hydraulic reservoirrouting techniquesand kinematic-wavechan-
nel routing techniques.Other major changesinclude the addition of water quality
simulation capabilities.Due to theseadditions,the model is often referredto as the
Hydrocomp water quality model.
The HSP model has been usedroutinely for severaltypes of hydrologicstudy
including floodplain mapping,water quality studies,storm water and urban flooding
studies,urban drainagefacility design,and water quality aspectsof urban runoff.
The model consistsof three computerroutines:
EPA HydrocompSimulationProgram-Fortran(HSPR
Following developmentof the HSP versionof the Stanfordmodel,the U.S. Environ-
mental Piotection Agency contractedin 1980 to have public-domain version made
availablefor continuousstreamflowsimulationand water quality modeling.The orig-
inal program,written in ALGOL, wasconvertedto FORTRAN 77'11The HSPF code
is availa|le for PC applications.Substantialportions of water quality modeling al-
gorithms were addedio HSP in developingHSPF. The hydrologiccycle processes,
however, are essentiallythe same as in SWM-IV and HSP' One exceptionis the
addition of severalrouting proceduresnot previouslyavailable.
parametersthat drive ihe routinesin HSPFmustbe estimatedfor all the hydro-
logic processes,making verification of the model difficult becauseof the numerous
combinationsof paramiter values.Methodsof estimatingtheseparametersand cali-
bratingthe modeiareillustratedin the casestudiesin Section23.2 (Table23.8 defines
over 35 parametersusedin the Stanfordmodel)'
ModelingSystem(PRMS)
USGSPrecipitation'Runoff
After developingtheir urban storm-eventmodel, DR3M (seeChapter 25), the U.S'
GeologicalSurv"y developedseveralother computercodesto model continuoushy-
drologicpro""rr"r. fne pRUS performssimulationof daily streamflowsfor a variety
of precipitation,climate,and land usecombinations.It is availablefrom the USGSin
I
L.
568 CHAPTER23 CONTINUOUSSIMULATIONMODELS
ExpertSystems
Recenttrends in systemsanalysisare leadingto developmenlof expert system(ES)
techniquesthat rely on artificial intelligencefor use in planning and designof water
-, .oo^,,r^^o -r^io;id--7[- mrfian-.m h-c-ciw?i'- ii-FiYmqfinn nhfqined frnm extencive
29.1 CONTINUOUSSTREAMFLOWSIMULATIONMODELS
C*.')
'
/READTNPUTDATA/
INITIALIZE PARAMETERS
COMPUTE SNOWFALL
AND SNOWMELT
ACE
COMPUTEANDPRINT
FINALBASIN STATISTICS
interviJws of one or more experts in some field. The computer can then make
"decisions"in muchthe sameway asthe,experts,applyingtheir judgment and experi-
ence and making theseavailableto othersthrough the expert systemmodel.
Streamflowmodels,especiallythosethat perform continuoussimulation,incor-
porateinput parametersthat require considerablejudgment. Developersand usersof
ahe watershed models have accumulated decades of experience in assigning
coefflcientsand parameters.Their experienceand judgment can be extractedby an
interview processinvolving hundredsof questionsto build an expert systemmode'.
The modelnot only incorporatesdirect answersbut alsoaddresses uncertaintiesabout
each.Early applicdLtions with this modeling technique show considerable promise.ls
In addition to streamflowsimulation, expert systemshave the potential to be
useful in the designand management of complex river basin systems of dams, reser-
voirs,powerplants,diversioncanals,and flood control structures.Operationsfor such
systemsinvolve independentand collective decisionsby dozens of professionals'
Theseexpertsare normally in radio or telephonecontact with numerousother con-
trollers and decision-makers.If ES data could be developedfrom theseteams,the
potential for improvedmanagementexists.A prime incentiveof implementingexpert
iystemsin waterresourcessystemsinvolvescapturinginsightsof experiencedprofes-
sionalsbefore they retire or move into other positions.
MODELSTUDIES
SIMULATION
23.2 CONTINUOUS
This sectiondescribesin detail two independentapplicationsof the Kentuckyversion
of the Stanfordwatershedmodel to small basinsin Kentucky and Nebraska.Results
obtainedby Clarkel6in modelingthe CaveCreek (CC) watershedin Kentuckyand by
the authorslTusing KWM for the Big BordeauxCreek (BBC) watershedin Nebraska
are compared. Both are small, homogeneouswatershedshaving relative$ good
recordsof precipitationandrunoff. The two casestudiesare describedsimultaneously
to showhow different analystsdealt with the decisionsrequiredto developinput data
and parameters.
DataSources
Hourly precipitation data were availableat sites L20 fiil from the CC watershedand
8.0 mi fromthe BBC gaugingstation.Soil surveyrecordsand runoff data were
availablefor both watersheds.Daily pan evaporationdata were availableapproxi-
mately 30 mi south of the BBC watershedand 25 mi south of the CC watershed.
Drainageareasof 2.53 mi2for the CC watershe d and9 .22 mi2for the BBC watershed
were found from U.S. GeologicalSurveyquadranglemaps.Input parametersfor the
Stanfordand Kentuckyversionsare comparedand definedin Table23.7. Numerical
values,usingthe Stanfordversionparameternames,aretabulatedfor both watersheds
in Table 23.8. Each parameteris describedin detail in the following sections.
Time-Area HistogramData
The time-area histograms for the BBC and CC watershedsare developedin
Traveltimes and times of concentrationfor the
Figs.23.12 and23.Ii, respectively.
Stanfordwatershedmodel are found from the Kirpich equation(for watershedslarger
than 15 acres),ies1
a : ooo78(#)" (23.2s)
WatershedParameters
The watersheddrainage area (AREA), the impervious fraction of the watershed
surfacedraining directly into the stream (A), the fractional streamand lake surface
area(ETL), the averageground slopeof overlandflow perpendicularto the contours
572 CHAPTER23 CONTINUOUSSIMULATIONMODELS
Parametername
Kentucky Stanford
verston verston ParameterdescriPtion
(SS),and the nban length of overlandflow (r) for the Big Bordeauxcreek watershed
series
were determinedfrom-areas,elevations,and lengths measuredfrom 7.5-min
for BBC values). Other BBC parameter
usGS topographicmaps (see Table 23.8
: half the product of the stream
values utl gri : 0.0d5 (determinedfrom ETL
length and channelwidth at the outlet), SS : 0.088 ftlft (determinedfrom Fig '23'14
u, ih- -"un of'140 measuredvaluesbetween 20-ft contours at eachgridline interseg-
tion), and L: 183.2ft (determinedfrom Fig.23.14 as the averageof l40lengths
measuredperpendicularto contour lines from gridline intersection points to the
TABLE 23.8 SUMMARYOF INPUT PARAMETERSFOR BIG BORDEAUXCREEK
AND CAVE CREEK WATERSHEDS
a^
Parameter BBC
name Description value(s) Units value(s)
0.3
I
15-min 0.2
isochrone
"15
rs 30 4s 60 90 105
Time(min)
Time.area
-l s
3li
a5-min
{
Ll--:Ja 15 30 45 60 75 90 105
$.(-t 68o
-l \t
Time (min)
30-minisochrone
45-min isochrone
60-min isochrone
N
--.1-^ t-\--
75-minisochrone
90-min isochrone
n
u . , 1
miles
r l
IJJJJ-JJJJJ
0 -1 5 18.0
15-30 29.0
30-45 31.0
45-60 22.O
0 miles 1
l r r r r r r t r l
0 1000 N
h
f""t
-w"
-q
:h &"{
, TGrid
interval:fm=tlZOft
\I
I o.s
E o.+
o
K 0.3
E V'L
o
d
p9
€ o.ro lnterflow
Llog Q = -0;725
Lt = 3.2 days
K=0.485=IRC
q
S o.os
o
& 0.04
0.03
1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0 2 2 2 4 2 6 2 8 3 0 1 3 5
Date(Ju1Y-August'
1969)
!2
F
o 5
b0
logQ,=1ogQ6+tlogK
logK= LlogQlLt
d
o
HydrologicParametersand Data
In addition to the describedwatershedcharacteristics,severalhydrologicparameters
and an impressiveamount of hydrologicdata are required as input to the simulation
program. bue to the excessive'bulkof hydrologicdata for daily evaporation,hourly
pr"-lpitution, and daily streamflowfot a 4-yearperiod in BBC and a 10-yearperiod
4.0
o
d
3.0
1.0
0.36
b0
8 0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
'
Date (October 1968)
Figure23.1sDeterminationoflowflowstreamflowroutingparame-
tei(rsc) for the Big Bordeauxcreek low flow eventof october3,
1968.
o
E
4.0
d
o
oo
6
J.U
t6 I7 18 t9
20 21 22 23 24 25
Date(March1969)
Figure 23.19 Determinationof flood flow streamflowrouting
parameter(KSF)for theBig BordeauxCreekfloodflow eventof
March17,1969.
ModelCalibration
Severalof the following parametersare determinedby trial and adjustmentuntil the
comparisonbetweenthe simulatedand recordedstreamflowsis satisfactory.Guide-
lines-forestablishinginitial valuesexistfor only a few of the parameters,whereasmost
SIMULATION
2g,2 CONTINUOUS STUDIES 581
MODEL
HydrologicData
In addition to the parametervaluesof Table23.8, the Stanfordmodelrequiresa large
volume of hydrologic data for each water year of the simulation. The following de-
scription of requried input data for each water year illustrates the data that were
compiledand reducedto necessaryinput form for 4 wateryearsbeginningon October
1, 1968andendingon September30,1972.Only the input for BBC is described. The
input includesthe following data for eachwater year:
1. The new year identificationentry containsthe water year and the recorded
annual streamflow.The valuesof the annual streamflowfor Big Bordeaux
Creek are listed in Table 23.9.
2. A descriptionofthe streamgaugingsite.
3. The title to be appliedto the ordinatefor graphicalplotsof the simulatedand
recordedrunoff hydrograph;namely,the daily averageflow rate (cfs).
4. Pan-evaporationdata, read as 365 or 366 single entries containing daily
evaporationamounts(in.).
5. The monthly evaporationpan coefficients,comprising the data listed in
Table 23.8, beginningwith October.
6. Recordeddaily streamflows(averageflow for the day,cfs)readas 365or 366
entriesfor October I through September30.
7. Hour$ rainfall data, read for each water year. Two entries per day, each
containingan identificationofthe gaugeanddate,areusedto providehourly
TABLE23,9 ANNUAL
BIGBORDEAUX
CREEK
STREAMFLOWS
Recorded annual streamflow
Water years (acre-ft)
1968*1969 434.0
1969-1970
r970*1971 465.4
r97t-1972 296.4
584 23 CONTINUOUS
cHAPTER SIMUI.ATIoN
MoDELS
depthsin inchesbefore noon on the first and after noon on the second.Valuesare
requiredonly for half-daysexperiencingprecipitation.Becauseof the variablenum-
ber of possiblerainfall values,a sentinelentry with the year setequalto 2001 is placed
at the end of the data, indicatingthat all the precipitation data for the wateryear has
beenread.
GaveCreekModelCalibration
Synthetic and actual flow rates at the Cave Creek gauging station are shown for a
singleday in Fig. 23.20. Other typical output for portions of one water year of the
simulationis presentedin Tables23.10and23.ll. The former providesan hour-by-
hour listing of all flow ratesin excessof the specifiedvalueof MINH, Table23.8. Note
SUMMARY 585
^ t20
Syrrthetic -r
100
a 8 0
t/
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{,
o
s 6 0
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Time (hr)
for
and recordedhydrographs
Figurp 23.20 Comparisonof synthesized
CaveCreek.(After C1arke.t6.1
r Summary
If actual or synthesizedprecipitation recordsare available,one of the most effective
meansof analyzinghistoricalflowsor evaluatingfuture possibleflowsunderchanging
land use patterns is through any of the continuousstreamflow simulation models
describedin this chapter.Hydrologicproblemsand applicationsthat can be analyzed
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23.2 CONTINUOUSSIMUI-ATIONMODEL STUDTES 591
-
6000
5000
^ 4000
5 rooo
2000
1000
0
Time (hr)
^ 4000 \
5 :ooo I \
2000 S F = (t.99-
1000
0 10 12 t4 16 18 20 22
Time (hr)
Problems
23.r. Assumethat a 30-mi2rural watershedin your localereceivesh 3-in. rain in a 10-day
period. Reconstructthe block diagram ofFig. 23.2 and plot approximatepercentages
io show,for averageconditions,how the rain would be distributed(a) initially and
(b) after 30 days.
23.2. A sloping,concreteparking lot experiencesrain at afate of 3.0 in.i hr for 60 min' The
tot is SOOft deepand has a slopeof 0.000-1ftlft. If the water detentionon the lot is
zero at the start of the storm,calculatethe completeoverlandflow hydrographfor 1 ft
of width using the SWM-IV equations.Use a 5-min routing interval and continue
computationsuntil all the detainedwater is discharged.
23.3. Calculatethe SWM-IV overlandflow time-to-equilibrium for the lot of Problem23'2
and compareit with the Kirpich time of concentrationfor the lot. Should thesebe
equal?
23.4. Cornpare,by listing traits and capabilitesof each,the SWM-IV with its more sophis-
ticated offspring HSP and HSPF.
23.5. Discussthe primary differencesamong the four versionsof the Stanfordwatershed
model describedin this chaPter.
23.6. Verify Eqs. 23.23 and 23.24by starting from Eqs. 13.4 and 13 '33'
"typical"
23.7. Discuss the watershedbehavior that is depicted in Fig. 23.7. Is this a
watershed?
23.8. Comparethe differencesbetweenthe two U.S. Departmentof Agriculture continuous
simuiationmodels,USDAHL and SWRRB,and discussthe applicationsthat would be
best suitedto each.
23.9. Review the differencesbetweenwater budget and simulation models discussedin
Chapter2l anddeterminewhich of the continuoussimulationmodelsdescribedhere
could be usedto perform water budgetcalculations.
23.10. For what applicationsmight the following be best suited?
API model
USDAHL
HSPF
PRMS
SWRRB
23.1r. For the continuoussimulationmodel selectedby your instructor,describefour differ-
ent types of problemsthat could be analyzedif you were given the ful1, calibrated
model.
REFERENCES
"ContinuousHydrographSynthesiswith an
1 . W. T. Sittner, C. E. Schauss,and J. C. Monro,
API-Type Hydrologic Model," WaterResourcesRes'5(5), 1007'1022(1969)'
"Digital Simulationin Hydrology:StanfordWater-
L. N. H. diawford and R. K. Linsley,Jr.,
shedModel IV," Departmentof Civil Engineering,Stanford University, Tech. Rep. No.
3 9 .J u l y 1 9 6 6 .
"An Evaluationof RelationshipBetweenStreamflowPatternsand Watershed
J. L. D. James,
CharacteristicsThrough the Use of OPSET," ResearchRep. No' 36, Water Resources
Institute, University of Kentucky,Lexington, 1970'
Chapter24
Simulation
Single-Event
Models
r Prologue
The purposeof this chaPteris to:
. Describehow storm event models are structuredand how they are used to
simulatedirect runoff hydrographsfor singlestorms.
. Describethe five most widely usedfederal agencysingle-eventmodels(note
that popular single-eventurban runoff simulation models are describedin
Chapter25).
' Provide a detailedcasestudy using one of the models,HEC- 1'
. Introducethe emergingtechnologyof storm surgemodeling-the simulation
of hydraulic surgesresulting from wind energy acting on the ocean surface.
Many severefloodsare causedby short-duration,high-intensityrainfall events.
A single-eventwatershedmodel simulatesrunoff during and shortly following these
discreterain events.Usersof single-eventmodelsare normally interestedin the peak
flow rate, or the entire direct runoff hydrographif timing or volume of runoff is
needed.Single-eventmodelssimulatethe rainfall-runoff processand makeno special
effort to account for the rest of the hydrologic cycle. Few, if any, simulate soil
moisture,evapotranspiration,interflow, baseflow, or other processesoccurring be-
tween discreterainfall events.
