Al Wadi International School Grade 9 4. Biological Molecules & 7. Human Nutrition

AL WADI INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL GRADE 9 4. BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES & 7.
HUMAN NUTRITION
2020-2021 Page 1
AL WADI INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL GRADE 9 4. BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES & 7. HUMAN NUTRITION
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
❖ Biological molecules are molecules that occur naturally in living organisms and play
an important role in the survival of living cells.
❖ The relation between biomolecules and living cells in living organisms is shown below.
There are 4 main biological molecules:

• Carbohydrates provide energy to living cells for their activities.
• Lipids are used as a store of energy.
• Some of the biomolecules like antibodies that fight against foreign invaders are
protein in nature.
• Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are involved in the transfer of genetic information.
❖ Biomolecules are large molecules formed from smaller subunits called monomers.
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1. CARBOHYDRATES
❖ Carbohydrates also known as saccharides or

sugars are composed of carbon, oxygen and
hydrogen.
❖ If the sugar is a single molecule it is a
Monosaccharide. A monosaccharide is the
simplest unit of carbohydrates, which cannot be further hydrolyzed to smaller
molecules. E.g. glucose, fructose, galactose.
❖ If two monosaccharide sugars are joined, Disaccharides are formed. E.g. sucrose,
lactose, maltose.
❖ When a large number of monosaccharide units join together, they form a
Polysaccharide. E.g. starch, glycogen, cellulose.
POLYSACCHARIDES
1. Starch:
• It is stored in the chloroplasts of plant
cells, as it is insoluble in water, so it does
not disturb the osmotic balance of the cells.
2. Cellulose:
• Cellulose is made up of glucose monomers and it is found only in plants. Plant’s Cell
wall is mostly made of cellulose.
• It gives turgidity to the cell and is fully permeable, so it allows water to move in and
out.
• Cellulose along with lignin forms the strong waterproof walls of xylem tubes.
• Wood and paper are mostly cellulosic in nature.
3. Glycogen:
• It is the storage form of glucose in animal cells.
• Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched molecule usually
stored in liver and muscle cells. Since it is insoluble in water, it does not disturb the
osmotic balance of the cells.
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The figure below shows where polysaccharides are found in cells:
Functions of Carbohydrates:
1. Carbohydrates provide energy and reserve food material in living organisms. 1 gm of

carbohydrates gives 17 KJ of energy.
2. Monosaccharides such as glucose are absorbed readily and give instant energy.
3. Polysaccharides are slow- release carbohydrates as they must be digested and
absorbed to provide energy.
4. Polysaccharides are insoluble in water, so they do not affect the water potential of
the cell.
5. Polysaccharides like cellulose act as the main structural material of plant’s cell
wall.
6. Cellulose which forms a major part of fibre in our diet add bulk to the food and
allow smooth movement of food through the digestive tract.
7. Starch is a storage form of carbohydrate in plants while cellulose is storage formof
carbohydrates in animals.
Summary of Carbohydrates
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BENEDICT'S TEST FOR REDUCING SUGARS

• Crush/grind food sample if it’s a solid. You
may add water to make it homogenous.
• Add 2 cm3 of Benedict's solution and heat the
mixture for 5 minutes in a hot water bath
which is thermostatically controlled.
• A BRICK RED/ORANGE COLOR is a positive
result, i.e. glucose is present. If reducing
sugar is absent contents remain blue.
• All sugars except sucrose which is a non-
reducing sugar gives a positive result with
Benedicts test.
• If the concentration of reducing sugar is
low, the colour change may be green, yellow or
pale orange as shown in the figure on right.
• Safety precaution: Use test tube holder, safety Use colorimeter to judge the color
goggles, and hold test tube away from your face exactly.
while boiling.
IODINE TEST FOR STARCH

• Crush/grind food sample if it’s a solid. You may add water to
make it homogenous.
• Add a few drops of Iodine solution.
• A BLUE-BLACK COLOR is a positive result: meaning starch is
present. If starch is absent, contents remain brown/orange.
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2. LIPIDS/FATS
❖ Composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen.

