CELL THEORY AND CELL

LESSON 1 ORGANELLES
WEEK 1

KNOWLEDGE
ENRICHMENT

A. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 State and explain the cell theory.
 Trace the development of cell theory
 Recognize the personalities behind the development of the cell theory.
 Describe the structure and function of major and subcellular organelles.
 Determine the role of each organelle and explain how it relates to the
function of the other organelles.
 Appreciate the importance of cell theory in studying biology.

B. INTRODUCTION
This module will explain the core concepts of cell biology. As you go through
this module, you will be able to understand the basic structure of all organisms.
This will also show, how cell theories serve as the stepping stone in knowing life
about the role of organelles in the overall function of the cell. There’s a lot of fun
activities that will help you develop your understanding on the basic concepts of
Biology.

C. LESSON PROPER
THE CELL THEORY
A cell is a basic unit in every living organism. This is also considered to be the
smallest structure capable of maintaining and reproducing life. They are
composed of all living things, from single-celled plants to multi-billion celled
animals. The human body, which is made up of numerous cells, begins as a
single, newly fertilized cell. Precisely the level of organization in a living
organism cannot be complete without the onset of this basic unit structure, which
specifies the starting point of life, where both plants and animals adhere to this.
In 1665, Robert Hooke was able to observe in a piece of cork specimen structures
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that appear as tiny compartments similar to small rooms that are fitted to each
other. Hooke coined the word “cell” to describe these chamber-like structures
and later become famous. Hooke thought that the only plants and fungi were the
only ones made up of cells.
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1676) published his observations on tiny living
organisms which he named animalcules and he was the first to observe the
structure of red blood cells of different animals as well as a sperm cell.
One of the living botanists in his time Robert Brown in 1831 was able to
compare diverse kinds of plant specimens under the microscope. He markedly
indicated that there is one common thing about them-they are all composed of
cells, and inside the cells is a dark dense spot which he termed as the nucleus. A
few years later, German botanist Matthias Schleiden (1838) concluded that all
plant parts are made of cells.
Theodor Schwann (1839) also a botanist and a close friend of Schleiden, stated
that all animal tissues are composed of cells, too. In 1858, Rudolf Virchow
concluded that all cells come from pre-existing cells.
The discoveries made by Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow,
and others led to the formulation of the cell theory. The cell theory is universal
for all living things, no matter how simple or complex, tiny or huge it is. This
theory can be summed up into three basic components: (1) all living organisms
are composed of one or more cells; (2) the cell is the basic unit of life in all living
things; and (3) all cells come from pre-existing cells.
The three postulates of the cell theory offer the basis on how an object is
considered as a living thing. All living things are fundamentally made up of
cells; this entails no exception no matter how simple or complex that organism is
or to what environment it is exposed to or what course evolution it has gone
through. An organism can be unicellular (one-celled) or multicellular. A single-
celled organism can perform all the essential functions which enable it to grow,
survive, and reproduce. Multicellular organisms are more complex in structure
and function but the mechanism on how it can live is still the same with the
simple life forms. Strongly related to this is the second postulate which states
that the cell is the basic unit of life. The cell operates similarly to a complete
machine that has many compartments that perform different but interested and
interconnected functions. The cell is a completely functional entity that possesses
characteristics that distinguish from inanimate objects. Finally, all cells come
from pre-existing cells, which signifies that the cells cannot be spontaneously
created but it will always be a product of reproduction from a preexisting cell

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Ooops! Take a deep breath. Relax for a while. What?! Do you want to move on? All
right, your wish is granted! You may continue. Are you enjoying the module? I hope so.
If yes, well and good! Hold on! We will now take the path to the next lesson. Keep on
having fun as you learn!
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
Major parts of the cell

 Cell membrane or plasma membrane– the outer boundary of the cell.

 Nucleus – the control center of the cell.
 Cytoplasm – the material between the cell membrane and the nucleus.

Table 1.0 components and functions of cell organelles

Cell
Function
Component

Separates cell from external environment; controls

Plasma
passage of organic molecules, ions, water, oxygen, and
membrane
wastes into and out of the cell

Provides structure to cell; site of many metabolic

Cytoplasm
reactions; medium in which organelles are found

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 Cell
Function
Component

Nucleoid Location of DNA

Cell organelle that houses DNA and directs synthesis of

Nucleus
ribosomes and proteins

Ribosomes Protein synthesis

Mitochondria ATP production/cellular respiration

Oxidizes and breaks down fatty acids and amino acids,

Peroxisomes
and detoxifies poisons

Vesicles and
Storage and transport; digestive function in plant cells
vacuoles

Unspecified role in cell division in animal cells; source of

Centrosome
microtubules in animal cells

Digestion of macromolecules; recycling of worn-out

Lysosomes
organelles

Protection, structural support and maintenance of cell

Cell wall
shape

Chloroplasts Photosynthesis

Endoplasmic
Modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids
reticulum