Modelsdescribedin this chapterare applicableto studiesof watershedsthat are
primarily rural in makeup.Urbanizedsubareasare allowed,but for watershedsthat
ire principally urbanized, the single-event and continuous models described in
Chapter2i aremoreapplicable.Coastalfloodingthat is inducedby surgescreatedby
wind action on the ocean surfaceis modeledby a different class of single-event
models,describedin Section24'3.
24.1 STORMEVENTSIMULATION
Event simulation model structurescloselyimitate the rainfall and runoff processes
developedin earlierchapters.Lumpedparameterapproaches, suchasunit-hydrograph
methods,are generally incorporated even though some use distributed parameter
SIMULATION595
EVENT
24,1 STORM
1. Subdividebasinto accommodatereservoirsites,damagecenters'
diversionpoints, surfaceand subsurfacedivides,gaugingstations'
precipitationstations,land uses,soil types,geomorphologicfeatures'
2. Lomputation sequencein eventsimulationmodels:
a. Computehydrographfor subbasinB'
b. Computehydrographfor subbasinA.
c. Add hydrograPhsforA and B.
d. Routecomtined hydrographto upstreamend of reservoirR'
b. Compute hydrograph for subbasinC.
f. Computehydrographfor subbasinD.
g. CombinethreehYdrograPhs at R.
h. Route combinedhydrographthroughreservoirR'
i. Route reservoir outflow hydrograph to outlet'
j. Computehydrographfor subbasinE'
k. Combinetwo hydrographsat outlet.
Figure 24.1 Typical watershed subdivision and computation
sequence for event-simulation models.
I Precioitation
- ?lg HJ'VhYetograPh
a
Time
s
/ Gross precipitation
/
Outlet
Excess (net
Time
I c"-bt". I
- -
\Z
Total streamflowhydrograph
MODELS
24.2 FEDERALAGENCYSINGLE-EVENT
The rainfall-runoff processes depictedin Figs.24.1and24.2 arerecognizedby most
of the eventsimulationmodelsnamedin Table21.1. Specificcomputationtechniques
for losses,unit hydrographs,river routing, reservoirrouting, and baseflow are com-
paredin Table24.1for five of the major federalagencyrainfall-runoff eventsimula-
tion models.All the modelsallow selectionamongavailabletechniques.Brief descrip-
tions of eachof thesemodelsare followedby an illustrative exampleof an application
of the HEC-I model to a single storm occurring over a 250-mf watershednear
Lincoln, Nebraska.
U.S.GeologicalSurveyRainfall-RunoffModel
The USGSmodel can be usedin evaluatingshort streamflowrecordsand calculating
peak flow ratesfor natural drainagebasins.lThe programmonitorsthe daily moisture
content of the subbasinsoil and can be used as a continuousstreamflowsimulation
model.The model is classifiedas an eventsimulationmodelbecauseits calibrationis
based on short-termrecords of rainfall, evaporation,and dischargesduring a few
documentedfloods.It hasbeenmodified severaltimes and hasevolvedinto the USGS
urban continuoussimulation model, DR3M, describedin detail in Chapter25.
Input to the model consistsof initial estimatesof 10 parameters,which are
modified by the model through an optimization fitting procedurethat matchessimu-
lated and recordedflow rates. Other input includesdaily rainfall and evaporation,
close-interval(5-60 min) rainfall and dischargedata, drainageareas,impervious
areas,and baseflow rates for eachflood.
Phillip's2infiltration equationis usedto determinea rainfall excesshyetograph,
which is translatedto the subbasinoutlet and then routed through a linear reservoir,
using the time-.areawatershedrouting techniquedescribedin Chapter 13.
The USGSrainfall-runoff model can be usedto simulatestreamflowsfor rela-
tively short periodsfor small basinswith approximatelylinear storage-outflowchar-
acteristicsin regionswheresnowmeltor frozen groundis not significant.Output from
the model includes a table showingpeak discharges,storm runoff volumes, storm
rainfall amounts,and an iteration-by-iterationprintout of magnitudesof parameters
and residualsin fitting volumesand peak flow rates.
598 CHAPTER24 SINGLE-EVENTSIMULATIONMODELS
ComputerProgramfor ProjectFormulation
Hydrology(TR-20)
A particular$ powerful hydrologicprocessand water surfaceprofile computerpro-
gram was developedby CEIR, Inc.3and is known by the codename TR-20, which is
an acronymfor the U.S. Soil ConservationServiceTechnicalReleaseNuntber20. The
model is a computerprogram of methodsusedby the Soil ConservationServiceas
presentedin lhe National Engineering Handbook.a
The program 'is recognized as an engineer-orientedrather than computer-
oriented package,having been developedwith easeof use as a purpose.Input data
sheetsand output data are designedfor easein use and interpretationby field engi-
24.2 FEDERALAGENCY SINGLE-EVENTMODELS 599
ComputerLanguagefor Hydrologic
Problem-Oriented
Modeling(HYMO)
A unique computerlanguagedesignedfor use by hydrologistswho haveno conven-
tional computir programming experiencewas developedby Williams and Hann.6
Once the progru- has been compiled,the user forms a sequenceoJ commandsthat
synthesiz{ route, stoie, plot, or add hydrographsfor subareasof any watershed.
Seventeencommandsare availableto usein any sequenceto transformrainfall data
into runoff hydrographsand to route thesehydrographsthrough streamsand.reser-
voirs. The HYMO model also computesthe sedimentyield irt tons for individual
stormson the watershed.
Watershedrunoff hydrographsare cornputed by HYMO using unit-hydro-
graph techniques.Unit hydrographscan either be input or synthesizedaccordingto
the dimensionlessunit hydrographshown in Fig. 24.3. Tetms in the equationsare
1.0
. - i l - I
t6 inflection point
s ls'o
q = qos(to-t)tx
tp
500
50
10
0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2
n
10
s 6
0 0 . 5 1 1 . 5 2 2 . 5 3
K
tp
sLp-oi.'t(#,)"-
K : 27.oAo 231 (24.2)
!
and tp : 4.63Ao+"5rr-o''u( (24.3)
)t'"
where SLP : the differencein elevation(ft), divided by floodplain distance(mi),
betweenthe basin outlet and the most distant point on the divide
LfW : the,basinlength/width ratio
River routing is accomplishedin HYMO by a revised variable storqge
cofficient (VfC) method.TThe continuity equation,I - O : dS/dt, and the storage
equation,S : KO, are combinedand discretizedaccordingto the methodsoutlined
in Chapter 13. The VSC methodrecognizesthe variability in K as the flow leavesthe
confinesofthe streamchannelandinundatesthe floodplainand valley area.Relations
betweenK and O are determinedby HYMO from the input cross-sectionaldata, or
HYMO will calculatethe relation using Manning's equation if the floodplain and
channelroughnesscoefficientsare specified.The bed slopeand reachlength are also
part of the required input.
604 CHAPTER24 SINGLE-EVENTSIMULATIONMODELS
vw(D, - D) (24.s)
and Q*:
where V:thevelocity
n : Manning's coefflcient
S : the ground slope
W : the width of the overlandflow
Q. : the outflow dischargerate
they are
After flow depthsand rates from all subcatchmentshave been computed,
guttef to form the total
combinedalong with the flow from the immediateupstream
flow in eachsuccessivegutter.
The gutter and PiPeflows are routed
to any points of interestin the network wh
ordinatesfor each time step in the routir
incrementsuntil the runoff from the storm
ters of the gutter shape,slope,and length
and are avail-
roughnessJoef{cienti ior ttre pipes or channelsmust also be supplied
able in most hydraulicstextbooks'
includethe
Other iniut requiredfor a typical simulationwith the SWMM model
following:
percent im-
1. Watershedcharacteristicssuchas the infiltration parameters,
pervious area, slope, area, detention storage depth' and Manning's
coefficientsfor overlandflow'
2. The rainfall hyetographfor the storm to be simulated'
606 CHAPTER24 SINGLE-EVENTSIMULATIONMODELS
READINPUTDATA;
REFORMATDATAAND
WRITE TO WORKINGFILE
REA,DANDPRINT
JOB SPECIFICATION;
COMPUTE
RL]NOFF
HYDROGRAPH
1
Figure 24.6 HEC-1 Program OperationsOverview.l
0.2 cuMLl
A,K=Oif CUML> CUMLy
Ko
0 loss
Accumulated ' CUML(in.)
Figure 24.7 Variationof the lossrate coefficientK' with the
accumulatedlossamountCUML.
I -, Job initialization K-, Job step control E_, etc., Economics, data
V-, Variableoutput summary H-, Hydrographtransformation ZZ,End of Job
O , Optimization Q-, Hydrographdata
J -" Job type B_, Basin data
P _, Precipitation data
L-, Loss (infiltration) data
U_, Unit graph da-ta
M-, MeIt data
R_, Routing data
S-, Storagedata
D_, Diversion data
W-, Pump withdrawal data
in Example24.1.
EXAMPLE 24.1
In June 1963 the Oak Creek watershedshown in Fig. 24.8 experienceda severe
-o+fr;
rsog
paralso
KA\
\: \% , 1236
0 1 2 3 4 5
Scalein miles
;"'F4
d"fs; l
Rafmond Nebraska
I 190
\o
r--l
{
\ @
\8.
34
,,,G
I
'I-t
Miles 2 Net rain (in) dt\ -
4 t).
65
33.4 7.8
B 26.9 +.-)
C 27.3 4.1
D 9.2 2.8
E . 28.3 A A
F 17.0 t.7
G 5.0 t;7
H 28,0 1.0
f
82.9 N.A.
TOTAL 258.0
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* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * + * * * + * *
ct d d ci
= ; ct
F F
di il
C < N
-
N F
oi -
F
rt ct r rt ct 6i 6i - - - ct d ci ci
a E s f f si 3 a b t s f i 3 6 D 3 3 3 A b 3 E R = S R F F
z
EE E E E F E E E E E F F F F F R F F E E = E E E E
z. 7 z z z z .z z 1 z z z = = = = = = = = = = < = = = =
> = = = = - - - - - 5 - i i - - - - - - - - - - - -
kF
q
3 x s t * t t N N s * t F * t x * t S R R K F R K K
* * * * * * * *
= F O F
F 6 0 @
O F € O
u
z, u nRRFEE$$EHR;$€sFEil
u
o < 6 @ F A
t = K R R R S E S S S S A D E B E E $ S+ < < q 9 F = m
q!ni!!
@ F
a
L
= o
z
=
EEESgEEEEEEEEEEEE=EFFEEEg
? s --Ki
F a
z z z 2 z. z z z. z z 1 z z z- = = = = = = = z z z z z: U
= = = = = = = = = = = = J
- - - = - - - - i - - a i - - - - - - - - - - - - < E
i s i
5u?6
r o 6 r
* t N * t s * * N * S F S t * N S S * S N t S N S = F
x
z, * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * + * * * * * * x * > = d 5 i
i6 ;N \ NE
Z N
-*RNEFBSEus'pRxf
kz
o
=
F HexnsE
neEfr @
I
@ts
u +
24
;> o - \ o + h @ F @ o o = S p = = g = P P R F N R t R
o
o + U ^
u
E= =
z.
-
z - EFEEEEEFEEEEEFF=FRRFEEE=EE
=
-^
4 z,zz.z.z=1=zz==z.=z==4z zz <z=4 trt
v :ZO r ,
* v - = = = i = = = - - = = = = - = - = = - 5 5 - - - - - N
E * n R R R R R R R R R f l t R R R F R R R R t * t F t
J
E
+
24.3 STORMSURGEMODELING 625
24.3 STORMSURGEMODELING
TABLE24.5 STORMSURGEMODELS
Differentialequation
Programname User/agencf Data input solutionmethod Applicablecoasts
r summary
By far the largestnumberof hydrologicmodel applicationsinvolvesthe useof single-
eventsimulationmodels,whetherthe generalversionsdescribedin this chapteror the
urban runoff models about to be presentedin Chapter 25. Data requirementsfor
single-eventmodelsare nominal-far lessthan for continuousmodelingstudies.In
the majority of cases,the data required for any subareaare easily obtained from
readily availabletopographicand soils maps.Given the basin area,slope,soil types,
land use,and location,estimatesof peak flow ratesand shapesof runoff hydrographs
ar severallocationsin the watershedcan be obtainedfor given stormswithin a few
hours' time usingthesemodels.They continueto be the primary tool usedby practic-
ing engineersin analysisand designof stormwaterhandling facilities.
PROBLEMS
24.1. Six numberedsubareasfor a river basin are as shownin the sketch.Preparea sche-
matic diagramfor a modelstudyusingboxesas subbasinrunoff components'connect-
ing lines as channel routing links, circles as hydrograph combination nodes, and
trianglesas reservoirrouting nodes.Then describethe computationsequencefor this
basinin the samemannershownin Fig.24.1. (Seesketchon nextpage).
24.2. Synthesizea unit hydrographfor a watershedin your locale using the HYMO model
equations.Comparewith correspondingunit hydrographsfrom Snyder'smethodand
the SCSmethodin Chapter12.
)
PROBLEMS 627
t-r'\t-;
24.3. Usethe HYMO modelequationsto synthesizea unit hydrographfor the entire 258 sq.
mi Oak Creekwatershedin Fig. 24.8.
24.4. A watershedexperiencesa l2-hr rainstormhaving a uniform intensity of 0.1 in./hr.
Using E : 0.7, Ko : 0.6, C : 3.0, and AK : 0.0, calculatethe hourly lossratesl,
asdeterminedby the HEC- 1 event-simulationmodel.Determinethe total andpercent
lossesfor the storm.
24.5. RepeatProblem 24.4 wing CUML1 : 0.5 in.
24,6. Routethe inflow hydrographin Pr-oblem13.7to the outlet of the 30-mi reachusingthe
HEC- 1 straddle-staggermethod by lagging averagedpairs of flows two time incre-
ments (12 hr). Comparethe routed and measuredoutflow rates.
24.7, Routethe inflow hydrographin Problem 13.7through the reachby dividing the 30-mi
reach into three subreaches and treat the outflow from eachas inflow to the next in
line. Lag flows one time increment in eachsubreachand comparethe f,nal outflows
with the measuredvalues.
24,8. Study Table 24.3 andFig.24.8, and then definethe following terms from Table24.3:
AMSKK,X, TAREA, NP, STORM, TP, CP, TC, R, RAIN, ANdEXCESS' COMP Q.
24.9, Search the HEC-I printout in Table 24.3 to determinevalues (give units) of the
following:
a. The time incrementusedin the model run.
b. Snyder'sCe,Eq. 12.17input for SubareaB.
c. The pbak flow rate for the synthesizedSubarea-Aunit hydrograph.
d. The total runoff (in.) from SubareaA.
e. The peak outflow rate from SubareaA.
f. The peak-to-peaktime lag in routing the outflow hydrographfrom Point 1 to Point
2,Fig.24.8.
g. The percent attenuationcausedby the reachbetweenPoints,l and 2.
h. The Subarea-Bpeak outflow rate if SubareaA is neglected.
i. The simulatedSubarea-Bpeak outflow rate.
628 CHAPTER24 SINGLE-EVENT SIMULATION MODELS
*Refer questions:
24.10. to the HEC-1 output in Tables24.3 and24.4to answerthe following
"PRECIPITATION PATTERN" actual rainfall depths' or
a. Are the valueslabeled
a hydrographusing the
24.13. The following data were preparedfor a Yl card for routing
straddle-staggermethodof UgC-t' The time incrementis 1'0 hr'
0 A 0.0
I 5 0.0
2 6 0.0
3 7 _ I
the straddle-stagger
Usethis information to route the following inflow hydrographby
is zero. continue routing until outflow is zero again'
method. The initial outflow
REFERENCES
t.
2.
J.
4.
Chapter25
UrbanRunoffSirnulation
Models
r Prologue
The purposeof this chaPteris to:
z
E
E - ^ d . ? ) O N c n
E E)N h O O e { -
* i
: = 5
z
o
> 5 = ^ ^ a.th o e{r) o\$cicio.