❖ Fats are made up of three long fatty acid
chains and one small glycerol molecule.
❖ Lipids are generally insoluble in water.
❖ Various types of lipids are found in nature like

fats, oils, steroids, and waxes.
❖ The most common type is triglycerides, which
are usually known as fats and oils.
❖ At room temperature, fats are solid whereas
oils are liquid.
❖ There are two types of fats: Saturated fats-which are bad for health and unsaturated
fats which are good for health.
Functions of Fats:
1. Fats are used primarily for storing energy as they take up less space than complex
carbohydrates. 1 gm of fat gives 34 KJ of energy.
2. Fats are used to make cell membranes.
3. They cover and protect vital organs in the body such as kidney, heart, etc.
4. Fats are present in the waxy cuticle on leaves.
5. They are also used for insulation to preserve body heat by forming a layer under the
skin.
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Marmots and lynx are mammals that can live in a variety of

environments. The percentage of fat in the bodies of these two
species was measured.
Measurements were taken from marmots and lynx living in Alaska
and in Virginia. Alaska is a cold environment and Virginia is a
warm environment.
The results are shown in the table below:
Alaska is colder than Virginia so more fat is needed for insulation to stay warm and
to maintain body temperature. Therefore, marmots and lynxes living in Alaska have a
higher percentage of fat than those living in Virginia.
ETHANOL EMULSION TEST FOR FATS

• Crush/grind food sample if it’s a solid. Do not add water.
• Add the food sample to 2 cm3 of ethanol and shake to dissolve.
• Pour the mixture into a test tube containing distilled water.
• A MILKY-WHITE SUSPENSION is a positive result: meaning
lipid is present. If lipids are absent the contents remain clear.
• Safety precaution: Ethanol is flammable, keep away from fire.
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3. PROTEINS
❖ Proteins are made up of small units called

amino acids.
❖ Amino acids are joined into long chains called
polypeptides, which are finally made into
proteins.
❖ There are 20 different types of amino acids.
❖ Different types of proteins are formed by joining amino acids in different combinations.
❖ Each type of protein has a different number and order of amino acids.
Functions of Proteins:
1. Proteins are used for growth i.e. for
building new cells and to repair the worn
out cells.
2. Proteins are used to produce hormones,
which help in communication between
different parts of the body.
3. Proteins are used to produce haemoglobin,
which carries oxygen around our body.
4. Proteins act as structural materials such
as keratin found in nails and hair, collagen
found in bones, muscles and blood vessels.
5. Another group of proteins is called enzymes, which control the chemical reactions
that keep the cell alive. Every enzyme has a special region called active site which is
very different from any other enzyme. This is the reason enzymes are said to be
specific, thus one type of enzyme catalyses only one type of biological reaction.
6. Proteins are used to produce antibodies, which help fight pathogens. Like enzymes
antibodies are also specific. A small change in the sequence of amino acid units
changes the antibody, so millions of different types of antibodies are made.
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BIURET TEST FOR PROTEINS

• Crush/grind food sample if it’s a solid.
• Add 2cm3 of biuret reagent and shake. If biuret reagent is
unavailable, add equal amount of NaOH to the sample and
then add a few drops of 1% CuSO4.
• A PURPLE/VIOLET COLOR is a positive result: meaning
protein is present.
• If there is no protein the solution remains blue.
• The higher the concentration of protein, the

more intense the colour change will be as
shown in the figure.
The table below includes important points you need to remember about food tests.
WATER - ROLE AND IMPORTANCE