Golgi Modifies, sorts, tags, packages, and distributes lipids and

apparatus proteins

Cytoskeleton Maintains cell’s shape, secures organelles in specific

positions, allows cytoplasm and vesicles to move within
the cell, and enables unicellular organisms to move

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 Cell
Function
Component

independently

Flagella Cellular locomotion

Cellular locomotion, movement of particles along

Cilia
extracellular surface of plasma membrane, and filtration

For the detailed information about each organelles, please visit the link
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-nmbiology1/chapter/outcome-organelles/

The Cell as a Factory

Now that you
have read about
how each part of
the cell functions,
let’s look at how
the whole cell
works. In some
respects, a
eukaryotic cell is
very much like a
factory building.
Although cells
perform many
different
functions, one of the most important jobs carried out in the cellular “Factory” is
making proteins.
Fig 1.9 shows how manufacturing proteins in the cells is like manufacturing a
product in a factory. The walls and the roof of a factory building supported by steel
or concrete beams and column. Some cells also have a supporting structure
called the cytoskeleton. A factory needs a transportation system to move parts and
machines from one end of the building to the other. In the same way, this is the
same function of the cytoskeleton.
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In a factory, there’s a lot of doors with a security guard that ensures the safety of
the factory. The cell membrane performs the same function as doors and security
guards because this organelle control what comes in and out inside the cells.
The chief executive officer or the CEO controls a large factory, the nucleus is the
CEO of the cell. In a factory the CEO sends instruction out to the factory floor the
cytoplasm it contains the organelles; site of most cell activity. In a factory, the CEO
sends
instructions out to the factory floor. In a cell, the nucleus sends a steady stream of
RNA and other information-carrying molecules to the rest of the cell. RNA
contains an instruction that tells the cell what type of protein to make. The
instruction travels to the ribosome. Each ribosome is like a factory worker or
machine turning out proteins on orders that its “boss” the nucleus. The rough
endoplasmic reticulum where the ribosome located, meaning it’s where the protein
and other molecules are made. The Rough ER is like a factory assembly line
because this is the place where the ribosome made a protein or where the worker
makes the product.
From the ribosomes, a protein will be released from the cell move to the Golgi
apparatus, which attached carbohydrates and lipids to them to prepare the
proteins for their roles. The Golgi apparatus is a bit like a factory customization
shop, where the finishing touches are put on the product before they are ready to
leave the factory. From the Golgi apparatus, proteins are then shipped to their
final destination. A factory needs a large stock room for their product and other
supply just like a cell has a vacuole which performed the same function as storage
of water and other nutrients.
The factory needs to maintain and ensure the cleanliness of the working area, in
a cell, the lysosomes serve as a maintenance crew breaking down the trash and
handle the movement of trash. Only one thing remains to complete the picture of
the cell factory, a source of energy. A cell cannot be hooked up to local power
companies, of course so they get their energy supply form two organelles namely
mitochondria and chloroplast.

SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

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GENERAL INSTRUCTION: All answers for the Activities, Application,
Assessment and Character Enhancement are to be written in the CSTC green
booklet and NOT on the module itself 😃

ACTIVITY 1.1
Instruction: Using the table below as a pattern, write a historical timeline on the
development of cell theory. (10 points)

NAME OF THE CONTRIBUTION TO THE

DATE
SCIENTIST DEVELOPMENT OF CELL THEORY

Example: Robert Hooke 1665 He was able to observe in a piece of cork specimen
structures that appear as tiny compartments
similar to small rooms that are fitted to each
other. Hooke coined the word “cell” to describe
these chamber-like structures and later become
famous.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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ACTIVITY 1.2
Instruction: Complete each analogy. (2 points each)
Example:

QUESTION: Ribosomes: Protein synthesis: _______________: breaks down

fatty acids and amino acids, and detoxifies poisons

ANSWER: Ribosomes: Protein synthesis: Peroxisomes: breaks down fatty acids

and amino acids, and detoxifies poisons.

1. Cytoplasm: Provides structure to cell: ________________: Separates cell from

external environment.

2. Nucleoid: _____________________: Ribosomes: Protein synthesis

3. Vesicles: Storage and transport_______________: Protection, structural support

and maintenance of cell shape.

4. Golgi apparatus: ________________________________: Cytoskeleton: Maintains

cell’s shape, secures organelles in specific positions.

5. ___________: tail like structure: Cilia: a hair like structure.

6. Anton Van Leewenhoek: animalcules: Robert Hooke : _____________

7. 1838: concluded that all plant parts are made of cells: ________:Cells come
from pre-existing cells.

8. Cell membrane: Outer boundary of the cell: _____________: the control center
of the cell.

9. Nucleoid: Location of DNA:________________________:ATP

production/cellular respiration

10. Matthias Schleiden: Concluded that all plant parts are made of cells:
______________________ stated that all animal tissues are composed of cells

ASSESSMENT

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Instruction: Read each question carefully. Write only the letter of the correct
answer.
1. What is the basic unit of life?
A. Cell
B. Nucleus
C. Nucleolus
D. Ribosomes
2. What is the device used by scientist, that led them to the development of the
cell theory?
A. Antiseptics
B. Eyeglasses
C. Microscope
D. Telescope
3. Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE about cell theory?
A. All living things are made of cells
B. Cells come from existing cells
C. All cells contain the same organelles
D. Cells are the basic structure and function in all living things.

4. Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE about the cell theory?

A. A cell is the basic unit of life.

B. All cell arise from pre-existing cells.
C. All cell arise spontaneously.
D. All living organisms are made up of cells
5. Who was the first person to see cells under the microscope and give them a
name?
A. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek C. Robert Hooke
B. Matthias Schleiden D. Theodore Schwann

6. Which of the following characteristics can an organism be alike?

A. All living things are made of cell and come from other cells.

B. All living things is consist of only one cell.

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 C. All cells of living things have chloroplast.

D. All living things can move.

7. Which of the following is NOT considered a major part of the cell?

A.

B. Cell membrane D. Cytoskeleton

C. Cytoplasm E. Nucleus

8. What is the main function of the cell membrane?

A. The cell membrane is where the organelles are suspended

B. The cell membrane is the main source of energy of the cell.
C. The cell membrane's main function is to produce proteins needed for
cell activities.
D. The cell membrane acts as a gatekeeper, controls, and ensures the
movement of substance in and out of the cell.

9. Why cell membrane is selectively permeable?

A. Because having a characteristic of selectively permeable helps the cells

protect themselves from any harmful viruses or bacteria.
B. Because it’s necessary for a cell to allow all molecules and other
substances to enter inside the cells.
C. It helps the cell to produce protein, to sustain the metabolic activities
inside the cells.
D. It helps the cell to maintain its shape and structure.

10. What organelle is considered as the control center of the cells?

A. Cell membrane
B. Endoplasmic Reticulum
C. Mitochondria
D. Nucleus

CHARACTER
ENHANCEMENT

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REFLECTION
Instruction: Answer the question in a maximum of 5 sentences. (10 points)
CRITERIA CORRESPONDING POINTS
Organization of Ideas/Content 5
Clarity of Information 5
TOTAL 10

QUESTION: What is the importance of cell theory in studying biolog

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 LESSON 2 CELL TYPES
WEEK
2
KNOWLEDGE
ENRICHMENT

A. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 Distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells according to their
distinguishing features.
 Classify different cell types (plants/animals) and specify the function of
each.

B. INTRODUCTION
This module will help you to understand the structural differences between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. You will need to read independently to gain
background knowledge of the two types of cells, you will be immersed in
various activities and performance tasks that will allow you to explore and
understand the key concept about the differences and similarities of a eukaryotic
and prokaryotic cell. Your final output in this module is to create a model of a
plant or animal and bacterial cell using recycled materials and the expected time
to finish this module is 1 week.
C. LESSON PROPER
PROKARYOTIC CELL
Take a moment and look at yourself. How many organisms did you see? Your
first thought might be that there's just one: yourself. However, if you were to
look closer, at the surface of your skin or inside your digestive tract, you would
see that many organisms are living there. That’s right! you are home to around
100 trillion cells! This means that your body is an ecosystem. It also means that
for some definition of the word you consist of both of the major types of cells:
prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Biologists recognized two main types of cell
prokaryotes (pro meaning “before” and karyon meaning “nut ” which all mean
“before the nut”) and the more complex eukaryotes (Greek eu meaning “true”
and karyon meaning “nut”).
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
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Organisms that have prokaryotic cells are unicellular and are called prokaryotes. 
Prokaryotic cells can be contrasted with more complex eukaryotic cells. . A
prokaryotic cell contains only a single membrane, which surrounds the cell as an
outer membrane. Prokaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller than eukaryotic
cells. The majority of prokaryotic DNA is found in a central region of the cell
called the nucleoid, and it typically consists of a single large loop called a circular
chromosome. A prokaryote reproduces through binary fission, a process that
simply splits duplicated DNA into separate cells. Without any organelles or
complex chromosomes to reproduce, most prokaryotic cells can divide every 24
hours, or even faster
with an adequate
FIG 1. A TYPICAL PROKARYOTIC CELL
supply of food.
Embedded within the
cytoplasm of
prokaryotic cells are chromosomes, ribosomes, and other cytoplasmic particles
The cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell is surrounded by a cell membrane a cell wall
and sometime a capsule or slime layer. Most prokaryotes cell walls and many
have a capsule. The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell
maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. The capsule enables the cell to
attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or
fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion. Pili are used to exchange genetic
material during a type of reproduction called conjugation. Fimbriae are used by
bacteria to attach to a host cell. Prokaryotic DNA is found in a central part of the
cell called the nucleoid. For more information and discussion about prokaryotic
cells, you can click the link https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=LYgpHNiyLKM

EXAMPLES OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS

INSTRUCTION: Before you start reading the topic about bacteria, please
watch the video first. Just visit the link below, Enjoy, Your journey inside the
bacteria cell! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fzIKJpcfXfo 13
1. BACTERIA

What are bacteria?