S E X s EoN dhd
1.O -
cd
\O
cJJ
+:+
r.ai-jio
cn6.aa{$
@
J
o
c)
o
o €C ;O 6- \r) ol 3 00 a.l \o r) c'{ \o e^l
f - v
z
E
o
= t ^ ho o\ or) cqNcqol$
5 =' e
z
o o o o l )
H€"o € o
a o
tuq
:
R.9
9 { X
d 8E E==tr=
.999 .9
X X X ; i X
iBegs
r r A r ) n f ) n
-9 H Y -
^A r\
Y m- 5 Y F l
; m FA m
v H v
J
F n n cl o?n \qqqq
a Q
v -
6' O\* oo €*
O i
F-it-oj*f
i n C { * €
ul
T QE(u
F v o -
. = - Y
€oo h t-- l-- O\
- b R o
IL
a
oi5- Eo ci t'-
s 5s HSRHX cn
-
.=^ q \ Y - v l Y - Y - -
>v \r m s * O O i O \ F - * i
o v - co o1 N ne{ cnr)'am\o
r!(E
R(U 6 q n
\ori ot--F-m\o
F Eo Vcn cn
v 6\O
i
OCIOl €S
re.lcnt N
ca
o t,rJ
a
G F-O
-tr9 E o \o
[ l h
-7aaE + +
* n O
N6
hr
N<.r e..l\o
6l€F-0Oe.l
(u d 61 6l C.) cn O 0O cq .o
r
tr !.! i i n
ulr
Fa1
.t)
S Z
s< a
clt) ';^ o
o|
IT d]
tr
V)
638 CHAPTER25 URBAN RUNOFFSIMULATIONMODELS
* 6 1.2
,
! A / : n R
),^ jlo
R / I ,t
o 9a . .U / 2
a a a o
a )- nd a
^ a
8 . / 3
t , ' Q t3 U .s&.'
U 'f1 4 9 .
a 7
{o4
t.2
2 4
peaks(cfs)
Observed
(a)
a 1.5
E
;p0
O r n
^0.12
r L ^ r / t \ A
Y o.os
'F 0.04
z 3 4 s 6 7 8 e 10 11
;
ttT,*'
Island'N9wYork'
Figure 25.3 RRL resultsfor WoodoakDrive basin'Long (After
and(c)thehydrographs'
stormof October19,1966r(a)peaks,(b)volumes,
Stall andTerstrieP.e)
ofthese
surfaces,gutters,pipes,and openchannels'Physicalunderstanding
present understanding of the many
flow phen-omena ii muctrgreaier than the
complexphenomenagov"erningrunofffromruralareassuchasantecedent
"infiltratilon,
moisture conditions, soil moisture movement, transpiration,
evaporation,and so forth.
provide a function for
5. A modification of the RRL method that would
grasSedareacontributionstorunoffcouldbedevelopedintoavaluable
possiblein spiteof the
iesign tdol for urban drainage.This is believedto be
flexibility could be by the
*unly "o*plexities involvei. Further ^offered
runoff through surface storage'
addiiional irovision for routing surface
on an urban basin
6. The input data r"qoir"m"nt' foi o'" of the RRL methods
of a basin for storm drainage
are reasonablefor the engineeringevaluation
complex or_elaborate than the data
design.The necessarydaia are no more
;;dlly compiled foi a traditional storm drainage design'
25.1 URBANSTORMWATERSYSTEMMODELS 639
l.)
a 3 1
a
a
E zoo t
a
a 3!
h 1.0
o a 1
a
a
z oo" i.'
a a t 2
E a ,
$ roo
/ ot< + a
1l
o
'J
- ;'i^':ls
U ,,,' ,9riir.t,'ol
a
a
'
1a
"
8 Q
r-'f;3:'r
,"ni
100 200 300 0.5 1.0 1.5
Observed peaks (cfs) Observedrunoff (in.)
(a) (b)
150
o
bo
k 100
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (hr)
(c)
(e) Losses
o
(b) Time versus grassed area curve
n
92
cAoce't (f) Grassed area supply mte
a
GA:
al
GAz
GA
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Travel time to inlet (min)
3 4 s 6 7 8 9 1 0
Time (min)
(g) Hydrograph
,?
Qr= GAt (GASRT)
Qz= GAz(GASR1) + GAI(GASRI)
o
u Qz= GAz(GASRI) + GA2(GASR)+ GA1(GASR3)
F Qn=GAn(GASnr) + "'+ GA1(GASR,)
I
0 2 4 6 8 10121416
hydrographs.(After Terstriepand
Figure 25.5 Elementsin the developmentof grassed-area
Stall.lo)
642 CHAPTER25 URBAN RUNOFFSIMULATIONMODELS
ial
foinilial
infiltration
rate S = Area cross-hatchedbelow
curve equals total storage
in soil (in.)
!.1
E
\%
s-r'
Available
smragem
soil (in.)
Final, constant -;
"
infiltration rate
o Time(hr)
Figure 25.6 Diagram of inflltration^relations used in ILLUDAS,
Eq. 25.4. (After Terstriepand Stall.'u)
_
TabIe 25.4 provides an example computation of an infiltration curve for blue-
grass on a silt loam soil in which soil moisture S of 6.95 in. is available. The equation is
r r 55 )
f:r(6.9s-F)t++0.50
Standardinfiltration curveshavebeen devisedfor use in ILLUDAS for soils having
SCS hydrologicgroupsA, B, C, and D (Chapter4). Thesecurveswere synthesized
OFINFILTRATION
TABLE25,4 COMPUTATION FORSILTLOAM
CURVE
Available Water lnfiltrationrate Time
srorage, stored,
s-F A F F t 'avg Lt' t
(in.) (in.) (in.) (S- D'+ (in./hr) (in./hr) (hr) (h0
Time(hr)
Figure 25.7 Standardinfiltration curvesfor bluegrassturf on
four SCS soil types used in ILLUDAS. (After Terstriep and
Stall.lo)
644 MODELS
25 URBANRUNOFFSIMULATION
CHAPTER
CONDITIONS
MOISTURE
TABLE25.F ANTECEDENT
LAWNS
FORBLUEGRASS
Total rainfallduring
AMC 5 days precedingstorm
number Description (in.)
I Bone dry 0
2 Rather dry 0-0.s
J Rather wet 0 . 5 -I
A
Saturated Over1
L. The sensitivityof the peak flows to changesin AMC increasesas the soil
group changesfrom D to A.
2. The rangesof sensitivityto the soil groupsand AMC are approximatelythe
3. XT;;rr" in the AMC from2to 3 and a changein the soil group from B to
C are critical for large designreturn periods, and from C to D for small
designreturn periods.
4. The ti'me to peak for various combinationsof soil group and AMC, for
different return periods,remainsthe same.
5. The peak flow and runoff volume increaseas the AMC changesfrom 1 to
4. This increaseis particularly important betweenAMC 2 and 3 in general
and betweenAMC 3 and 4 for soil group A. The peak flow and the runoff
volumeincreaseas the soil group changesfrom A to D for constantAMC.
This increaseis particularly important between soil groups B and C in
generaland soil groupsC and D for AMC 1.
6. The peak flows decreasemarkedly for time inerementslarger than 5 min,
and the pipe diametersdecreasesignificantly for time incrementslarger
than 10 min.
7. The time increment should not substantiallyexceedthe paved area inlet
time.
RainfalVsnowmelt
Treatment
Figure25.8ConceptualviewofurbansystemasusedinSTORM.(AfterU'S.Army
CorPsof Engineers'")
by the degree-
The model is conceptualizedin Fig. 25.8. Snowmeltis simulated
inlormation is output to aid in the selectionof
day method (Chapter 14). Statistical
desiredcontrol of storm
sbrage "upu"iti., und treatment rates required to achieve
annualerosion' aver-
*ut". rurr&f. Statistics,suchas averageannualrunoff, avefage
and average annual pollutant overflowfrom
ageannualoverflowvolumefrom storige,
storage,are all Provided' (to signal
The model simulatesthe interactionof precipitation,air temperature
erosion, dry weather flow'
snowfall), runoff, pollutant accumulation,land Jurface
or treatment system'The
storage,treatmentiates, and overflowsfrom the storage
prograncomputescontinuousorsingle-.event.runofffromrainfall'
rainfall and depres-
nunotf is computedas a fractio-nof the differencebetween
depends on land use. Runoff in excessof the
,ion ,torug". The fiaction selected
treatment'Runoff
speciteOiTeatmentcapacityis divertedinto storagefor subsequent
becomesoverflow and is
in excessof both the treatment rate and stofagecapacity
diverted directly into the receiving waters'
SCSTechnicalReleaseNo. 55 GR'55)
The SCS TR-55 Proceduresfor an
urbanizedareaswere describedin
theseProceduresrecommendsmat
Procedures,severalvendorshave1
646 CHAPTER25 URBAN RUNOFFSIMULATIONMODELS
1. Changesin the 484 coefficient of Eq. 12.22 for steep, avefage,or flat
watersheds.
2. Per centimperviousness.
3. Percentof channelthat is improved.
4. Pondingarea.
5. Subarealength over width ratios that fall outsidethe assumedrange.
6. Slope.
7. Antecedentmoisture conditions'
8. Different storm distributions'
9. Proper lag time equation.
10. Recognitionof the SCS recommendationthat the duration for the derived
unit hydrographbe about 13 percentof the subareatime of concentration'
11. Allowance for watershedsthat have initial abstractions,1,, greater than
20 percentof the potential maximum retention, S.
Given:
D: t" D : O.2 X time to peak
Time to peak: t, Time to peak : Iag time + D/2
Releasetime : tc Lag time : 0.6 t" (Mockus Equation)
Time base = 5.0 X time to peak
Solving:
D:t" D : 0.133 t"
Time to peak = t Time of peak : 0.666 r.
Releasetime : tc Time base: 3.33 t,
Timebase:D+t,:2t, Releasetime : Time base - D : 3.20 t,
that the excess-rainfallreleasetime, t,, was definedin Chapter 11 as the time from
end of excessrain to end of direct runoff. As shownin the Table 25.6, time relation-
shipsfor the SCS dimensionlessunit hydrographof Fig. 12.13 giveprolongedrunoff
durationscomparedto other urban runoff models.Only the time to peak is approxi-
mately equivalentin this comparison.Urban runoff modelsbasedon SCSdimdnsion-
less unit Mrograph proceduresmay result in longer time basesand hydrograph
recessionsthan other methods.
USGSDistributedRoutingRainfall-RunoffModel(DR3M)
The U.S. GeologicalSurvey simulationmodel for urban rainfall-runoff applications
originatedin tgZg as a lumped parametersingle-eventtnodel for small watersheds
(deicribed in Chapter 24) and subsequentlywas expandedto distributedparameter
status,intendedprimarily for urban applicability.lsAlso, a soil moistureroutine was
addedallowing quasicontinuoussimulation.
The modelian be appliedto watershedsfrom a few acresto severalsquaremiles
in size (an upper limit ol10 mi2 is recommended).It doesnot simulatesubsurfaceor
interflow coniributionsto streamflow,and thesemust be externally addedif consid-
ered imPortant to the simulation.
Routing of rainfall to channelsis by unsteadyoverland flow hydraulics,and
routing hydrographsthrough channel reachesis accomplishedby kinematic-wave
methods(."t"ito Ctrupter13). The differential routing equationsare solvedby one of
three optional numericalmethods.The usermay specify an explicit or implicit finite-
differencealgorithm, or the method of characteristics'
Time may be discretizedby the user in as small as l-min increments.The
smallesttime increment is used by the program during any dayshaving short-time
interval rainfall, calledunit days. Otherdaysare simulatedas24-hr intervals.Move-
ment of surfacewater is simulatedonly during unit days.For the rain-free intervals,
daily rainfall is input and usedto modify the soil moisturebalanceleadinginto the
nextunit day(s).The formatforrain datais compatiblewith that of the U.S. Geological
Survey systlm, WATSTORE(Water Data Storageand Retrieval System).Input data
can also be obtainedfrom any local National WeatherServiceoffice.
practically any basincanbe studiedby breakingit into severalsetsof four types
of model ,"g*"ntr. Theseinclude overland flow segments(must be approximately
648 CHAPTER25 URBANRUNOFFSIMULATIONMODELS
Legend:
R-ESIReservoir1
CH1 Channel1
oF1 Rahfall.excess
oF2 Rainfall excess
cHl oF1, OFz
RES cH1
oF3 Rainfall excess
oF4 Rainfall excess
CHz oF3, OF4 RESl
Watemhed outlet
for DR3M'
of watershed
Figure25.9 Segmentation
where K6 is fouhd from Table 25.7, andl is the rainfall intensity (in./hr).
Channelsin Fig. 25.9 representeither natural or artificial gutters or storm
sewers(either op"n .hunntls oi nonpressurepipes are allowed). Inflow to channels
comesfrom otherchannels,overlandflow (aslateral inflow), or nodes.Nodesare used
whenmore than three Segments contributeto a channelor reservoi-r,or whenthe user
wishesto specify an input or baseflow hydrograph.
Channel routing is by kinematic-wavetechniques,describedin Section 13'3'
Input is the channei length, slope, and routing parametersb and m. These arc
)
25.1 URBAN STORMWATERSYSTEMMODELS 649
TABLE 25.7 ROUGHNESSCOEFFICIENTS
FOR
OVERLANDAND CHANNELSEGMENTS
Laminarflow Turbulentflow
Sudacetype Ko Manning'sn
, l.4gsto/z
D : - (25.e)
n
where ruis obtainedfrom Table 25.7 or similar information. The model adjustsboth
b and m for various shapes,including circular and triangular (seeTable 13.1 for
severalru values).If overbankflow is possible,a secondsetof b andmparameterscan
be input for all flows in excessof the channelcapacity.
Reservoirinflow hydrographsare routed by either of two storagerouting meth-
ods. If a linear reservoir model is appropriate,the storagecoefflcient K, relating
outflow to storageby O : KS,is input. If the modifiedPuls methodis desired,a table
of outflows and correspondingstoragelevels must be input. The model assumesan
initial reservoirlevel equal to that correspondingto an outflow of 0.0 cfs.
Pondingbehind culverts can be modeledas a reservoir if an S-O relation is
input. This should include data points correspondingto roadway overflow to allow
simulation of this common phenomenon.
Excessrainfall (runoff) from perviousareasis developedfrom the precipitation
input, minus severalabstractions.Infiltration is simulatedby
r : ir1<s Qs.rr)
*
and , : r - ti f 1 > , s (2s.1,2)
Subcatchments
Gutterflow
F 1. Overlandinput
2. Gutterinput
3. Flow (Manning's)
4. Depth(continuity)
to the specifiedhyetograph:
1. Rainfall is addedto the subcatchment'according
Dt: D,+ &Lt (25.1,3)
where D, : the water depth after rainfall
D, = the water depth of the subcatchmentat time /
R, : the intensity of rainfall in time interval At
2. Infiltration 1, is computed by Horton's exponential function, I, =
*
f" + (fo f")e-o', and subtractedfrom the water depth existing on the
subcatchment
Dz: D, - I, A,t (2s.r4)
where f",fr, k : coefficientsin Horton's equation(Eq. 4.1)
Dt: the intermediate water depth after accounting for
infiltration
Item 7. Define the StudyArea. Land use, topography,population distribution, censustract data,
aerial photos,and area boundaries.
Item 2. Define the System.Plans of the collection systemto definebranching,sizes,and slopes;
types and generallocationsof inlet structures.
Item3. Define the SystemSpecialties.Flow diversions,regulators,and storagebasins.
Item 4. Define the SystemMaintenance.Street sweeping(descriptionand frequency),catchbasin
cleaning;ffouble spots (flooding).
Item 5. Define the BaseFIow (DWF). Measureddirectly or through seweragefacility operatingdata;
hourly variation and weekdayversusweekend;the DWF characteristics(compositedBOD
and SS results);industrial flows (locations,averagequantities,and quality).
Item 6. Define the Storm Flow. Duly rainfall totals over an extendedperiod (6 months or longer)
encompassingthe study events;continuousrainfall hyetographs,continuousrunoff
hydrographs,and combinedflow quality measurements(BOD and SS) for the study
events;discreteor compositedsamplesas available(describefully when and how taken).