❖ It is a solvent for all of the metabolic reactions in the body.
❖ It is part of blood plasma and helps to transport hormones, dissolved food, and
other substances around the body.
❖ It is a solvent for wastes, example: Urea dissolves in water and is excreted in urine.
❖ It is involved in many reactions. Ex: Water is needed to react with starch to break it
into smaller molecules (hydrolysis).
❖ It helps cool down the body while sweating, as when sweat evaporates it removes heat
from the body.
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4. NUCLEIC ACIDS
❖ The nucleus of every living cell has chromosomes, which

pass traits from one generation to the next.
❖ Chromosomes are made up of proteins and nucleic acids.
❖ Nucleic acids are biopolymers made up of smaller units
called nucleotides.
❖ The nucleic acid DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid) plays a key role in inheritance and
protein synthesis.
STRUCTURE OF DNA
❖ The DNA molecule consists of two long

strands/chains coiled around each other in a
double helix.
❖ Each strand of DNA is a polynucleotide chain
(containing many nucleotides).
❖ Each nucleotide in the DNA molecule is made
up of three components:
1. Phosphate group
2. Pentose sugar (Five-carbon)
3. A nitrogen-containing base
❖ There are four types of bases: A= Adenine,

T= Thymine, C= Cytosine, G= Guanine
❖ The nucleotides in the chains always pair up in
a certain way.
❖ A always pair with T by a double bond and G
always pair with C by a triple bond.
❖ The two chains in the DNA molecule are joined
together by hydrogen bonds.
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USE OF DNA IN CLASSIFICATION
In the past, scientists grouped organisms which are structurally similar and share
common ancestors. They used the physical features of organisms to identify how similar
they were and therefore decide upon how to classify them. These features included:
• Morphology – the study of external characteristics, for example, the number and type
of limbs, or the arrangement of petals in flowers produced by a plant.
• Anatomy – the study of the internal body structure of organisms for example skeletal
structure.
For more accurate means of classification, new techniques like DNA analysis and protein
analysis are introduced for comparing organisms.
Hence, the more similar the DNA or amino acid sequence of proteins in two
organisms, the more related they are, and hence share a more common ancestor.
EVOLUTIONARY TREE/CLASSIFICATION TREE
Base sequences of the DNA of different species are compared to investigate how species
are related to one another. It is usually shown in the form of a classification tree. The
most closely related species have the shortest distance from a branching point on a
classification tree. Figure below shows a classification tree of six species of fungi.
Based on the above figure:

✓ Species A and B are the most closely related to each other, because they have the
shortest distance from a branching point. Their DNA base sequence has the least
number of differences.
✓ Species F is far related from all other species, because it has the longest distance
from a branching point. Its DNA base sequence will have a large number of differences
with other species.
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WHY DO WE NEED FOOD
❖ We need food to provide us with energy. We need energy for a number of reasons such
as for movement, to make muscles contract, and in processes like active transport.
❖ Food is needed for growth and buildup of the body.
❖ Food is needed for repair such as replacement of worn and damaged tissues.
❖ Some food materials are needed to make certain chemical reactions work.
BALANCED DIET: A balanced diet is a diet, which

contains all the required nutrients in the correct
amounts and proportions according to age,
gender & activity of an individual in order to
maintain a healthy life. There are seven different
nutrients present in diet: Carbohydrates, Proteins,
Fats, Vitamins, Minerals, Fiber/roughage and
Water.
Diet B
Diet A
Diet A is a balanced diet, because it contains Diet A is an unbalanced diet, because it
different types of food to supply all the nutrients contains food that does not supply all the
required/correct amounts. It does not have a lot nutrients in the required amounts. It has a lot
of fat rich foods. of food and drinks which are rich in fats and
sugars.
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Dietary needs are not the same for all.