 Bacteria are single-cell organisms that are neither plants nor animals.
 They usually measure
a few micrometers in
length and exist
together in
communities of
millions.
 A gram of soil
typically contains
about 40 million
bacterial cells. A
milliliter of
freshwater usually FIG 1.0 TYPES OF BACTERIA BASED ON THERE SHAPES
holds about one
million bacterial cells.
 The earth is estimated
to hold at least 5
nonillion bacteria, and
much of the earth’s biomass is thought to be made up of bacteria.

What are the types of bacteria?

There are many different types of bacteria. One way of classifying them is by
shape. There are three basic shapes.

 Spherical: Bacteria shaped like a ball are called cocci, and a single
bacterium is a coccus. Examples include the streptococcus group,
responsible for “strep throat.”

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  Rod-shaped: These are known as bacilli (singular bacillus). Some rod-
shaped bacteria are curved. These are known as vibrio. Examples of rod-
shaped bacteria include Bacillus anthracis (B. anthracis), or anthrax.
 Spiral: These are known as spirilla (singular spirillus). If their coil is very
tight, they are known as spirochetes. Leptospirosis, Lyme disease,
and syphilis are caused by bacteria of this shape.
2. ARCHAEAL CELLS

Archaea are similar in size and shape to bacteria, and they are also unicellular.
Since bacteria and archaea are the two types of prokaryotes, this means that all
prokaryotes are unicellular. Some archaea are found in extreme environments,
such as hot springs, but they can be found in a variety of locations, such as
soils, oceans, marshlands, and inside other organisms, including humans.

Like bacteria, archaea can have a cell wall and flagella. However, the structure of
these organelles is different. For example, archaeal cell walls do not contain
peptidoglycan. In addition, the flagella of archaea work the same way as those of
bacteria, but they evolved from different structures. Membranes of archaea are
very different than those of all other lifeforms; they contain different lipids,
which have a different stereochemistry.

B. EUKARYOTIC CELLS

After we discussed the prokaryotic cells let’s proceed to the next type of cell
which is the eukaryotic cell. Do you still remember some of the characteristics
and structures of eukaryotic cells? To recall your understanding about the topic
let’s go inside the eukaryotic cell.
Eukaryote, any cell or organism that possesses a clearly defined nucleus. The
eukaryotic cell has a nuclear membrane that surrounds the nucleus, in which the
well-defined chromosomes (bodies containing the hereditary material) are
located. Because a eukaryotic cell’s nucleus is surrounded by a membrane, it is
often said to have a “true nucleus”. Examples of eukaryotic cells are plants,
animals, protists, fungi. Eukaryotic cells also contain organelles,
including mitochondria (cellular energy exchangers), a Golgi
apparatus (secretory device), an endoplasmic reticulum (a canal-like system of
membranes within the cell), and lysosomes (digestive apparatus within many
cell types). Nucleus is part of Eukaryotic Cells. The detailed discussion of each

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 organelle is already discussed in module 1. If you forgot some of the key terms, you
can read it again. To watch the video presentation about the general structure of
eukaryotic cell please visit the link https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=xLcwJnTL2WM
EXAMPLES OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS
1. Fungi
Fungi are unicellular or multicellular thick-cell-walled heterotroph decomposers
that eat decaying matter and make tangles of filaments. Fungi have many
commercial applications. The food industry uses yeasts in baking, brewing, and
cheese and winemaking. Many industrial compounds are byproducts of fungal
fermentation. Fungi are the source of many commercial enzymes and antibiotics.
Cell Structure of Fungi

Fungi are eukaryotes and have a complex cellular organization. As eukaryotes,

fungal cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus where the DNA is wrapped around
histone proteins. A few types of fungi have structures comparable to bacterial
plasmids (loops of DNA). Fungal cells also contain mitochondria and a complex
system of internal membranes, including the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus. Unlike plant cells, fungal cells do not have chloroplasts or chlorophyll.
Many fungi display bright colors arising from other cellular pigments. Pigments
in fungi are associated with the cell wall. They play a protective role against
ultraviolet radiation and can be toxic. The rigid layers of fungal cell walls contain
complex polysaccharides called chitin and glucans. Chitin, also found in the
exoskeleton of insects, gives structural strength to the cell walls of fungi. The
wall protects the cell from desiccation and predators. Fungi have plasma
membranes similar to other eukaryotes, except that the structure is stabilized by
ergosterol: a steroid molecule that replaces the cholesterol found in animal cell
membranes. Most members of the kingdom Fungi are nonmotile. For further
reading about fungi you can visit the link
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/characteristics-
of-fungi/

2. Protists
Protists are simple eukaryotic organisms that are neither animals, plants nor
fungi. Protists are unicellular in nature, or they can be found as a colony of cells.
Most protists live in water, damp terrestrial environments, or even as parasites.
The term ‘Protista’ is derived from the Greek word “protistos”, meaning “the very