654 CHAPTER25 URBAN RUNOFFSIMULATIONMODELS
Q^:2Q-.,t2Qr., ( 2s .18)
)
25,1 URBAN STORMWATERSYSTEMMODELS 655
t.0. Steps6-9 are repeateduntil all the gutters are finished.
11.The flows reachingthe point concernedare addedto producea hydrograph
coordinatealongthe time axis.
12. Theprocesses
from 1 to 11 arerepeatedin succeeding
time periodsuntil the
completehydrographis computed.
Universityof CincinnatiUrbanRunoffModel(UCURM)
The University of cincinnati urban runoff model (ucuRM) was developedby the
Division of WaterResources,the Departmentof Civil Engineering,of the University
of Cincinnati.26A flowchartis reproducedin Fig. 25.11.The programconsistsof three
sections:(l) MAlN-infiltration and depressionstorage,and two subroutines,
(2) GUTFL-gutter flow, and (3) PIROU-pipe rouring.It is similar to the EpA
model and divides the drainagebasin into subcatchmentswhose flows are routed
overland into gutters and sewerpipes. The rainfall is read in as a hyetograph.The
infiltration and depressionstorageare summedand subtractedfrom the rainfall to
give overlandflow. This is routed through the gutter systemto storm water inlets and
the pipe network. Starting at the upstreaminlet, the flows are calculatedin successive
segmentsof the sewersystem,including dischargesfrom inlets, to producethe total
outflow.
The drainage areais divided into small subcatchmentswith closely matched
characteristics.The rainfall data are introduced and the infiltration is computedfor
eachsubcatchment.Principal elementsof the modelingprocessfollow:
t. I
/ : - k r n 1I Qs.zt1
|
and
MODELS
25 URBANRUNOFFSIMUI-ATION
CHAPTER
,/ Read Data
'1.
RainfallintensitY
2. Infiltration constant
5. rj"p.o.ion storage caPacitidr
Infiltration
(Horton'sequation)
Depression,
storagesupply
t
/
/-----ffi Data
1 Slop
2. Roughness
J. Lenl ;th
| 4. Widrh
Overlanil flow
1. Detention
2. Dis:harge
ReadData
1. Layout
2. Length
Gutter flow
1. Overlandinput
2. Gutterin..put
3. Dischargo (continuitY)
Gutters
'@
1. SloPe
2. Roughness
3. Diarieterorheight
4. Length
Flow routlng
1. Gutter input
2. Average velocitY (Manning's)
3. Time offset
4. AddoffsethYdrograPh
and new qutter input
Pipes
Print hydrograPh
--1-
6A Figure 25.11 UCURM model flowchart'
\ -,/ (ATterPapadakisand Preul'26)
25j URBANSTORMWATERSYSTEMMODELS 657
q: yfnl ,,,,p,,,1r
* o.o(S)'l',' es.z8)
L \D"/ )
where the symbolsare as previously defined.The determinedD" and q,
becomeDt and qt. The overlandflow hydrographis derivedby repeating
this cycle.
I
L
658 25 UEBANRUNOFF
CHAPTER MODELS
SIMULATION
5.Thegutterflowiscomputedusingthecontinuityequation
60 q, (2s.2e)
*6!7:
6x At
METHODS
TABLE 25.9 COMPARISONOF URBAN RUNOFFMODELSAND
Low No Low
Unit hydrograph Yes In combina- No
tion with :"*
surface
Low Low Low
STORM Yes In combina- Yes
tion with
surface
Moderate Low- No Low
RRL Yes Yes No
moderate
NA NA NA
MIT Yes No No High
Low No Low
Cincinnati Yes Yes Yes High
(ucuRM) No Low
Yes Yes Yes Moderate Moderate
HSPF
High No Low
ILLUDAS Yes No Modetate
25.2 URBANRUNOFFMODELSCOMPARED
Explicit
modeling Degree of
of in- Receiving calibration/
system Treatmenl model verification Simulation Data
storage modeling available required period Availability Documentation requirements
uorlelnurs
snonurluoc a a o
uonelnursI1r;enbralenir6urnreceg o o
uollElnurs /v\ollJ€lE/v\6utntecag a a a a a o
acueleq^Uleng
srxrolsuoo^iqeq a a a
luouleoJl roleMelsEM a
o ^lrlpno
suollgEar a a o
3
o) rnocs pue uorteluor1jrpes a
o
a
tJJ
= 6urlnor r{1r1eng a o
F
J ,{UlenbJolel rulols a a a
6
n fllenb reqleerirfuO a a
o sa!iloolaAsluud a a a o
o
z e6els sluud a a a a
9)
F
o
e6eroig a o o a
z
u E
z suorlels6urdr-un3 a a
(L
suolsroAro a a o o
o
3
(l) rvro;; puebur6reqcrng
ernsse.rd o
J U)
UJ
o pue ue€rlson
loJluocMou uJEerlsu/v\op a o a
sloitlss ut Oupnorlrol3 a a a o a a o
I
o
z
suilols uoo/\laq acuelEqralEM a a o o
l
(f, sEale snotruoquroJllJounH a a a a a a o
z
dl
ssoJesnorrugoururo,rlllounu a a a o o o o a
cc
l
c llau$ ous a o a a
t! o
o E srlder6ole,{r.l
lerolos}o }ndul a a o a a
z o
U)
G' ill\Ol,lOt{}EO/tAruO o a a a o o
!
(E
sMollurlueuqclec eloruny\ a a o o f o a
':
o
!
o
E
d
N
u,l
p
E
q
RUNOFF
25.2 URBAN COMPARED 661
MODELS
are assignedfull when the rainfall intensity falls below the infiltration
capacity,and that depressionstoragesare not depletedby infiltration. The
useof instantaneousvaluesof the rainfall intensity(difficult to obtain from
' recordercharts)can causevolume errors.
3. The SWMM was the model with the best overall performancebut at the
' expenseof large computerstorageand time requirements.
4. The RRL model predictedpoorly for stormsin which perviousrunoff was
significantbut performedreasonaf;lywell for many other types of storms.
The results,in general,supportthoseof Stall and Terstriep'e
5 . A major problem with using noncontinuousmodels is the prediction of
antecedeniconditions. This problem is further aggravatedby use of the
Horton infiltration equationfor which prediction of the parametersis virtu-
ally impossible.
The Marsalek study results,Tusingthe samethree modelsfor three watersheds
in Illinois, Ontario, and Maryland, indicated that the SWMM model performed
slightly better than the RRL model and both thesemodelswere more accuratethan
the UCURM model for the small watershedsstudied.
TabIe25.11providesdescriptionsof the urban watershedsusedby Marsalekin
the runoff modelevaluation.Typical comparisonsof observedand calculatedtimesto
peak,peak flows,and runoff volumesfor the three modelsare providedinFig.25.12
for the Calvin Park watershedin Kingston, Ontario.
Marsaleket al. usedthe information describedto developthe qualitative com-
parisonin Table 25.12 and,arrived at the following conclusions:7
Testurban
drainage Area
basin Location (acres) lmoerviousness Land use
STATIST]CAL
METHODS
Chapter26
Probabilityand Statistics
r Prologue
The purposeof this chapteris to:
ANALYSIS
26.1 RANDOMVARIABLESAND STATISTICAL
A random variable is one that demonstrates.variabilitythat isn't sufflciently ex-
plained by physicalprocesses.Many hydrologicphenomenahavethis tendency,ap-
pearing at times to be fully subjectto chancethemselves,or driven by some other
closelyrelated factor. In practice,hydrologistsoften analyzeproblemsas systemsof
connectedrandom and deterministicprocesses.For example,precipitation is often
evaluatedstatisticallyas a randomvariablebecauseof the complexityof understand-
ing and modelingthe atmosphericprocessesthat are known to drive the precipitation
system.Runoff that results from the precipitation, on the other hand, is viewed
deterministically,usingthe rainfall-runoff analogsthat arethe nucleusof the majority
of this textbook.
Hydrology relies heavily on principles from probability theory, statistics,and
information analysis.Whole texts on frequencyanalysismethods,stochasticgenera-
tion of data, regressionand analysisof variance,and regional analysesare available
containingthorough descriptionsof the principles.l'2Many hydrologicprocessesare
so complexthat they can be interpretedand explainedonly in a probabilislic sense.
Hydrologic eventsappear as uncertaintiesof nature and are the result, it must be
assumed,of an underlyingprocesswith randomor stochasticcomponents.The infor-
mation to investigatetheseprocessesis containedin recordsof hydrologicobserva-
tions.Methods of statistical analysisprovidewaysto reduceand summarizeobserved
data, to presentinformation in preciseand meaningfulform, to determinethe under-
lying characteristicsof the observedphenomena,and to makepredictionsconcerning
future behavior.Statisticalanalysisdealswith methodsfor drawinginferencesabout
the population basedon examinationof samplevaluesfrom the population. These
inferencesincludeinformation aboutthe central tendency,range,distributionwithin
the range, variability around the central tendency,degreeof uncertainty, and fre-
quencyof occurrenceof values.
Statistical analysisinvolves two basic sets of problems, one descriptive, the
otherinferentiat. The former is a straightforwardapplicationof statisticalmethods,
requiringfew decisionsand representinglittle risk. The inferential problem,however,
entails decisionsbearing some risk, and requires an understandingof the methods
employedand the dangersinvolvedin predicting and estimating.The most common
inferential problem is to describethe whole classof possibleoccurrenceswhen only
a portion of themhasbeenobserved.The wholeclassis thepopulation andthe portion
observedis the sample.
The randomvariablesin the processunderstudyare continuousif they may take
on all values in the range of occurrence,including figures differing only by an
infinitesimal amount; they are discreteif they are restrictedto specific,incremental
values.Distribution of the variablesover the rangeof occurrenceis definedin terms
of the frequencyor probabitity with which different valueshave occurredor might
occur'"
26.2 coNcEPTSOF PROBABILITY 673
OF PROBABILITY
26.2 CONCEPTS
The laws ofprobability underlieany study ofthe statisticalnature ofrepeatedobser-
vations or trials. The probability of a singleevent, say Et, is definedas the relative
number of occurrencesof the event after a long seriesof trials. Thus P(E ), the
probability of eventEr, is nrfN for n, occurrencesof the sameeventin N trials if N
is sufficiently large. The number of occurrencesn, is thefrequency. and nr/N the
relatiw freQuenffobabilities
and the rules governingtheir manipurationare known
intuitively or from experience.In the familiar coin-tossingexperiment,P(heads) :
P(tails) : |. Eachoutcomeof a singletoss(a trial) has a finite probability, and the
sumof the probabilitiesof all possibleoutcomesis 1. Also, the outcomesaremutually
exclusive;that is, if one occurs,saya head,then a tail cannotoccur.In two successive
tests,there are four possibleoutcomes-HH, TT, HT, TH-each with a probability
of|. In this case,becauseeachtrial is independentofthe other one, probabilitiesfor
eachoutcomeare foundby P(first trial) X P(secondtrial) : L,x L : j. Again, the
sum of the probabilities of the possibleoutcomesis 1. Note that the probability of
gettingexactlyoneheadand one tail duringthe experiment(without any regardto the
order)is P(HT) + P(TH) : *.
Summarizingthe rules of probability indicated by coin tossing,we find the
following:
s
.1J P(8,) : 1 (26.2)
I
)
26.2 CONCEPTSOF PROBABILITY 675
P@):+ (26.8)
P(F):l-P(F):l-+ (26.e)
R : 1 - ( r - + l : 1- I P ( F ) F (26.rr)
Expecteddesignlife (Years)
Risk
100
e/.) 10 15
EXAMPLE 26.2
What return period must a highway engineeruse in designinga critical underpass
drain to accept only a 10 percent risk that flooding will occur in the next 5 years?
Solution
R : 1 - (' -;)"
.10: 1- ('-i)'
Z : 48.1years IT
26.3 PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS
^
o.l
For example, P(X : x,) is the probability that random variableX takeson the value
x,. A shoiter version is p(x,). Figur" 26.1 showsthe probability distribution of the
number of cloudy daysin a weet. ft is a discretedistributionbecausethe number of
daysis exact;in ihe rlcord from which the relative frequencieswere taken, a day had
to-be describedas cloudy or not. Observethat eachof the seveneventshas a finite
probability and the sum is 1; that is,
) r(-t,) = t
vl
3 o.a
II P(x)
^
-' 0 0.05 0.05
.F o.o 1 0.15 0.20
2 0.25 0.45
3 0.20 0.65
o 4 0.15 0.80
.l 0.4 5 0.10 0.90
6 0.08 0.98
U 7 0.02 1.00
o.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Numberof cloudy daysper week,.r
Figure 26.2 Cumulative distribution of cloudy days per week.
RIR
b
il lt a
q
I
o
'5
d
o.top
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Mean annualflow, -r (100 cfs)
Figure 26.3 Frequency distribution of mean annual flows.
26.9 PROBABILITYDISTRIBUTIONS 679
o
q
d
e 0.6
o
I
o
> 04
(J
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Meanannualflow, x (100cfs)
histograrfrso that the area in each interval representsprobability; the total area
containedis thus unity. To do this, the ordinatein eachinterval, sayn/N for relative
frequencyor probability, is divided by the interval width, Ax.-The ratio nfN Lx rs
literally the probability per unit length in the interval and thereforerepresentsthe
average densityof probability.The probability n/N inthe interval is fepresentedon the
CDF (beforethelimitingprocess) as AF(x), or F(x + Lxlz) - F(x - L'xl2).We
then can define
.. --;-AF(x) dF(x)
l\x) : liln (26.r4)
Ax-o Ax dx
1 ()61\\
f(x) dx:
p(a-x-b):lu,r*,o* (26.16)
Note that the probability that x takeson a particular value,saya, is zero;that is,
fo
ft-l dx : o (26.17)
J
which emphasizesthat nnite proUalilities are definedonly as areasunder the PDF
betweenflnite limits.
The CDF can now be deflnedin terms of the PDF as
t'
P(-* < X < x) : P(X= x) : F(x) : I f(u) du (26.18)
J_*
),f(',): t (26.re)
x1= b
P(x<d:2fQ,) (26.2r)
For a finite numberof observationsin the sample,/(x) is the probability of xr for each
outcomein the samplespaceand thereforeP(x,) : P(xr) : P(xt) : . . . : I /N.
Hence/(x) can be replacedwith P(x,) in Eqs.26.19,26.20,and26.21.
DXAMPLE26.3
Table B.1 containsthe areabeneatha "standardnormal" bell-shapedPDF.Because
the distributionis symmetrical,areasare providedonly on one sideof the center.Use
the distribution to determinethe valuesof
1 . P ( 0< z ' 2 ) .
2.P(-2=z=2).
3. P(z > 2\.
4. P(z< -1)
Solution
1. P ( 0 = z < 2 ) : . 4 7 7 2 .
) F r o m s y m m e t r y ,P ( - 2 - z < 0 ) : P ( 03 2 3 2 ) : . 4 7 7 2 . Since
P(-Z = z < 2) : P(-2 3 z 30) + P(0 3 z 3 2), thenP(=2 = 7 <
2) : .4772+ .4772: .9544.
3. This is the areaunderthe curvein the right tail beyondz : 2.0. Becausethe
area right of center (z : 0) is .5000, P(z = 2) : P(z > 0) - P(0 =
z = 2 ) ,o r P ( z > 2 ) : . 5 0 0 0 - . 4 7 7 2 : . 0 2 2 8 .
4 . F r o m t h es o l u t i o n t(o3 ) ,P ( z = - 1 ) : P ( z = 0 ) - P ( - l = z < 0 ) ' B y
s y m m e t r y , P ( - 1= z = 0 ) - P ( 0 3 z s ! ) : . 3 4 1 3 , a n d P (=z - 1 ) :
.5000- .3413: .1587. rr
16.4MOMENTS
OF DISTRIBUTIONS
The propertiesof many random variablescan be definedin terms of the momentsof
the distribution. The moments representparametersthat usually have physical or
geometripalsignificance.Readersshould recognizethe analogybetweenstatistical
momentsand the momentsof'areasstudiedin solid mechanics.