Although every human need all the seven nutrients
in balanced amounts, but, not every person need
the same amounts of all nutrients. The amount of
different nutrients an individual needs depend on
many factors. Some of them are listed below:
1. Age: Growing children need more of some

nutrients such as protein, calcium, etc.
2. Activity: The more active the more energy you will need. Example, a working adult
man needs more energy than a small child; an athlete needs even more energy than a
working man.
3. Gender: Males need more energy than females, because on average, they have a
higher metabolic rate and a larger body mass. On the other hand, females need
more iron in their diet than males due to menstruation.
4. Pregnancy: Expecting mothers and their developing fetus have special dietary
requirements which include more iron, calcium, and proteins.
5. Breast feeding mothers: A mother feeding her baby milk needs more energy and
other nutrients such as calcium, proteins, etc.
FIBRE/ROUGHAGE
❖ Cellulose is an example of a complex carbohydrate which our body cannot digest and
use for energy. We call it dietary fibre.
❖ We need it in our diet as it gives bulk to our food. This makes it easier for our digestive
system to move the food through our alimentary canal by peristalsis.
❖ Fibre slows down glucose absorption. It makes you feel full preventing overeating.
❖ If we do not get enough fibre in our diet then this can lead to constipation and colon
cancer.
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MICRO-NUTRIENTS
 These are the nutrients which we need in our diet in small amounts. They consist of
vitamins and minerals.
 They are not digested or broken down but are simply absorbed by our body.
 Minerals & vitamins do not provide energy.
 Plants can make these vitamins in their leaves, but animals have to obtain many of
them ready-made either from plants or from other animals.
 If any of the micronutrients is deficient in diet, a deficiency disease may develop.
Such diseases can be cured, at least in the early stages, simply by adding the vitamin
to diet.
 The table below shows some micronutrients-vitamins and minerals and their
importance in our body.
VITAMIN SOURCES IMPORTANCE

C Oranges, lemons, tomatoes, • Maintain healthy skin and gums.
black currants, raw vegetables. • Keep tissues in good health.
D Butter, milk, cheese, egg yolk, • Strengthen bones and teeth.

can be made in the skin when • Helps to absorb calcium from the
exposed to sunlight. small intestine
MINERAL SOURCES IMPORTANCE
Calcium Milk, cheese, yoghurt, fish, • Formation of healthy teeth and

egg. bones.
• Needed in blood clotting and muscle
contraction.
Iron Liver, egg yolk, red meat, • Needed to make haemoglobin in red
spinach. blood cells to carry oxygen around
the body.
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The table below include deficiency diseases and their symptoms.
VITAMIN/ DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

MINERAL DISEASE
Vitamin D Rickets Bones become soft and bent.
Vitamin C Scurvy Swollen and bleeding gums,

wounds take longer time to heal.
Calcium Bone and Bones fail to develop so they become brittle, tooth decays
tooth decay easily, and slow blood clotting.
Iron Anaemia Not enough oxygen delivered to the cell, so the person
feels less energetic, constantly gets tired and cannot do
hard work.
DCPIP test for vitamin C

• Put DCPIP solution in a spotting tile or in a test tube.
(Dichlorophenol indophenol – a blue colour dye)
• Add fruit juice (sample) drop by drop to the DCPIP. If vitamin C
is present, then DCPIP solution becomes colourless.
• Volume of juice added to decolourise DCPIP is measured to
determine the amount of vitamin C.
• The Greater the volume of fruit juice needed to decolourise
DCPIP,the lower the amount of vitamin C.
• By measuring the volume of juice needed to decolourise DCPIP,
we can compare amount of Vitamin C present in different fruits.
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Test for vitamin C using Iodine

• The vitamin C content can be determined by
carrying out a ‘titration’. A set up of the apparatus
to determine the vitamin C content using Iodine is
shown in the figure on the right.
• It is done by adding drops of iodine solution to the
sample, such as a vegetable juice extract mixed with
starch solution, until a blue-black colour appears.
• The more iodine solution that needs to be added,
the more vitamin C there is in the sample.
As shown in the figure lemon