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 first“.  These organisms are usually unicellular and the cell of these organisms
contains a nucleus that is bound to the organelles. Some of them even possess
structures that aid locomotion like flagella or cilia. To continue reading about
Characteristics of Kingdom Protista and Classification of Protista please visit the
link https://byjus.com/biology/protista/
3.Plant cell and animal cell

Both plant and animal cells are eukaryotic, so they contain membrane-bound
organelles like the nucleus and mitochondria. However, plant cells and animal
cells do not look exactly the same or have all of the same organelles, since they
each have different needs. For example, plant cells contain chloroplasts since
they need to perform photosynthesis, but animal cells do not. To watch a video
comparing animal cell to plant cell please click the link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7iRRDcYKL-M

COMPARISON
CHART FIG 1.3 A PICTURE SHOWING THE ORGANELLES
OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

(SIMILARITIES)
Table 1.0 Showing the similarities of animal cell and plant cell.
ORGANELLE ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL
Cytoplasm Present Present
Ribosomes Present Present
Mitochondria Present Present
Endoplasmic Reticulum Present Present
(Smooth and Rough)
Peroxisomes Present Present
Golgi Apparatus Present Present
Microtubules/ Present Present
Microfilaments
Nucleus Present Present

COMPARISON CHART (DIFFERENCES)

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 Table 1.1 showing the differences between animal cell and plant cell.

ORGANELLES ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

Cell wall Absent Present (formed of cellulose)

Shape Round (irregular Rectangular (fixed shape)

shape)

Vacuole One or more small One, large central vacuole taking

vacuoles (much up to 90% of cell volume.
smaller than plant
cells).

Centrioles Present in all animal Only present in lower plant forms

cells (e.g. chlamydomonas)

Chloroplast Absent Plant cells have chloroplasts to

make their own food.

Plastids Absent Present

Plasma Only cell membrane Cell wall and a cell membrane

Membrane

Flagella Present in some cells Present in some cells (e.g. sperm of

( e.g. mammalian bryophytes and pteridophytes,
sperm cells) cycads and Ginkgo)

Lysosomes Lysosomes occur in Lysosomes usually not evident.

cytoplasm.

Cilia Present Most plant cells do not

contain cilia.

TABLE 1.2 COMPARISON CHART OF PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC

CELL

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 PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS
BASIS FOR
COMPARISON
(ARCHAEA, BACTERIA.) (PLANT AND ANIMAL )

Size 0.5-3um 2-100um

Kind of Cell Single-cell Multicellular

Cell Wall Cell wall present, comprise Usually cell wall absent, if
of peptidoglycan or present (plant cells and
mucopeptide fungus), comprises
(polysaccharide). cellulose (polysaccharide).

Presence of A well-defined nucleus is A well-defined nucleus is

Nucleus absent, rather 'nucleoid' is presently enclosed within
present which is an open the nuclear membrane.
region containing DNA.

Shape of DNA Circular, double-stranded Linear, double-stranded

DNA. DNA.

Mitochondria Absent Present

Ribosome 70S 80S

Golgi Absent Present

Apparatus

Endoplasmic Absent Present

Reticulum

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 PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS
BASIS FOR
COMPARISON
(ARCHAEA, BACTERIA.) (PLANT AND ANIMAL )

Mode of Asexual Most commonly sexual

Reproduction

Cell Division Binary Fission, Mitosis

(conjugation, transformation,
transduction)

Lysosomes and Absent Present

Peroxisomes

Chloroplast (Absent) scattered in the Present in plants, algae.

cytoplasm.

Transcription Occurs together. Transcription occurs in the

and Translation nucleus and translation in
the cytosol.

Organelles Organelles are not Organelles are membrane-

membrane-bound, if present bound and are specific in
any. function.

Replication Single-origin of replication. Multiple origins of

replication.

Number of Only one (not true called a More than one.

Chromosomes plasmid).

Examples Archaea, Bacteria. Plants and Animals.

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 PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS
BASIS FOR
COMPARISON
(ARCHAEA, BACTERIA.) (PLANT AND ANIMAL )

SKILLS DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY 2.1
Instruction: Using a Venn diagram below as your guide, write the similarities
and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell. Use the table 1. 2 above
as your reference (Comparison chart of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.) (10
points). Write your answer in your CSTC green booklet.

PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC

EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: SINGEL MULTICELLULAR (CONSITS
CELLS (UNICELLULAR) OF MORE THAN 1 CELLS)

EXAMPLE:
BOTH CELLS
HAVE DNA

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ACTIVITY 2.2
Instruction: Put a check (/) if the given organelle is present and (x) if not and
specify the functions of each organelle. (15 points) Use your module 1 as your
reference for the function of organelles. NOTE: Use the table as your guide.
Draw your own table in your CSTC green booklet.
NAME OF THE PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC FUNCTION
ORGANELL
EXAMPLE: x / ATP
Mitochondria production/cellular
respiration
1. lysosome
2. Chloroplast
3. Cell membrane