The rth moment of a distribution about the oriein is definedaso
p::
2*,rr,r:12,,, (26.23)
The first moment aboutthe origin is the mean,or as it is commonly known, the
average.It determinesthe distancefrom the origin to the centroid ofthe distribution
frequencyfunction. The prime is normally usedto signify momentstaken about the
origin, but the mean is often written as p insteadof y'.
682 CHAPTER26 PROBABILITYAND STATISTICS
Moments can be definedabout axesother than the origin; the axis usedexten-
sively in deflninghigher momentsis lhe mean or, as given above,the first moment
about the origin. Thus
I
p,: | (x - rd'f\xl dx (26.24\
I
CHARACTERISTICS
26.5 DISTRIBUTION
Characteristicsof statisticaldistributionsare describedby the parametersof probabil-
,' ity functions, which in turn are expressedin terms of the moments.The principal
characteristicsare centraltendency,the groupingofobservationsorprobability about
a central value;variability, the dispersionof the variate or observations;and skew-
ness,thedegreeof asymmetryof the distribution.The theoreticalfunctions shownin
Fig.26.6 exhibit approximatelythe samegrouping about a central value,but/2 has
much greatervariability thanfl, andf possesses a pronouncedright-skewwhilefi is
symmetrical.
Symbol Gonvention
In introducingthe parametersof distributions,the usual sequenceof statisticalprob-
lemswill be followed-that is, parametersare derivedfrom the distributionof sample
data and usedas estimatesof the parametersof the population distribution' Summa-
CentralTendency
The familiar arithmetic average,the mean, is the most used measureof central
tendency.It is the first moment about the origin and is designated
r:lf*, n i=t
(26.2e)
Variability
Dispersioncan be representedby the total rangeof valuesor by the averagedeviation
aboutthe mean;however,the parameterof statisticalimportanceis the meansquared
deviation as measuredby the secondmoment about the mean. The parameteris
termed the varianceand is designatedby
c r : rn f
i=l
G , -p ) ' (26.30)
But the population mean /-{,is not known precisely and therefore it is necessaryto
computeinstead
n
.
s-:
\ r
Z\xt-xf (26.3r)
- 1 in place of n in
As the best estimateof o2, the quantity s2 is found using n
Eq. 26.30.The reasoningfor this substitutioninvolves the lossof a degreeof freedom
by using 7 insteadof p, but a proof is beyondthe scope of this text.
The squareroot of the varianceis a statisticknown as the standard deviation
(o or s), in which form variability is measuredin the sameunits asthe variateand the
mean,and henceis easierto interpretand manipulate.The coefficientof variation C",
definedas cf p, or sfi, is an expressionuseful in comparingrelative variability.
Skewness
A fully symmetricaldistribution would exhibit the property that all odd moments
equalLero.A skeweddistribution,however,would haveexcessive weightto either side
of the centerand the odd momentswould exist. The third moment a is
o : ! n2 @ , - p ) ' (26.32)
i:l
684 CHAPTER26 PROBABILITYAND STATISTICS
u - s
Z-J \xi- x)' (26.33)
(n-r)(n-2)
The cofficient of skewnessis the ratio afc3 and is estimatedby
-- Q---;
n
(-- (26.34)
J
For syfnmetricaldistributions,the third moment is zero and C" : 0; for right skew-
ness(i.e.,thelongtailtotherightside)C">0,andforleftskewnessC"<0.ThePDF
forfi shownin Fig. 26.6has a right or positive skew.The property of skewnessis of
questionablestatisticalvaluewhenit mustbe estimatddfrom lessthan 50 sampledata
points.
EXAMPLE 26.4
Determinethe distributionparametersand comparethe distributionsof annualrain-
fall for the records shown inTable 26.2.
Annual rainfall(in.)
t928 48 9 43
r927 49 lo 44
t926 )) t9 38
t925 98 9 31
r924 43 8 47
1923 53 6 49
1922 56 15 52
t92l 47 20 31
1920 69 11 51
1919 57 o 40
1918 61 18 4l
t9t7 64 8 43
1916 99 23 3 t
1915 54 t7 36
t914 40. 23 J+
t913 47 17 38
t9t2 58 10 36
1 9 1I 44 18 37
1910 44 5 43
1909 64 )4 34
1908 44 l9 JJ
1907 51 l5 49
1906 21 47
26.7 CONTINUOUSPROBABILITYDISTRIBUTIONFUNCTIONS 685
Solution
FUNCTIONS
DISTRIBUTION
26.6 TYPESOF PROBABILITY
Many standardtheoreticalprobability distributionshavebeenusedto describehydro-
logic processes.It should be emphasizedthat any theoretical distribution is not an
exactrepresentationof the natural processbut only a descriptionthat approximates
the under$ing phenomenonand has proved usefui in describingthe observeddata.
Table26.3summarizes{he commondistributions,giving the PDF,mean,andvariance
of the functions. The distributions presentedin the table have experiencedwide
applicationand are derivedand discussedin many standardtextbookson statistics.In
r the material to follow, only aspectsof the most usbd distributionsare given.
The usesof binomial and Poissondiscreteprobability distributionsinTabIe26.3
arerestrictedgenerallyto thoserandomeventsin which the outcomecanbe described
either as a successor failure. Furthermore,the successive trials are independentand
the probability of success remains constant from trial to trial.3'a In a sense,the
common discrete distributionsare counting or enumerating techniques'
The binomial distributionis frequentlyusedto approximateother distributions,
and vice versa.For example,with discretevalues,when n is large andp small (such
thal np ( 5 preferably),the binomial approachesthe Poissondistribution.This is a
single-parameterdistribution (i : np) and is very useful in describringarrivals in
queueingtheory. When p approachesI and n grows large, the binomial becomes
indistinguishablefrom the normal distribution describedin the next section.
FUNCTIONS
PROBABILIryDISTRIBUTION
26.7 CONTINUOUS
Most hydrologicvariablesare assumedto be continuousrandom processes,and the
commoncontinuousdistributionsare usedto fit historical sequences, as in frequency
analysis,for example(Chapter 27). Other applicationsare also important for contin-
uous distributions.The elementary uniform distribution is the basis for computing
7
^ ,-",
i l {
N
H
+
n '\-..7
, d
a , L t ,
C)N
g b
G \ l
B l r l i
+
, q ^
I
.i l \ x
.gb I
o B -'i.l Nl'\a
F t.x -:
(UN d d t v
> o * J l
co. bl T
tl
b
H
,
tl
h
x
el dlJa +
r- , N I
+' N t x
a f f i - l x- J
rnl CO-
tx
o
s sr
1 +
\,
f
B
-il
+
+
o d l l s l l
{ a
-{.-
o s : " o 8 8
vl
^r
-\? vl
o
,? ,9, "'
J o \/" \/t vr
''
\/l
o vr :' ^
. k x ' '
Ir (!
x " ' x R
; M u ;
o tr rir x \/r
"'
\,r
vt
Vl
I v -r 8 /\r
., d
I
6
l\t
^
z
o
ut
a
U) IL
z o
o
tr
l
dl
o
fr o
r
a
o
z
o E
U'
0)
o
o
o E
E
lt
o (!
tu
J
I
o IL
s
F
a?
(o
6|
UJ
@
E€E
E ;F
=
.E
E E6 a. f
'.
d -E
= i ' 5E
E
r
E
"
E6iE
E
F[
3
E !
E S
EZ B i ' oO eF E
26.7 CONTINUOUSPROBABILIW DISTRIBUTIONFUNCTIONS 687
NormalDistribution
The normal distributionis a symmetrical,be,ll-shaped frequencyfunction, alsoknown
as the Gaussiandistributionor the natural law of errors. It describesmany processes
that are subjectto random and independentvariations.The whole basisfor a large
body of statisticsinvolving testing and quality control is the normal distribution.
Although it often does not perfectly fit sequencesof hydrologic data, it has wide
application, for example, in dealing with transformed data that do follow the
normal distributionand in estimatingsamplereliability by virture of the central limit
theorem.
The normal distribution has two parameters,the mean p, and the standard
deviationa, for which 7 and s, derivedfrom sampledata, aresubstituted.By a simple
transformation,the distribution can be written as a single-parameterfunction only.
Definingz : \x - t-i/o, dx : o dz,the PDF becomes
(26.3s)
EXAMPLE 26.5
Assumethat the Richmond,Virginia, annualrainfall in Table 26.2 follows a noimal
distribution.Usethe standardnormal transformationto find the rain depththat would
havea recurrqnceinterval of 100 years.
Solution. From example26.4,the meanis 41.5 in. and the standarddeviation
is 6.7 in. This gives
x: 4L5 + z(6.7)
Equation 26.18 showsthat the areaunder the PDF to the right of z is the exceedence
probability of the event.For the 100-yrevent,F;q.26.7 givesthe exceedence probabil-
ity Pk): llT,: tlI00:0.01. From the figure accompanying Table 8.1 in
688 CHAPTER26 PROBABILIry AND STATISTICS
Appendix B, F(z) : 0.5 - p(z) : 0.49, and z : 2.326 by interpolating the table'
The expected100-yr rain depth is therefore
x : 4t.5 + O.32O X 6.7 :57.1 in:
The 100-yr event for a normal distribution is 2.326 standarddeviationsabove the
mean. rt
Log-NormalDistribution
Many hydrologicvariablesexhibit a markedright skewness, partly dueto the influence
of natural phenomena having values greater than zero, or some other lower limit, and
beingunconstrained, theoreiically, in the upper range. In such cases,frequencieswill
not follow the normal distribution,but their logarithms may follow a normal distribu-
tion.7The PDF shown in Table 26.3 for the log-normal comes from substituting y :
ln x in the normal. With p, andcy as the mean and standarddeviation,respectively,
the following relations have been found to hold betweenthe characteristicsof the
untransformid variatex and the transformedvariatey:r'7
p:exp(p'y+412) (26.38)
oz:p,2lexp(d)_11 (26.3e)
a : lexp(3fi) - 3 exp(fi) + 2lC3 (26.40)
C,:lexp(dr) - r1t'' (26.4r)
C,:3C" * Cl (26.42)
Also p, : lfl M, whereM is the median value and the geometricmean of the x's.
The log-normal is especiallyusefulbecausethe,transformationopensthe exten-
sive body oI theoreticaland applied usesof the normal distribution. Since both the
normal and log-normal are two-parameterdistributions,it is necessaryonly to com-
pute the mean-andvarianceof the untransformedvariatex and solveEqs. 26.38 and
26.39 simultaneously.Information on three-parameteror truncatedlog-normal dis-
tributionscan be found in the literature.r'7
Gamma(and PearsonTYPelll)
The gammadistributionhaswide applicationin mathematicalstatisticsandhas been
usedincreasinglyin hydrologicstudiesnow that computingfacilities make_iteasyto
evaluate the gimma functioi insteadof relying on the painstakingmethod of using
tablesof the incompletegammafunction that lead to the CDF, P(X < x). In greater
useis a specialcaseof gamma: tbePearsonType/1L This distributionhasbeenwidely
adoptedas the standardmethodfor flood frequencyanalysisin a form known as the
log-pearson /11 in which the transform y :1og x is used to reduce skewness.8-r0
Aithough all three momentsare requiredto fit the distribution,it is extremelyflexible
in that a zeroskewwill reducethe log-PearsonIII distribution to a log-normal and
the pearsonType III to a normal. Tablesof the cumulativefunction are availableand
A very important property of gamm-avariates
will be explainedin a later section.lo'11
aswell asnormal variates(includingtransformednormals)is that the sumof two such
variablesretains the samedistribution. This feature is important in generatingsyn-
- -thefie hy-drologic
sequences.l''''
26J CONTINUOUSPROBABILITYDISTRIBUTIONFUNCTIONS 689
Gumbel'sExtremalDistribution
The theory of extreme valuesconsidersthe distribution of -the largest(qr smallest)
observationsoccurringin eachgroup of repeatedsamples.The distribution of the nt
extreme values taken from n, samples,with each samplehaving n2 observations,
dependson the distribution of the nrn, total observations.Gumbel was the first to
employ extremevalue theory for analysisof flood frequencies.laChow has demon-
stratedthat the Gumbel distribution is essentiallya log-normal with constantskew-
ness.tsThe CDF of the densityfunction given in Table 26.3 is
P(X - x) : F(x) : exp{-expl-o(, - u)l} (26.43)
a convenientform to evaluatethe function. Parametersa andu are given asfunctions
of the meanand standarddeviationin Table26.3.Tablesof the doubleexponentialare
usually in terms of the reducedvariate,y - a(x - u).tuGumbel also has proposed
anotherextremevaluedistributionthat appearsto fit instantaneous(minimumannual)
droughtflows.17'18
CDFsin Hydrology
Normal and Pearsondistributionscan often be usedto describehydrologicvariables
if the variableis the sum or mean of severalother random variables.The sum of a
numberof independentrandom variablesis approximatelynormally distributed.For
example,the annualrainfall is the sumof the daily rain totals,eachof which is viewed
as a random variable. Other examplesinclude annual lake evaporation, annual
pumpagefrom a well, annual flow in a stream,and mean monthly temperature.
The log-normal CDF hasbeen successfullyusedin approximatingthe distribu-
tion of variablesthat are the product of powersof many other randomvariables.The
logarithm of the variableis approximatelynormally distributedbecausethe logarithm
of productsis a sum of transformedvariables.
Examplesof variablesthat havebeenknown to follow a log-normal distribution
include:
AND CORRELATION
LINEARREGRESSION
26.8 BIVARIATE
Pylr regressionline
y) : c,.,:
cov(.r, p)(y - p,)f(x,v)dvdx (26'4s)
f _f _Q'-
The samplecorrelationcoefficient,r : s,.rfs*s* is usedto estimatep',r. The sample
covarianceis found from the squareroot of
s?,,: (26.46)
where
a?: 40 - p') (26.4e)
which is the variance of the residualsof the regression.Just as the mean of the
distribution requiressubstitutionof the given value of x into Eq. 26.47, so also does
thevariance,Eq.26.48. Whenthe valueof x in Fig. 26.7is setiequalto A the standard
error of the meanis
ae
O-t=:
-----7 (26.s0)
VN
Equation 25.47 is linear and expressesthe linear dependencebetweeny and .r as
slrownin Fig. 26J.The meanvalue of y can be computedfor fixed valuesof x' Also,
if the correlationbetweenthem is significant,one can predict the valuesof y with less
error than the marginal distribution of y alone.In fact, from Eq. 26.49, the fraction
of the original varianceexplainedor accountedby the regressionis
o":t-* (26.5r)
692 CHAPTER26 PROBABILIry AND STATISTICS
It can be seenalso from Eq. (26.47) that the slopeof the regressionline is
cy -
tl,yl, lLy
PA: (26.s2)
r - rr^
or, ifx andy are standardized,then p itself is the slope,where
- p,r)/a,
}rnt. (26.s3)
p =
(x - t*)/o,
EQUATIONS
26.9 FITTINGREGRESSION
N
6
I
Jackson Cowpasture
Year River River
, ? ;
xbo A1 58
J . F
61
/1 92 81
! Q
43 65 70
3[i 44 72 63
e o 82 68
46 67 58
47 74 74
F r 48 t 18 105
; h
49 t24 134
50 r08 108
51 65 93
d 52 88- 85
B
U Mean = 84.7 83.1
60 80 100 120 r40 Standard
Lowest annualflow for 1 day (cfs) deviation = 21.7 23.2
JacksonRiver at FallingSprings,Virginia, 1941-1952
: : 0.86.
Figure 26.8 Cross-correlationof low floWs.Regressionline: Iz 4.94 + 0.923X; r
EQUATIONS 693
26.9 FITTINGREGRESSION
-
) 0, - f), : ) ly, (o + px,)1,-
(26.ss)
(26.se)
2*,y,-")xt-F2*?:o
SolvingEqs. 26,58 and 26.59 simultaneouslyyields
2 v , F 2 ^' i : y - B T (26.60)
e:--
n n
(26.6r)
P: =7 - (>;y[
Recall the slopeis p(arf o), or as estimatedfrom sampledata
rt; (26.62)
B:
*-: 4 ns -l (z r - r , ) (26.64)
done wfth caution.Equation 26.48 showsthat the variancein the estimateof y for a
givenx valuebecomeslargewhenx is severalstandarddeviationsaboveor belowthe
mean.