and grapefruit contain more
vitamin C because a small
volume of juice was needed to
decolourise DCPIP when
compared with other juices.
MALNUTRITION AND ITS EFFECT ON THE BODY
❖ We get energy from our food. If we eat too much high energy food then the extra energy
is generally stored as fat. This can lead to problems like obesity and heart disease. If
you do not eat enough then you will get a deficiency disease.
❖ Similarly, if we do not get enough proteins, minerals, vitamins etc. then we will suffer
from malnutrition.
❖ Malnutrition is a condition/disease, which results from lack or excess of one or more
nutrients in diet.
❖ To make sure we get all the nutrients in the right proportions we must eat a balanced
diet.
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❖ Malnutrition might result in:
1. CONSTIPATION
• It is the result of insufficient fiber in diet.
• Eating highly refined foods and less raw or
fresh fruits and vegetable results in deficiency
of fibre.
• Lack of fibre in diet results in constipation, a
condition where lumpy or hard stool with a
sensation of obstruction or incomplete
evacuation is observed.
• Fibre forms a bulk and helps prevent hard, dry stools that are difficult to pass.
• A diet lacking in fiber may, over several years lead to bowel cancer.
2. OBESITY
Causes:
• Consuming large amounts of calorie rich food.
• Eating food rich in fats & sugars where excess is stored as fats in the body.
• Lack of exercise & physical activity.
Effects & Symptoms:
• The person gains weight and will not be able to do heavy work.
• Obesity may also lead to heart diseases and high blood pressure because fats get
deposited in blood vessels and block them, so the heart has to pump harder and
faster in order to deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells.
• Obesity could lead to diabetes, hypertension, stroke and depression.
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3. CORONARY HEART DISEASE
Coronary heart disease occurs when blood vessels

supplying the heart are blocked due fatty deposits.
This stops the supply of oxygen and nutrients to
the cells of the heart and that part of the heart muscle
dies or stops functioning. The heart will no longer be
able to pump properly or may stop totally in severe
cases and the person dies.
Causes:
• Eating lots of fat rich and calorie rich food.
• Lack of physical exercise, inactive lifestyle.
• Smoking and alcohol consumption.
• Excessive stress/tension due to work or family
related issues.
• Aging may also lead to heart disease.
• Obesity and diabetes may also lead to heart disease.
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4. MARASMUS
Causes:
• Due to severe deficiency in carbohydrates, fats and

protein.
• Possible reasons include unavailability of healthy food.
• People living in extreme poverty.
Effects & Symptoms:
• Severe weight loss and retarded growth.

• Lean body and projected ribs.
• Sunken eyes, dry and wrinkled skin.
5. KWASHIORKOR
Causes:
• Due to severe lack of protein in a child’s diet.
• Possible reasons include famine/drought which limits the
amount of food available.
Effects & Symptoms:
• Growth stops and results in loss of muscle mass.

• Protruding abdomen.
• Vulnerable to diseases, due to a weakened immune
system.
• Oedema (swelling on legs).
• Diarrhoea.
• Change of pigment in hair, skin.
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Similarities between marasmus and kwashiorkor symptoms

1. Both caused by protein deficiency
2. Primarily affects children
3. Diarrhoea
4. Low body mass/weight loss
5. Poor growth
6. Irritability/tiredness
7. Wastage of muscles
8. Dry skin/brittle nails
9. Brittle hair/change of hair colour
10. Fatty liver
11. Anaemia
SUMMARY OF FOOD TESTS

Colour after the test
Colour
Food group Reagents Procedure before the
Positive Negative
test
result result
Iodine To the sample add a few Remains
Starch Brown Blue-black
solution drops of Iodine solution. Brown
To the sample add 2cm3
Reducing Benedict’s Red/Orange/ Remains
of Benedict’s solution and Blue
sugar solution Yellow/Green Blue
heat.
Biuret To the sample add 2cm3
Remains
Protein solution of Biuret solution and Blue Purple/Violet
Blue
shake well.
To the sample add 2cm3
Ethanol of ethanol, shake well to White Remains
Fat Colourless
and Water dissolve. Then add water suspension Colourless
to the solution.
To the sample add DCPIP
DCPIP Remains
Vitamin C solution dropwise using Blue Colourless
solution Blue
pipette.
Note:
✓ Crush/grind food sample if it is solid to increase surface area as well as to release contents.
✓ Heating is required in Benedicts test only.
✓ If Biuret solution is unavailable, add equal amount of NaOH and then add CuSO4 drop wise.
✓ While testing for fat, do not add water in the beginning of the test.
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PAST PAPERS QUESTIONS LIST
Year Paper-1 Paper-2 Paper-3 Paper-6