4.Endoplasmic
Reticulum
5. Golgi
Apparatus

ASSESSMENT

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Instruction: Read each question carefully, Write only the letter of the answer in
your CSTC booklet.
1. Which of the following is NOT an example of a eukaryotic cell?
A. Bacteria
B. Red blood
C. Cheek epithelial cell
D. Onion root cell
2. Why electron microscope is use for observing bacteria?
A. Bacteria are so small.
B. Electrons can penetrate tough bacterial cell walls.
C. Bacteria move so quickly they are hard to photograph.
D. With few organelles present, bacteria are distinguished by differences in
individual molecules
3. Which of the following statements is WRONG?
A. Prokaryotic cells are smaller than eukaryotic cells
B. Eukaryotic organisms can be multicellular
C. Prokaryotic lack a nucleus
D. Plant cells are not eukaryotic
4. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus. What do they have in their place?
A. Nucleolus
B. Nucleoid region
C. DNA
D. Chromosome
5. Which of the following is NOT a eukaryotic cell organelle?
A. Chloroplast
B. Mitochondria
C. Nucleus
D. Plasmid
6. What type of cell is bacteria?
A. Animal cell
B. Eukaryotic
C. Prokaryotic
D. Plant Cell
7. Which of the following, does an onion cell belongs?
A. Animal cell
B. Eukaryotic
C. Prokaryotic
D. Plant Cell
8. Which of the following has nucleus?

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 A. Allium cepa
B. Listeria monocytogenes,
C. Pesudomonas maltophilia,
D. Thiobacillus
9. Which of the following cells has chloroplast?
A. Animal cell
B. Eukaryotic
C. Prokaryotic
D. Plant Cell
10. Which of the following membrane-bound organelle is found in plant cells,
but NOT in animal cells?
A. Chloroplast
B. Lysosomes
C. Mitochondria
D. Vacuole
E.
CHARACTER
ENHANCEMENT

REFLECTION
Instruction: Discuss the major difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells in a maximum of 5 sentences. Write your answer on your CSTC green
booklet. (10 points)
CRITERIA CORRESPONDING POINTS
Organization of Ideas/Content 5
Clarity of Information 5
TOTAL 10

24
 LESSON 3 CELL CYCLE
WEEK
3

KNOWLEDGE
ENRICHMENT
A. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 Describe some cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out
specialized functions
 Characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control points.
 Describe the stages of mitosis.
 Explain the significance or applications of mitosis.

B. INTRODUCTION
Human body is composed of trillions of cells, each type of cell in is specially
equipped for its role. For instance, cells of the digestive system, are vastly
different in structure and function from cells of the skeletal system and
performed a different function. This module will provide a various discussion
about the most common specialized human body cell and we will also deal with
cell modification. Aside from the different body cell this module will also
provide the concepts on the different stages of cell cycle and the two types of cell
division: mitosis and meiosis, and explain their significance on an organism.
C. LESSON PROPER
CELL TYPES IN THE HUMAN BODY
Cells of the body depend on each other to keep the body functioning as a
unit. There are hundreds of types of cells, but the following are the most
common.
BODY CELL FUNCTIONS OTHER INFORMATION
STEM CELL Stem cells are unique In the field of stem cell
in that they originate research, scientists take
as unspecialized cells advantage of the renewal
and have the ability to properties of these structures
develop into by utilizing them to generate

25
 specialized cells that cells for tissue repair, organ
can be used to build transplantation, and for the
specific organs or treatment of disease.
tissues. Stem cells can
divide and replicate
many times in order
to replenish and
repair tissue.
BONE CELL Bones are a type of There are three primary
mineralized connectiv types of bone cells in the
e tissue that comprise body: osteoclasts, osteoblasts,
a major component of and osteocytes.
the skeletal system.
Bones are made up of Osteoclasts are large cells that
a matrix of collagen decompose bone for
and calcium resorption and assimilation
phosphate minerals. while they heal.

Osteoblasts regulate bone

mineralization and produce
osteoid, an organic substance
of the bone matrix, which
mineralizes to form bone.
Osteoblasts mature to form
osteocytes.

Osteocytes aid in the

formation of bone and help
maintain calcium balance.

MUSCLE CELL Muscle cells The three types of muscle

form muscle tissue, cells are skeletal, cardiac, and
which enables all smooth.
bodily movement Skeletal muscle tissue attaches
to bones to facilitates
voluntary movement. These
muscle cells are covered by
connective tissue, which
protects and supports
26
 muscle fiber bundles.
Cardiac muscle cells form
involuntary muscle, or
muscle that doesn't require
conscious effort to operate,
found in the heart. These
cells aid in heart contraction
and are joined to one another
by intercalated discs that
allow
for heartbeat synchronizatio
n.
Smooth muscle tissue is not
striated like cardiac and
skeletal muscle. Smooth
muscle is involuntary muscle
that lines body cavities and
forms the walls of many
organs such as kidneys,
intestines, blood vessels, and
lung airways.