EXAMPLE 26.6
The lowestannualflows for a l2-yr period on the Jacksonand CowpastureRivers are
tabulatedin Fig. 26.8. The stationsare upstr€amof the confluenceof the two rivers
that form the JamesRiver. Find the regressionequationand the correlationbetween
low flows.
Solution
The basicstatisticsare2 x : 1016;) y : 997;2 x2 : 9 1 , 2 1 6 ; 2 :
l "
88,777;and2 xy : 89,209.
t For the two-variableregressiona and B are found from Eqs.26;60and
26.61,.
-
_ [ ( 8 9 , 2 0 e ) ( l 0 t 6 x e e 7 ) / ( 1 2 ) ] :o Q o ?
(9r,216)- (tor6)' 102)
ee7 (0.e23x1016)
: 4'9r
o:
i
The regressionis y : 4.91 + 0.923x.
3. The correlation coefficientfrom Eq.26.62 is
(0.e23)(2r.7)
: 0:86
23.2
4. From F;q.26.64the standarderror of estimate,s,, is 11.7,which is plotted
line in Fig. 26.8. rl
as limits aroundthe regression
(26.66)
26.9 FITTINGREGRESSIONEQUATIONS 695
EXAMPLE 26.7
Determinethe coefficientof determinationfor the regressionin Example26.6.
Solution, From Eq. 26.67,the coefficientof determination,r2, is 0.7396.
"accountsfor" about 74
Thus, the regressionequationadequatelyexplainsor
pefcent of the original information abouty containedin the raw data. Twenty-
six percentof the information is lost. I r
For exam-
The bivariateexamplecan be extendedto multiple linear r'bgressions.
ple, the linear model in three variables,with y the dependentvariable andx1 andx2
the independentvariables,has the form
y:a*F$t*Fzxz (26.68)
where y, are the observedvaluesand y-,are predictedby Eq. (26.68). The multiple
correlation coefficient is
+)
^2\ | /2
n : ( t - (26.73)
s;/
in Hydrology
LinearTransformations
Strongnonlinearbivariateand multivariatecorrelationsare also commonin hydrol-
ogy, ind various mathematical models have been used to describethe relations.
Piiabolic, exponential, hyperbolic, power, and other forms have provided better
696 CHAPTER26 PROBABILITYAND STATISTICS
OF NONLINEARFORMS
TABLE 26,4 LINEARTRANSFORMATIONS
Y=A+BX X I
lY): A + B[x]
Y = BeAx log Y tbc rl : locB + A(1oge)[x]
Y:AXB log X log Y tbc rl : bc A + B[tocX]
Y:ABx X log Y lloCrl : loCA + (loCB)[X]
Note.'Variables in brackets are the regressionvariates.
EXAMPLE 26.8
In the following exhibit (Table 26.5) preparedby Beard,20the regionalcorrelationis
soughtof the standarddeviationof flow logarithmswith the logarithmsof the drainage
areasize'andthe numberof rainy daysper year;X, is setequalto ( 1 t log s) to avoid
negativevalues.Find the regressionequationand the multiple correlationcoefflcient.
Solution
Station Station
x3 x1 numDer x2 xs x1
number X2
(3) (4) (5) (6) (7\ (8)
(1) (2)
2 6 ' I o R E GR E S S |o N A N D C o RRELAT|oNAPPL|CAT|oNS
698 26 PROBABILIry
CHAPTER ANDSTATISTICS
desiredJtatisticalparameteras dependentvariable,and the appropriatephysicaland
climatic variableswithin the basinor regionas the independenlvariables. The proce-
dures are signiflcantly better than using relatively short historical sequencesand
point-frequencyanalysis.Not only doesthe methodreducethe inherently large sam-
pling errors but it furnishesa meansto estimateparametersat ungaugedlocations.
There are limitations to the techniquesof Section 26.9. First, the analyst as-
sumesthe form of the model that can expressonly linear, or logarithmically linear,
dependence.Second,the independentvariablesto be includedin the regressionanal-
ysis are selected.And, third, the theory assumesthat the independentvariablesare
indeedindependentand are observedor determinedwithout error. Advancedstatisti-
cal methodsthat are beyondthe scopeof this text offer meansto overcomesomeof
theselimitations but in practiceit may be impossibleto satisfy them. Therefore,care
must be exercisedin selectingthe model and in interpretingresults.
Accidental or casualcorrelationmay existbetweenvariablesthat are not func-
tionally correlated.For this reason,correlationshouldbe determinedbetweenhydro-
logic variablesonly when a physicalrelation can be presumed.Becauseof the natural
dependencebetween many factors treated as independentvariables in hydrologic
studies,the correlationbetweenthe dependentvariableand eachof the independent
variablesis different from the relative effect of the sameindependentvariableswhen
analyzedtogetherin a multivariatemodel. One way to guard againstthis effect is by
screeningthe variablesinitially by graphical methods.Another is to examine the
results of the final regressionequationto determinephysicalrelevance.
Alternatively,regressiontechniquesthemselvesaid in screeningsignificantvari-
ables.When electroniccomputationis available,a procedurecanbe followedin which
successive independentvariableSare addedto the multiple regressionmodel, and the
relative effect of eachis judged by the increasein the multiple correlationcoefficient.
Although statisticaltestscan be employedto judge significance,it is useful otherwise
to specify that any variable remain in the regressionequation if it contributesor
explains,say,1 or 5 percentofthe total variance,or ofR2. A frequentlyusedrqethod
is to computethe partial correlation cofficients for each variable.This statistic
representsthe relative decreasein the varianceremaining( 1 - R') by the addition of
the variablein question.If the varianceremainingwith the variableincludedin the
regression is (I - Rz) : pz and the variance remaining after removal is
(l - R'') : D'', then the partial regression correlation coefficient is
\D'' - D')lD''.
Most PC spreadsheetsoftware packageshave statistical routines for all the
analysesdescribedhere and many more. Most are extremelyflexible,requiringmini-
mal instructions-andinput data other than raw data. Specialmanipulationscan effect
an interchangeol dependentand independentvariables,bring one variableat a time
into the regression equation, rearrange the independent variables in order of
significance,and perform various statisticaltests.
ExtendingHydrologicRecords
Regressiontechniquesfrequently can be used to extend short records if significant
correlation existsbetweenthe station of short record and a nearby station with a
- lorigerreeord.Iq Example26.6,if the JacksonRiver recordswerecompletefromI94l
PROBLEMS 699
to datebut the Cowpasturerecordswere incompleteafter 1952,the cross-correlation
could be usedto estimatethe missingyearsby solvingthe regressionequationfor I
from 1953 on usingthe X flows as observed.The reliability of suchmethodsdepends
on the correlationcoefficientand the length ofthe concurrentrecords.Ifthe concur-
rent record is too short or the correlation weak, the standarderror of the parameter
to be estimatedcan be increasedand nothing is gained.The limiting value of cross-
correlation for estimatingmeansis approximatelyp : l/\/ n, where n is the length
of the concurrentrecord.21Thus any correlation above0.3 would improve the Cow-
pasturerecords.Estirnatesof other parameterswith larger standarderrors require
highercross-correlationfor significantimprovement.Extendingor filling in deficient
recordsoften is necessaryfor regional studiesin which every record usedshould be
adjustedto the samelength.
HydrologicVariables
Regionalized
Predicting.
Cruff and Rantzz2studiedvariousmethodsof regional flood analysisand found the
multiple regressiontechniquea better predictor than either the index-floodmethod
(Chapter27) or the fitting of theoreticalfrequencydistributionsto individual histori-
cal records.They flrst usedregressiontechniquesto extendall recordsto a common
base length. Next they extrapolatedby various methods to estimate the 50- and
100-yearflood events and with multiple correlation examined several dependent
variables including the drainage areaA, the basin-shapefactor (the ratio of the
diameterof a circle of sizeA to the length of the basin measuredparallel to the main
channel)Sa,channelslopeS, the annualprecipitationP, and others.They found only
A and S, to be significant, which resulted in prediction equations of the form
Q, : cAS!,. These equationswere superior to those of the other techniques.The
multiple correlation coefficientwas as high as 0.954.It is interestingthat regression
techniqueswereemployedin still a third way,that is, to estimateregionalvaluesof the
mean and standarddeviation after adjustingthe record length. Example26.8 illus-
' trated the applicationof regressionanalysisto regionalizethe standarddeviationof
annual maximum flow logarithms as a function of the drainage area size and the
number of rainy dayseachyear.
r summary
Statisticsis a diversesubject,and the treatmentin this chapterhasbeennothing more
than an introduction. Seriousstudentsand practitionersmust return againand again
to the theory in standardworks.23They will find that evaluatingnew developments
of statis-
and techniquesmust claim a large shareof their time. Only certain aspects,
tical hydrologyhave been presented,principally the common distributionsand the
methodsfor analyzingfrequency of eventsobservedat a single point. In the next
chapterthis information is extendedto common applicationsin hydrology.
PROBLEMS
26.1. The probabilitiesof eventsE1 andE2 arc each.3. What is the probability that E1 or
E2 will occur when (a) the eventsare independentbut not mutually exclusive,and
- (b) whenthe probabilityof Et, given E2is .l?
700 CHAPTER26 ANDSTATISTICS
PROBABILITY
26.2. EventsA and B are independenteventshaving marginal probabilities of.4 and .5,
respectively.Determine for a single trial (a) the probability that both A and B will
occur simultaneously,and (b) the probability that neither occurs.
26.3. The conditional probability, P(E, I E,r),of a power failure (given that a flood occurs)
is .9, and the conditionalprobability,P(Ez I E), of a flood (given that a powerfailure
occurs)is .2. If the joint probability, P (\ andE), of a power failure and a flood is
.1, determinethe marginal probabilities,P(E) and P(E).
26.4. Describetwo random eventsthat are (a) mutually exclusive,(b) dependent,(c) both
mutually exclusiveand dependent,and (d)"neithermutually exclusivenor dependent.
26.5. A temporar;1cofferdamis to be built to protect the 5-yearconstructionactivity for a
major crossvalley dam. If the cofferdam is designedto withstand the 20-yearflood,
what is the probability that the structurewill be overtopped(a) in the flrst year, (b) in
the third year exactly,(c) at leastonce in the 5-yearconstrucfionperiod, and (d) not
at all during the 5-yearperiod?
26.6. A 33-yearrecord of peak annualflow rateswas subjectedto a frequencyanalysis.The
median value is defined as the midvalue in the table of rank-ordered magnitudes.
Estimatethe following probabilities.
, a. The probability that the annualpeak will equalor exceedthe medianvaluein any
singleyear.
b. The averageretlrrn period of the median value.
c. The probability that the annual peak in 1993 will equal or exceedthe median
value.
d. The probability that the peak flow rate next year will be less than the median
value.
e. The probability that the peak flow rate in all of the next 10 successive yearswill
be lessthan the median value.
f. The probability that the peak flow rate will equal or exceedthe median value at
leastoncein l0 successive years.
g. The probability that the peak flow rates in both of two consecutiveyears will
equal or exceedthe median value.
h. The probability that, for a2-yearperiod, the peak flow rate will equal or exceed
the median value in the secondyear but not in the first'
26.7. What return period must an engineeruse in his or her designof a bridge openingif
there is to be only a 50 percent risk that flooding will occur at least once in two
successiveyears?Repeatfor a risk of 100 percent.
26.8. A temporary flood wall has been constructedto protect several homes in the
floodplain. The wall was built to withstand any dischargeup to the 20-year flood
magnitude.The,wall will be removed at the end of the 3-year period after all the
homeshavebeen relocated.Determinethe probabilities of the following events:
a. The wall will be overtoppedin any year.
b. The wall will not be overtoppedduring the relocation operation.
c. The wall will be overtoppedat leastonce before all the homesare relocated.
d. The wall will be overtoppedexactly once before all the homesare relocated.
e. The wall will be adequatefor the flrst 2 years and then overtoppedin the third
year.
26.9. Waveheightsand their respectivereturn periods(shownon the next page)are known
for a 40-mi long reservoir.Ownersof a downstreamcampsitewill accepta 25 percent
risk that a proiective wall will be overtoppedby wavesat least once in a 2}-yeat
period. Determinethe minimum height of the protective wall.
PROBLEMS 701
Waveheight Returnperiod
(ft) (years)
10.0 100
8.5 50
7.4 30
5.0 10
3.5 5
26.10. Assumethat the channel capacityof 12,000cfs near a private home was equaledor
exceededin 3 of the past 60 years.Find the following:
a. The frequencyof the 12,000-cfsvalue.
b. The probability that the home will be floodednext year.
c. The return period of the 12,000-cfsvalue.
d. The probability that the home will not be floodednext year.
e. The probability of two consecutive,safeyears.
f. The probability of a flood at leastonce in the next 20 years.
g. The probability of a flood in the second,but not the first, of two consecutiveyears.
h. The 20-yearflood risk.
26,11, The distribution of mean annual rainfall at 35 stations in the JamesRiver Basin,
Virginia, is given in the following summary:
fr+'o
I fG) dx
J*-ro
26.15. A normal variableX has a meanof 5.0 and a standarddeviationof 1.0.Determinethe
value of X that has a cumulativeprobability of 0.330.
26.16. If the mode of a PDF is considerablylarger than the median, would the skew most
likely be positive or negative?
702 ANDSTATISTICS
26 PROBABILIW
CHAPTER
26.17. tomplete the following mathematicalstatementsabout the properties of a PDF by
insertingin the boxeson the left the correct item numberfrom the right. Assumethat
X is a seriesof annual occuffencesfrom a normal distributibn.
I
a. I f(x) dx: J r.Zerc
t "
:
b.
f'_ro,dx r 2.Unity
dx: '34
l-.o 'o'
3. Valuewith 5 percentchanceofexceedanceeachyear
d. dx:r 4. 0.68
f,o"
dx: .5 5. Valueexpectedevery 50 r"urc on the average
f-to,
f(x) dx : Z 6. P(X < mr)
8 . P ( m 1- X = m z )
l. 9. Median
10. Standarddeviation
Also,
p (annualvalue will be equaledor exceeded
_ pn_r(l _ p)r
exactly r times in a period of n years)
{i",,' for0<x=b
forxlb
26.28.
26.29.
26.30.
26.31..
26.32.
26.33.
26.34.
discharge
Measured recharge
Estimated
(1000acre-ft) (1000acre-ft)
12.2 t2.o
10.4 9.8
10.6 I 1.0
1.2.6 t3.z
14.2 14.6
13.0 14.0
14.0 14.0
t2.0 I z,+
10.4 10.4
tl.4 11.6
26.35. F i t a r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n t o t h e d a t a i n P r o b l e m 2 6 ' 3 4 , t r e a t i l g d i s c h a r g e a s t h e
dependentvariable.computethestandarderrorofestimate.Estimatetheexpeoted
be the estimateof dischargeif no
dischargewhen recharg"ir 13 Kti what would
is the relative improvementprovided
information were availatie on recharge?what
by the regressionestimate?
linear regression'The program
26.36. prepare a computerprogramfor simple,two-variable,
X' (b) computethe means'variances'
should(a) read in N pain oioUt"tuuiions, Y and
Y andX, and (c) find the regressionconstants'the
and standarddeviationsoiUott'
coefficient. verify with the data in
standarderror of estimal-, u"J,ir" correlation
Problem26.34.
of the mean annual rainfall with the
26.37. From the following observations of variation How
altitude of the gauge,d";;;;; iinea, predi.tion equationfor the catchment.
well correlatedare rainfall and altitude?
)
i
PROBLEMS 705
Watershed Ir L D
number (min) (1000ft) (fv10oo
ft)
I 150 18.5 7.93
2 90 14.2 19.0
3 60 25.3 t2.a
A 60 tt.7 13.3
5 100 9.7 11.0
6 75 8.1 15.0
7 90 21.'7 16.7
8 30 3.9 146.0
9 30 1.2 20.0
l0 45 J.J 64.0
11 50 J.) 33.0
26.4r, Repeat the exercise in Problem 26'40 by fitting the relation T,: dF", whete
F : L/{S with t in mi and S in ftimi. Plot the results on log-log paper.
26.42. The squareof the linear correlationcoefficientis calledthe proportion of the variance
that is "explainedby the regression."Describethe meaningof this phraseby evaluat-
ing the equationsgivenin the text.What varianceis explained,and what doesthe term
"explained" mean?
REFERENCES
FrequencyAnalysis
r Prologue
The purposeof this chapteris to:
27.1 FREQUENCY
ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS
FREQUENCY
27.2 GRAPHICAL
The frequencYof an event can be
When annualmaximum valuesare
imated as the meantime in Years'\
exceededonceon the average'The t
be shownto be
m
tuf,lj
(21.r)
x:
4 - -
n ) l (21.2)
I _
m
indicatingthattherecurfenceintervalisequaltothenumberofyearsofrecordplus
1, divided bY the rank of the event'
They give different results as
Severalpictting p*liion formulas are available'l for 10 yearsof record
notedin Table2'7' .1,.The rangein recurrencerntervalsoutained
plotting position formulasdo not account
is illustratedin the right-hani column.Most
formula ihat doesaccountfor samplesize
for the samplesizeor length of record. One
generalform
wa, giuen by Gringorten' and has the
.r1 - n * l - 2 a (27.3)
r -
m - a
710 CHAPTER2TFREQUENCYANALYSIS
TABLE 27.1 PLOTTINGPOSITIONFORMULAS
Form:1
andn=10
m
California .10 l0
n
2m-l
Hazen .05 20
m-0.3
Chegadayev .06'l 14.9
n+0.4
n 10 20 30 40 50
a 0.448 0.443 0.442 0.441 0.440
n 60 70 80 90 100
a 0.440 0.440 0.440 0.439 0.439
m
P _ (27.4)
n-fI
U.S.G.S.RegionalRegressionEquations
Early in the 1950s,the U.S. Geologicalsurvey institutedaprocessof correlatingflood
flow magnitudqsand frequencieswith drainagebasin characteristics.Setsof regres-
sionequationsfor the 2-,5-, l0-,25-,50-, and 100-yearfloodshavebeendeveloped
for practically everyhydrologicallyhomogeneous regionin every state.The work was
largely inauguratedto developmethodsfor estimatingpeak flow rates for designof
highway structuresat ungaugedbasins.Data from gaugedsites was evaluatedby
regional analysisto provide the best fit of regressionmodelsto the data.
Continuouswater stagerecordersand crest-stagegaugedata were consultedto
developfrequencycurvesfor all gaugedwatersheds.Given the frequencycurves,a
6000
5000
o
4000
a
I
o 3000
po I
ts
2000 c")
c..l I
I
1000
0
i' 50 100
1.01 1.1 2 5 1 0 2 0
interval(Yr)
Recurrence
(al
Recurrenceintervals (Yr)
station 1.1 1.5 5 10 20 50
1 ^ ALt n ?< 1 AA 1 q? ).55 3.03
(b)
3.0
2.8
I
2.2
6 2.0
o 1.8
l.o ' :
I
7.4
o
t.2
po
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
1.01 1.1 t.52 10 5 50 100
interval(Yr)
Recurrence
(cl
EXAMPLE 27.6
Develop estimates of flood peaks for a 200-square-mile rural watershed near Dallas.
The mean slope between the 10 and 85 percent points is 3.4 ft per mile.
Qr: 2 1 6 A o s 1 a s o l 2:s 5 , 2 7 0 c f s
- :
O s : 3 2 2 4 0 6 2 0 5 0 1 8 o 1 0 , 7 7 0c f s
:
Q r o : 3 8 9 A o ' 6 a 6 s o ' 2 1 a1 5 ' 4 9 0c f s
:22'300 cfs
Q r r : 4 8 5A 0 6 6 8 5 0 2 3 6
:
Q r o : 5 5 5 A o 6 8 2 s o 2 5 o 2 7 , 8 0 0c f s
: ll
Qrco : 628 Ao6e4so261 34,170 cfs
724 CHAPTER2T FREQUENCYANALYSTS
UNDEFINED
Pacoa
,'7-
I
N D
R E
Distance, in feet
Q25
: 3.70 Wr'372D-o263Ao2rs (27.2r)
Qro
: 4.93 W127aD-02s6Ao'257 (27.22)
where Q : peakflow for the given frequency,cfs
W = iop width of streamat bank-full condition, ft
D : mean depth for bank-full flow, ft
A : cross-sectionareaat bank-full flow, sq ft
The multiple correlation coefficientsfor theseequationsranged from 0-80 for the
50-yrflow to 0.89 for the2-yr event.Standarderrors,respectively, ranged_from 42' 1
percentto 32.2percent. These types of investigationsoffer yet another tool for usein
estimating p"uk flo*r, and allow the hydrologist to evaluate floods by site-specific
conditionsversusmore uncertain regionalparameters'
RegionalRainfallCharacteristics
The variation of rainfall frequencieswith duration was introduced in Chapter 2'
Regressionanalysiscan be usedto I
thoseshownin ChaPter15, and the
Many formulashavebeenusedin t
a form with intensity(i) inverselypt
of the form i : AIQ + B) to fit
constantsA andB thereforeserveascharacteristicfeaturesof both the rainfall region
and the frequencyof occurrencein eacharea'
728 CHAPTER27 FREQUENCYANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 27.7
Fit the following rainfall datato determinethe 10-yearintensity-duration-frequency
curve.
Solution
depthrelation showninFig.27.7.
c 100
N
o
F
o
24ft
'a 9u
6hr
\\ 3hr
t 8 0
F
e 'ro lhr
mln
q
\
* 6 0
b - "
50
150 350 400
Area(mi2)
Figare 27,7 Area-depth curves for use with duration frequency
values.(U.S. WeatherBureau.)
FREQUENCY
27.4 REGIONAL ANALYSIS 729
The accuracyof arearainfall data dependshedvily on the densityand location
of gaugesthroughoutthe areaconsidered.The simpleaveragingof the accumulation
in all gaugesgivesno considerationof the effectiveareaaround eachgaugeor to the
stormpattern.Two methodsare availablein calculatingthe weightedaverageof gauge
records, the Thiessen polygon method and the isohyetal method. The Thiessen
methodassumesa linear variation of rainfall betweeneachpair of gauges.Perpendic-
ular bisectorsof the connectinglines form polygonsaround each gauge(or partial
polygonswithin the areaboundary).If a sufficientnumberof gaugesare availableto
constructcontoursof rainfall depth (isohy.ets),the weightingprocesscan be carried
out by using the averagedepth betweenisohyetsand the area includedbetweenthe
isohyetsand the areaboundaries.Figure 27.8 showsboth schemes.
An exampleof the effect of gaugelocation and density is shown inFig.27.9.
Figure 27.9ashowsthe increasein variability betweenThiessen-weighted stormrain-
falls and rainfall at a singlegaugeas the distanceof singlegaugesfrom the watershed
centerincreases.Figure 27.9b showsthe effect of gaugedensityand total areaon the
standarderror of the mean.Completestudiesof precipitationpatternsoverlargeareas
requiredetailedanalysisof depth-area-duration datathat dependon the masscurves
of accumulationfrom a network of gauges.The methodis describedin detail in other
references.23-25. Figure 27.I0 depictsthe depth-area relation for the 24-hr storm
shownin Fig. 27.8.It also required observationstaken at variousdurationsand the
successivedeterminationof averagedepthsby the isohyetalmethod.
(a) (b)
Figure 27.8 Methods of determiningrainfall averages:(a) Thiessennetwork (24-hr total;
averagebasin precipitation = 2.54 in.) and (b) isohyetal map (24-hr total; averagebasin
precipitation = 2.50 in.), The arithmetic averageover the basin = 39.10/15 * 2.61 in.
730 OHAPTER27 FREQUENCYANALYSIS
H U.+
>.=
O F
(n
n
H
6
6
b 9
g R
500
(mi2)
Areapergauge
(b)
Figure27.9 (a) Relationbetweenthe standarddeviationof the watershed
ill"lH"rffi a4tlt,ililliT,i',l:##-:":::
:1111i:ifli'ffi
cipitation as a function of the network density and drainageare for the
Muskingumbasin.(U.S. WeatherBureau')
STUDIES
27.5 RELIABILIWOF FREQUENCY
A significantdevelopmentof theoretical statisticsis the central limit theorem.As a
.on*-rqu"n"" of the law of large numbers,the central limit theorem statesthat for a
populationwith finite varianceoz anda meanp, the distributionof samplemeans-
itrut ir, a numberof equally good meansfrom repeatedsamples-will be distributed
themselvesas a normal disiribution with meanp, anda varianceequalto a2fn, where
or is the population standard deviation. This theorem does not limit the type of
under$ing population distributionbut saysthat the distribution of the sampl" *9-uts
will approacha normal distribution as the samplesizeincreases.The statisticalY n
is the siandarddeviationof the distributionof meansand is called lhe standarderror
27.5 RELIABILIWOF FREQUENCYSTUDIES 731
9 z
o
00
< 1
their
of the mean. Listed in Table 27.6 are severalparametersof distributionsand
and therefore reliability, are
standard errors. It is apparent that standard errors,
almost completelya function of the samplesize'
ConfidenceLimits
based
It is possibleto placeconfidencelimits on the measurementof a samplemean
of the underlying population'
on the normal distribution of all meansand regardless
variate
As mentionedearlier,approximatelytwo thirds of the observationsof a normal
- deviation' Therefore,two thirds
shouldfall betweentheiimits of + i and 1 standard
limits +olfi. The 95 percent
of all sample means should occur between the
confidencelimits for the mean are
ment requires knowledgeof the u
only s2insteadof o2 is known and
confidencelimits for a samPlemeat
For more
the use of samplingdistributionsthat are beyond the scope of this text.
hypothesis testing and
information in ine neta of inferential statistics-in particular,
statisticaldecisiontheory-the readermust turn to other sources.
Approximateerror limits or control cufvescan be placedon freqlency curves.
curve
metdd proposedby Beardsinvolvesplacinglines aboveand below the fitted
TABLE27.6
Measure error
Standard
Mean "/{!_
Standarddeviation a/\/2n
Coefficientof variation c,\/r + zcl/vzn
x6t" - D/tn + l)(n - 2\(n + 3)
Coefficient of skewness
732 CHAPTER2T FREQUENCYANALYSIS
Nate: Tabular valuesare multiples ofthe standarddeviation of the variate. Five percent error limits are addedto the
flood value from the fitted curve at the sameexceedancefrequency and the sum plotted. Ninety-five percent limits
are subtractedfrom the flood value at the sameexceedancefrequency. Log values are added or subtractedbefore
antilogging and plotting.
EXAMPLE 27.8
The maximum annual instantaneousflows from the Maury River near Lexington,
Virginia, for a26-yearperiod are listed in Table 27.8.
Plot the log-PearsonIII curve of best fit and determinethe magnitudeof the
flood to be equaledor exceededonce in 5, 10, 50, and 100 years.Using Table 27.7,
also plot the upper and lower confidencelimits.
Arithmetic Log
0.01
0.05
0.1
0.2
Log-Pearson
0.5 IIIFit
1
2
5
V
F t 0
g r o ',;/
d
I
-
bo 30
"
:l
t.,
? + o
d
5r)
'"
360
9" 70
d
t
6 a o a
o
o . 9 0 /-
a,
95
98
99
99.8
99.9
99.99
r 2 4 6 1 0 2 0 4 0 6 0 1 0 0
Annualmaximum (1000cfs)
discharge
Figure 27.11 Maximum instantaneous annual flows, Maury River,
Lexington,Virginia.
734 CHAPTER2T FREQUENCYANALYSIS
TABLE 27,9
(t: 4.001)
Chance / (c" = 0.38) (sy= 0'227)
('/") (vr) K y + Ksy: logQ
SERIES
ANALYSISOF PARTIALDURATION
27.6 FREQUENCY
In earlier examplesof frequency analysis,only the seriesof annual maximum or
minimum occurrencesin the hydrologicrecord havebeen described.Theseextremes
constitutean annual series thal is consistentwith frequencyanalysisand the manip-
ulation of annualprobabilitiesof occurrence.All the observeddata-say, all floods
or all the daily streamflows-would constitutea completeseries.Any subsetof the
completeseriesis a partial series.In selectingthe maximumannualeventsfrom a
record, it often happensthat the secondgreatesteventin one year exceedsthe annual
maximum in some other year. Analysis of the annual seriesneglectssuch events.
Although they generally contain the same number of events,the extreme values
analyzedwithout regardfor the period (i.e., year)of occurrence,is usuallytermedthe
partial duration series.
In Table27.10 themaximumrainfall depthsthat occurredfor any 30-min period
duringexcessive rainfallsat Baltimore,Maryland,1.945-1954,areshownin the order
of occurrence. The 65 observations representa completeseries,The 11 maximum
annual eventsare underlined and represent the annual series.the greatest11 events
throughoutthe record are identifiedby an asteriskand representthe partial duration
series.
The larger numbersoccur in both series,and hencerecurrenceintervalsfor the
less-frequenteventsare the same.The theoreticaldifferencesin recurrenceintervals
based on annual and partial duration series of the same length are shown in
TabIe27.Il. The differencefor intervalsgreaterthan 10 years is negligible.The
following exampleis illustrative.
EXAMPLE 27.9
Performa frequencyanalysisof the 30-min Baltimore rainfall data in Table27.L0 as
an annual and apafiial duration seriesand plot the results.
Solution. SeeTable27.I2. The data are plottedin Fig' 27'1'2. r r
DURATION
OF PARTIAL
ANALYSIS
27.6 FREQUENCY SERIES 735
RAINFALL
TABLEi7.1O MMIMUM3O-MIN DEPTHS, MD,1945_1954
BALTIMORE,
RF RF
Storm depth Storm depth
Year num0er (in.) Year number (in.)
Nole: Underlineditems are the annual series.Asterisks identify the partial duration series.
TABLE27.1'I RELATIONBETWEEN
THE
PARTIAL
DURATION
SERIES
ANDTHEANNUALSERIES
Recurrenceinterval(yr)
Partialdurationseries Annualseries
0.5 t.2
1.0 1.6
1.5 2.0
2.0 2.5
5.0 5.5
10.0 10.5
736 CHAPTER2T FREQUENCYANALYSIS
TABLE27.12
Recurrence
Depth(in.)
interval
Annual series Partial series (n + 1)/m
1 2.50 2.50 12
z 2.04 2.04 6
A
J 1.53 1.53
i
1.33 1.33 J
5 1.30 1.30 A A
6 1.27 1.27 z
/^
2.5
.i
E t <
0)
E >-P
_x--
t 1.0
d
IzAnnta series
1.01 1.r1.21.1
3.5 2, 3 4 5 678910 20
Recunenceinterval (Yr)
27.t Expand the computerprogram of Problem 26.12 to include the computationof the
mean,standarddeviation;and skewnesscoefflcientofthe logarithmsofthe input data.
Also, include a routine to sort the data by placing them in descendingorder and
computethe correspondingplotting positions.verify, usiiig the datain Ptoblem27.4.
27.g, perform a completefrequencyanalysison one of the three 33-yearrecordsgiven in
the tablebelow.Fit a Pearsontype III or log-PearsonIII and comparewith the normal
or log-normal ofbest fit. Plot the dataand placecontrol curvesaroundthe theoretical
curve of best flt usins.Table27.7.
27.18. *Using Eqs. 26.38 and 26.39 and log-probability paper, solve Problems27.16 and
27.17 assumingthat the annual precipitation is log-normal.
27.19. Given the following valuesof peak flow ratesfor a small stre.am,determinethe return
period (years)for a flood of 100 cfs by flrst using annual peaksfor an annual series
and then using all the data for a partial duration series.
a. Determine the return period (years) for a depth of 2.0 in. using the california
method with an annual series.
b. RepeatPart (a) using a partial duration serles.
c. Determinefrom the partial duration seriesthe depth of 30-min rain expectbdto be
equaledor exceeded(on the average)once every 8 years.