FAT CELL Fat cells, also called When fat is stored, its cells
adipocytes, are a major become round and swollen.
cell component When fat is used, its cells
of adipose tissue. shrink.
Adipocytes contain
droplets of stored fat
(triglycerides) that can
be used for energy.
SKIN CELL The skin is composed The skin covers a wide range
of a layer of epithelial of roles. It protects internal
tissue  (epidermis) that structures of the body from
is supported by a damage, prevents
layer of connective dehydration, acts as a barrier
tissue (dermis) and an against germs, stores fat, and
underlying produces vitamins and
subcutaneous layer. hormones.
The outermost layer
of the skin is

27
 composed of flat,
squamous epithelial
cells that are closely
packed together.
NERVE CELLS  the most basic unit of Structurally, a neuron
the nervous system. consists of a cell body and
Nerves send signals nerve processes. The central
between cell body contains the
the brain, spinal cord, neuron's nucleus,
and other body associated cytoplasm,
organs via nerve and organelles. Nerve
impulses. processes are "finger-like"
projections (axons and
dendrites) that extend from
the cell body and transmit
sign

SEX Are reproductive cells In sexual reproduction, sex

CELLS OR GAMETE created in male and cells unite
S female gonads that during fertilization to form a
bring new life into new individual. While other
existence. Male sex body cells replicate
cells or sperm are by mitosis, gametes
motile and have long, reproduce by meiosis.
tail-like projections
called flagella. Female
sex cells or ova are
non-motile and
relatively large in
comparison to male
gametes.

28
 BLOOD CELL From transporting The three major types of cells
oxygen throughout in the blood are red blood
the body to fighting cells,  white blood cells,
infection, blood cell and  platelets.
activity is vital to life. Red blood cells
Blood cells are determine blood type and
produced by bone are responsible for
marrow. transporting oxygen.
White blood cells are immune
system cells that destroy
pathogens and provide
immunity.
Platelets help clot blood to
prevent excessive blood loss
due to broken or
damaged blood vessels.

To learn more about the body cell, just visit the link:
https://www.thoughtco.com/types-of-cells-in-the-body-373388

CELL MODIFICATION

Each type of cell has a specific role to play. Some cells have more demanding
roles than those of others. These cells have part that are peculiar to their type.
Here are some cell modifications that enable certain cells to carry out the tasks
expected of them.
FLAGELLUM is a microscopic hair-like organelle used by cells and
microorganisms for movement. The word flagellum in Latin means whip, just like
the whipping motion flagella (plural) often use for locomotion. Specialized
flagella in some organisms are also used as sensory organelles that can detect
changes in temperature.

29
CILIA the cilia (Singular- cilium) are hair like protrusion that cover most parts of
the cell. They move the cell in a vibratory style. They are primarily responsible
for locomotion, either of the cell itself or of fluids on the cell surface. 
MICROVILLI are cell surface modifications which increase surface area of a cell
without significantly increasing the size of the cell. Microvilli are often seen in
organs where the epithelium plays a primary role in the absorption of molecules.
PSEUDOPODS are actually extensions of the cytoplasm, or the thick liquid that
is inside organisms like amoeba. The organism can change the shape of the
pseudopod, making it move, appear, and disappear.
The pseudopods are used in movement and as a tool to capture prey. In order to
move using pseudopods, the organism pushes cytoplasm towards one end of the
cell, which makes a projection, or pseudopod, off the cell. This projection holds
the critter in place, and the rest of the cell can follow, thus moving the organism
forward. For feeding, organisms extend their pseudopods, engulfing their prey
and then digesting them using enzymes.
CELL CYCLE
Reminder: Before you start reading the lesson, please watch the/ video about
cell cycle and mitosis using the link https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=xsrH050wnIA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DwAFZb8juMQ
In the previous lessons, we’ve discussed the cell theory. The third tenet of this
theory, as proposed by Rudolf Virchow, state that cells come from pre-existing
cells. The formation of new cells is attributed to cell division.
The cell cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell division
that produces two new daughter cells. Cells on the path to cell division proceed
through a series of precisely timed and carefully regulated stages of growth,
DNA replication, and division that produces two identical (clone) cells.
The entire cycle is divided into two main stages, interphase and M- phase where M
stands for either mitosis or meiosis. During interphase, the cell grows,
accumulates nutrients and replicate its genetic material all important events that
prepare the cell for the division for division. The interphase is divided into 3
stages: G1 phase, S phase and G2 phase. Depending on the cell type, around 90
percent of the entire cell cycle Is devoted to the interphase stage. The remaining
time is spent on the M-phase or cell division. The major events and important
characteristic of each stage during the interphase are summarized as follow:
G1 (Growth or Gap 1) Phase
STAGE 1

30
  The cell at this stage is still young and it undergoes rapid growth. The cell
contains it’s normal size.
 Organelles are formed
 Proteins are produced such as the enzymes needed in S-phase.
 This is the longest phase in most cell.
 Cells that are not dividing (muscle cell and nerve cells) remain at this
stage stage throughout their life cycle.
 The G1 checkpoint ensures that the cell is large enough to divide and that
enough nutrients are available to support the resulting daughter cells.
 If a cell receives a ‘go-ahead’ signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will usually
continue with the Cell Cycle.
 If the cell does not receive the ‘go-ahead’ signal, it will exit the Cell Cycle
and switch to a non-dividing state called G0.
 Most cells in the human body are in the G0 phase.
S (Synthesis) Phase
STAGE 2
 The DNA, the main composition of the chromosomes
inside the nucleus of the cell, double at this stage by a
process called replication.
 At the end of this stage, each chromosome is made up of two sister
chromatids attached at the centromere.
G2 (Growth) Phase

STAGE 3  Preparation for cell division.

 Assembly of proteins, such as microtubules, which are
hollow protein fiber tht cause the chromosome to move during cell
division.
M (Mitosis/Meiosis) Phase.
 The cell undergoes divison.
STAGE 4  Division of the nucleus is called karyokinesis, while
division of the cytoplasm is celled cytokinesis.

31
 MITOSIS

As discussed earlier, after the interphase, the cell undergoes division which can
be either mitosis or meiosis. Mitosis is the division of body cells. It happens in all
type of cell except gametes It is a type of cell division in which the nucleus of the
cell divides into two nuclei with identical genetic material. The resulting two
daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes similar to the parent cell.
Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic and it is used by multicellular organisms for
growth and development, repair of tissues and in sexual reproduction. Mitosis is
a continuous process but it is traditionally divided into four stages: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Prophase Stage
 The first and the longest phase of mitosis, can take much as 50-60
percent of the total required to complete the mitosis.
 The centrioles, two tiny structures located in the cytoplasm near
the nuclear envelop, separate and take up on the opposite side of
the cell.
 The nuclear envelop and nucleus break up and disperse.
 Microtubules are assembled from tubulin proteins in the
cytoplasm and associate with the centrioles and chromosomes.
 Near the end of prophase, the chromosomes coil more tightly.
Metaphase Stage
 Chromosomes move and align themselves at the center of the cell
called the metaphase plate.
 The spindle fiber attaches to the centromere of each chromosome.
32
Anaphase Stage
 The centromeres that join the sister chromatids separate, allowing
the sister chromatids to separates and become individual
chromosomes.
 The chromosome will continue to move until the separated into
two groups near the poles of the spindle fibers.
 Anaphase stage ends when chromosomes stop moving.
Telophases Stage.
 The chromosomes which were distinct and condensed, begin to
disperse into a tangle material.
 The nuclear envelop reforms around each cluster of
chromosomes.
 The spindle fiber begins to break apart and nucleolus becomes
visible in each daughter nucleus.
Cytokinesis
 As a result of mitosis, two nuclei each with a duplicate set of
chromosomes are formed, usually within the cytoplasm of a single
cell. All that remains to complete the m phase of the cycle is
cytokinesis. The division of cytoplasm itself.
 Cytokinesis usually occurs during the telophase stage.
 Cytokinesis can take place in a number of ways. In most animal
cells, the cell membrane break down is drawn inward until the

SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

ACTIVITY 3.1
Instruction:

33
Instruction: Write the development in each process of mitosis. Use the table
below as your guide in writing your answer. Draw your own table on your CSTC
green booklet. (10 points)

INTERPHASE G1(Growth or Gap 1) Example: The cell undergo

Phase rapid growth and attain its
normal size. Organelles
are starting to form.
Enzymes are produce that
is needed for the next
stages.
S (Synthesis)Phase

G2 (Growth)Phase
MITOSIS OR M STAGE Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
CYTOKINESIS STAGE C

34
ACTIVITY 3.2
Instruction: Using the diagram below as your guide, draw the process of mitosis.
Use your CSTC green booklet for your drawing. (10 points)

ASSESSMENT
Instruction: Matching Type. Match Column A with Column B. Write only the
letter of the answer on your CSTC booklet.
ANSWER COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. It has the ability to develop into specialized A. Blood cell
cells that can be used to build specific organs or
tissues.
2. The major component of the skeletal system. B. Bone cell
3. It is a major cell component of adipose tissue. C. G1
4. A cell that send signals between D. Cytokinesis
the brain, spinal cord, and other body organs via
nerve impulses.
5. A cell that transport oxygen throughout the E. Stem cell
body.
6. The cell at this stage is still young and it F. Anaphase
undergoes rapid growth. The cell contains it’s Stage
normal size.

7. The nuclear envelop reforms around each G. Telophases

cluster of chromosomes. Stage.

8. Occurs during the telophase stage. H. Metaphase

35
 Stage
9. The chromosome will continue to move until I. Fat Cell
the separated into two groups near the poles of
the spindle fibers.

10. Chromosomes move and align themselves at J. Nerve cell

the center of the cell called the metaphase plate.

K. Prophase

CHARACTER
ENHANCEMENT

REFLECTION
Instruction: Discuss the most important thing you have learned in this module in
a maximum of 5 sentences. Write your answer on your CSCT green booklet. (10
points)

CRITERIA CORRESPONDING POINTS

Organization of Ideas/Content 5
Clarity of Information 5
TOTAL 10

36