27.21. For a 60-yearrecord of precipitation intensitiesand durations,a 30-min intensity of
2.50 in.lhr was equaledor exceededa total of 85 times. Al1 but 5 of the 60 years
experiencedone or more 30-min intensitiesequaling or exceedingthe 2.50-in./hr
value.Use the Weibull formula to determinethe return period of this intensity using
(a) a paltial seriesand (b) an annual series.
744 CHAPTER ANALYSIS
27 FREQUENCY
27,22. from the data given in the accompanyingtable of low flows, prepare a set of low-flow
frequency curves for the daily, weekly, and monthly durations.
LOWESTMEANDISCHARGE(cfs)FORTHE
FOLLOWINGNUMBEROFCONSECUTIVE
DAYS,MAURYRIVERNEARBUENAVISTA,
VIRGINIA
27.23. For the 7-day low flows at Buena Vista given in Problem 27.22, attempt to fit a
straight-linefrequencycurve on log-normalor extreme-valueprobability paper' pro-
ceedingas follows:From the original plot of the data, estimatethe lowestflow (say;4)
- q:
at the high recurrenceintervals;subtractthis flow from all observedflows (Q
Qr); and rcplot Qr versusthe original recurrenceintervals.Repeatif necessary.The
best fittiBg curve will be a three-parameterfrequencydistribution.
PROBLEMS 745
Intensity(in./hr)
Duration
(min) 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
'73 48 2I o 2
5
10 68 51 26 l1 3 I
15 72 3s LJ 11 I
30 29 l7 7 3 I
60 1 5 6 2 1
120 8 l
27.25. The resultsof a multiple regressionanalysisof over 200 flood recordsin Virginia led
. to the following regional flood frequencyequations:
Qt'z'v': 9'l3AeoeS2e3
Qzzt-v':20'84861S30e
3oo
Qs'v,: 38'1A83oS
283
Qn', : 63'0A8o2S
: 104A71e5266
Qzs-v,
: l18A7esS21e
Qso'v'
whefe the flood dischargefor the given frequencyis in cfs, A is the drainageareain
mi2, and S is the channeislopein ftlmi (measuredbetweenthe points that are 10 and
g5 percent of the total rivei miles upstreamof the gauging station to the drainage
diviAe;. Devise a method for graphically portraying theseregional flood frequency
relations.(Note that there are four factors,Q, T, A' and S')
27.26. Using the regressionequationsin Problem 2'1.25, flnd the predicted floods for the
North Fork, shenandoa-h River, at cootes Store.Drainage atea : 215 mi2and chan-
:
nel slope 44.3 ftlmi.
27.27. Comparethe predictions from the regressionequationsin Problem 27 '25 with the
:
valuesestimatedby the frequencyanafsis inqxample27.8. Drainageatea 487 fii2
:
and channelsloPe 2I.l ftltrl'l.
21.28. Referringto Fig. 2.6b, comparethe averagestorm rainfall over the city of Baltimore
on SeptemberI0, Ig57, computedby the isohyetalmethod, with the simpleaverage
of total accumulationat the riin gaugeswithin the city. Neglectthe areato the south
of the 1.0-in.isohYet'
27,29. Fit the forrnula i : AIQ + B) to the data derived in Problem 21.24 for the 5-year
intensity-duration-frequency curve.
746 27 FREQUENCYANALYSIS
CHAPTER
27.30. Deielop a regional flood index curve for the RappahannockRiver basin from the flood
frequency data given in the following table:
27.31. From the information given in Problem 27.30, find the relation betweenthe mean
annual flow and the drainagearea.(Note that the functional expressionshouldbe of
the form Qz.zz: rA".)
27.32. Using the resultsof Problems27.30 and27.3l, estima{ethe 30-yearflood for an
ungaugedwatershedwith a drainagearcaof 540 mi2.
27.33. Annual flood recordsfor a lO-yearperiod are given by:
5 6 7 o 10
Year 1 2 3 4 6
Flood 300 700 200 400 1000 900 800 500 100 600
Mean : 550 cfs, median : 550 cfs, standarddeviation : 300 cfs. Use an annual
seriesand the definition offrequency in a frequencyanalysisto determinethe magni-
tude of the 4-yearflood. Comparethis historicalvaiuewith the analytical4-yearflood
obtained assuminsfloods follow a normal distribution.
PROBLEMS 747
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6
Runoff (cfs) 200 800 500 600 400 500
21.37. Annual floodsfor a streamare normally distributedwith a mean of 30,000 cfs and a
varianceof I x 106cfs2.Determinethe average returnperiodT,of a32,000-cfsflood
in the stream.
27.38. Annual floodsfor a streamhavea normal frequencydistribution.The 2-yearflood is
40,000cfs and the l0-year flood is 52,820cfs.Determinethe magnitudeof the 25-year
flood.
27.39. The 80-yearrecord of annual precipitation at Linclon, Nebraska,yields a range of
valuesbetween10 and 50 in. with a meanannualvalueof 25.00 in. and a standard
deviationof 5.30 in. Becauseannualprecipitationrepresentsa sum of many random
variables(i.e., depth of precipitation for eachday of the year), assumethat annual
precipitation is normally distributed.
a. In 1936 the precipitation at Lincoln was a mere 14 in. Determinethe probability
that the annual precipitation will be 14 in. or lessnext year.
b. In 1965Lincoln received42 in. On the average,this amountwould be equaledor
exceededonce in how many years?
c. Comparethe theoreticaland apparentreturn periods of the record-highvalue of
50.00in.
27.40. Annual floods (cfs) at a particular site on a river follow a zero-skew log-Pearson
Type III distributions.If the mean of logarithms(base 10) of annual floods is 2.946
and the standarddeviationof base-10 logarithmsis 1.000,determinethe magnitude
of the 50-yearflood.
27,41,. Annual floods (cfs) at a particular site on a river follow a zero-skew log-Pearson
Type Illdistribution.Ifthemeanoflogarithms(base10)of annualfloodsis1.733and
the standarddeviationof base-l0logarithms is L.420,determinetfe magnitudeof the
10O-year flood.
27.42 The 100-yearrecord for a drainagebasin gives 10- and 5O-yearflood magnitudesof
12,500 and22,000 cfs. Determinethe magnitudeof the mean annual flood if (a) the
flood peaksfollow the index-flood curve of Fig. 27.4c atd (b) the flood peaksfollow
a Gumbel extreme-valuedistribution.
748 CHAPTER27 FREQUENCYANALYSIS
*The
27.43. following parameters were computed for a stream:
REFERENCES
t . M. A. Benson,"Plotting Positionsand Economicsof EngineeringPlanning,"Proc. ASCE
J. Hyd. Div. 88057-71(Nov. 1962).
L I. Gringorten,"A Plotting Rule for ExtremeProbability Paper,"J. Geoplrys.Res'68(3),
8 1 3 - 8 1 4 ( F e b1. 9 6 3 ) .
ucENoftp.*
l l
* *l*
--)
.J$
^ " : 1- ' .
!
I
, ]
i
t \ I
Slrip
I I
\l
Sketch for Problem 27.46
750 CHAPTER2TFREQUENCYANALYSIS
3. VerfT. Chow, "A General Formula for Hydrologic FrequencyAnalysis," Trans. Am.
Geophys. Union 32, 231-237 (1951).
4. Water ResourcesCouncil, Hydrology Committee, "Guidelines:for Determining Flood
Frequency,"Bulletin 17B, (Revised)U.S. Water ResourcesCouncil, Washington,D.C.,
Sept.,1981.
5. L. R. Beard, Statistical Methods in Hydrology, Civil Works Investigations,U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers,SacramentoDistrict, 1962.
6. A. Hazen, Flood Flows. New York: Wiley, 1930.
7. V. T. Chow, "Statistical and Probability Analyqisof Hydrologic Data," in Handbookof
Applied Hydrology.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
8. P. Victorov, "Effect of Period of Record on Flood Prediction," Proc. ASCE J. Hyd. Div.
97(Nov.1971).
9. L. R. Beard, Statistical Methodsin Hydrology, Civil Works Investigations;Sacramento
District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,1962.
10. M. A. Benson and N.C. Matalas, "Synthetic Hydrology Based on Regional Statistical
Parameters, " Water Re
sources Res. 3(4)(1967).
11. N. C. Matalas,"MathematicalAssessment of SyntheticHydrology," WaterResourcesRes.
3(4)(re67).
12. Yet T. Chow, "Statistical and Probability Analysis of Hydrologic Data," Sec. 8-I, in
Handbookof Applied Hydrology (V. T. Chow, ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
13. T. Dalrymple, "Flood-FrequencyAnalysis,"Manual of Hydrology,Part 3, U.S. Geological
$urveyWater-SupplyPaper1543=A.Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Offlce,
1960.
14. G. M. Fair,J. C. Geyer,andD. A. Okun,WaterandWasteWaterEngineerlng. New York:
Wiley, 1966.
15. "Monthly Stream Simulation," Hydrologic EngineeringCenter, ComputerProgram23-
C-L267, SacramentoDistrict, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,July 1967.
16. R.W.CruffandS.E.Rantz,"AComparisonofMethodsUsedinFloodFrequencyStudies
for CoastalBasinsin California," Flood Hydrology,U.S.G.S.Water Supply Paper 1580:
Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1965.
17. W. D. Potter, "Peak Ratesof Runoff from Small Watersheds,"Hydraulic Design Series
No. 2, Bureau of Public Roads,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Offlce,
Apr. 1961.
18. U.S. GeologicalSurvey, "Technique for Estimating the Magnitude and Frequencyof
Floods in Texas," WaterResourcesInvestigationsReport 77 -110, 7977.
t9. M. E. Jennings,W. O. Thomas, Jr., and H. C. Riggs, "Nationwide Summary of U.S.
GeologicalSurvey's RegionalRegressionEquationsfor Estimating Magnitude and Fre-
quencyof Floodsat UngaugedSites,"U.S.G.S.WRI 93-1, Reston,VA, 1993.
20. U.S. Geological Survey, "Selected Streamflow Characteristicsas Related to Channel
Geometry of Perennial Streamsin Colorado," Open-File Report 12-160, Water Re-
sourcesDivision, Lakewood,Colorado,May 1972.
2 r . E. W. Steel,l{ater Supplyand Sewerage,4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960.
22. D. M. Hershfield,"Rainfall FrequencyAtlas of the United States,"Tech.PaperNo. 40,
U.S. WeatherBureau.1961.
23. HydrologyHandbook, ASCE Manual of Practice,No. 28, 1949.
24. W. G. Knisel, Jr.,and R. W Baird, in Al?SPrecipitation Facilities and RelatedStudies.
Washington,D.C.: U.S. Departmentof Agriculture, Agricultural ResearchService,1971,
Chap.14,
, \ R. K. Linsley, Jr., M. A, Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus,Applied llydrology. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1949.
Appendixes
A
APPENDIX:
TABLEA.1 WATERPROPERTIES.
CONSTANTS. FACTORS
ANDCONVERSION
Sl Units
Heat of Kinematic Vaporpressure
Temperature Specific Density vaporization viscosity
fC) gravity (o/cm1 (cal/g) (cs) (mmHg) (mb) (g/cm')
B
APPENDIX:
,<,t=1,f:*"*'"t'a,
01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .o7 08 .09
0.0 .0000 .0040 .0080 .0120 .0159 .0199 .0239 .0279 .0319 .0359
0.1 .0398 .0438 .0478 .0517 .0557 .0596 .0636 .0675 .07t4 .0753
0.2 .0793 .0832 .0871 .0910 .0948 .0987 .1026 .1064 .1103 .rr4r
0.3 .1179 .1217 .1255 .1293 .1331 .1368 .1406 .1443 .1480 .1517
0.4 .t554 .1591 .1628 .1664 .1700 .1736 .r772 .1808 .1844 .1879
0.5 .1915 .1950 .1985 .2019 .2054 .2088 .2123 .21,57 .2190 .2224
0.6 .2257 .2291, .2324 .2357 .2389 .2422 .2454 .2486 .2518 .2549
0.7 .2580 .2611 .2642 .2673 .2704 .2734 .2'764 .2794 .2823 .2852
0.8 .2881 .2910 .2939 .2967 .2995 .3023 .3051 .3078 .3106 .3133
0.9 .3159 .3186 .3212 .3238 .3264 .3289 .33t5 .3340 .3365 .3389
r.0 .3413 .3438 .3461 .3485 .3508 .3531 .3s54 .3577 .3599 .3621
1.1 .3643 .3665 .3686 .3708 .3729 .3749 .3770 .3790 .3810 .3830
r.2 .3849 .3869 .3888 .390'7 .3925 .3944 .3962 .3980 .3997 .4015
r.3 .4032 .4049 .4066 .4082 .4099 .4115 .4t3t .4147 .4162 .4177
r.4 .4192 .4207 .4222 .4236 .4251 .4265 .4279 .4292 .4306 .4319
1.5 .4332 .4345 .4357 .4370 .4382 .4394 .4406 .4418 .4430 .444r
r.6 .4452 .4463 .44't4 .4485 .4495 .4505 .4515 .4525 .4535 .4545
r.7 .4554 .4564 .4573 .4582 .459r .4599 .4608 .4616 .4625 .4633
1.8 .4641 .4649 .4656 .4664 .467r .4678 .4686 .4693 .4699 .4606
r.9 .4713 .4719 .4' 126 .4732 .4738 .4744 .4750 .4756 .4762 .4767
2.0 .4772 .4778 .4783 .4788 .4793 .4798 .4803 .4808 .4812 .4817
2.1 .4821 .4826 .4830 .4834 .4838 .4842 .4846 .4850 .4854 .4857
2.2 .486r .4865 .4868 .487r .4875 .48"18 .4881 .4884 .4887 .4890
z-5 .4893 .4896 .4898 .490r .4904 .4906 .4909 .4911 .4913 .4916
2.4 .4918 .4920 .4922 .4925 .4927 .4929 .4931 .4932 .4934 .4936
2.5 .4938 .4940 .4941 .4943 .4945 .4946 .4948 .4949 .4951 .4952
2.6 .4953 .4955 .4956 .4957 .4959. .4960 .4961 .4962 .4963 .4964
2.7 .4965 .4966 .4967 .4968 .4969 .4970 .4971 .49' 72 .4973 .4974
2.8 .4974 .49:15 .4976 .49'77 .4977 .49'78 .4979 .4980 .4980 .498r
2.9 .498t .4982 .4983 .4983 .4984 .4984 .4985 .4985 .4986 .4986
3.0 .4987 .4987 .4987 .4988 .4988 .4989 .4989 .4989 .4990 .4990
3.1 .4990 .4991 .4991 .499r .4992 .4992 .4992 .4992 .4993 .4993
J.Z .4993 .499? .4994 .4994 .4994 .4994 .4994 .4995 .4995 .4995
5.5 .4995 .4995 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4997
3.4 .4997 .499't .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4998 .4998
4.0 .499968
(for
Source:AfrerC. E. Weatherburn,Mathematical Statistics.London: CambridgeUniversity Press,1957
z : 0 to z : 3,1); C. H. Richardson,An Intoduction to Statistical Analysis. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich.1994(for z = 3.2to z: 3.4); A. H. Bowker and G. J. Lieberman,EngineeringStatistics.
Eagl€wooGCliffs,Nf: Prentice-Hall, 1959 (for z : 4.0 and 5.0)'
o o\ a.. cn € c{ d r) $ N co cn F. o\ o o oo h -l r) 0\ n c..l co ar n q\ \o !! o \o
u? F - < xt - r) € J Ri F cr, N \c) 6 ; N + \O r 6 O - c{ 6 q) \O r-- F.
o\ 6 € F F- \o h n + a. o N i$ c) o\ o\ 6 r \o n + + - o.l - !.
Q
$
o € \ \o n
t $ + * $ S + + r+ st sf $ * < o m,cn o o co o co o o cn cn c{ al al d cn
- o cO al O\ r) O cn h \O rn cO cr\ S cO O : t O\ F- N F- rr $ n I h 1t E.l Q \O
n r- J
- + - O (j
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