Jun-01 10,14,15 - - 3 a,b
Nov-01 17,18 - 3c -
Jun-02 14,16,19 - - 1b
Nov-02 15,17 - - 2 a-c
Jun-03 12 - - 1 a,b
Nov-03 11,16 - 2 a-e -
Jun-04 13,15,16 - 2 a-e -
Nov-04 15,16 - 2 a,b,c -
Jun-05 15,16 7 ai,b - 2bi,ii
Nov-05 14 - - 2b
Jun-06 16 6 - 1b
Nov-06 15 - 3b -
Jun-07 14,15,19 8 - 4
Nov-07 - - - -
Jun-08 14,15 - 5 a/31 2c
Nov-08 - - 3/31,2/32,3 1c
a,b/32
Jun-09 12,14 - - 1c
Nov-09 - 3 - -
Jun-10 12,13 2a/22 5a/31, 6a 2b/61
Nov-10 8,12,15 - - 2c/61,1b/62
Jun-11 16 2/21,2/22 - 1/62
Nov-11 14 - 1d/62
Jun-12 13,14,17 - - 1de/61
Nov-12 14,15 9/22 - 1e/62
Jun-13 13/11, 14/12 1a/21,2a/22 5d/32 1/61,3b/63
Nov-13 1,14,15,16 9b/21,2c/23,4d/2 2a/31,3ai,ii/32 1def/61
3,5/23
Jun-14 13/11,13/12 5/22,5c/23 2c/31 1abf/61
Nov-14 13/11;14/12;12/13 2/22 - -
Jun-15 14,15,16/11;13/12; - - -
14/13
Nov-15 12,13/13 1a/61;1/63
CORE
Year Paper 1 Paper 3
June 16 9/11; 9/12; 9/13 4/33
Nov 16 12/11;12/1212/13 -
March 17 8,12/12 -
June 17 6,11/11;6/12;6,12/13
March 18 8/12 7/32
June 18 9/11;9/12;9/13 4/31;4/32
June 19 8,9/11,12,13
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EXTENDED
Year Paper 2 Paper 4 Paper 6
June16 8,9/21;8/22;7,8/13 - 1/62
Nov 16 12,21; 12,22; 12,23 4bc/41;1a/42 -
March 17 8,12/22 - -
June 17 6,12/21;11/22;6/2 4/42;3d/43 1/61;1/63
3
March 18 8/22
June 18 9/21;9/22;9/23 2d/63
June 19 8,9/21,22,23 2c/62;1a,b/63
March 19 9/22
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Choose the correct answer
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11
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13
14
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Answer the following questions
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AL WADI INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL GRADE 9 4. BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES & 7.

There are 4 main biological molecules:

❖ Carbohydrates also known as saccharides or

The figure below shows where polysaccharides are found in cells:

1. Carbohydrates provide energy and reserve food material in living organisms. 1 gm of

BENEDICT'S TEST FOR REDUCING SUGARS

IODINE TEST FOR STARCH

❖ Composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen.

❖ Various types of lipids are found in nature like

carbohydrates. 1 gm of fat gives 34 KJ of energy.

2. Fats are used to make cell membranes.

4. Fats are present in the waxy cuticle on leaves.

Marmots and lynx are mammals that can live in a variety of

ETHANOL EMULSION TEST FOR FATS

❖ Proteins are made up of small units called

BIURET TEST FOR PROTEINS

• The higher the concentration of protein, the

WATER - ROLE AND IMPORTANCE

❖ The nucleus of every living cell has chromosomes, which

❖ The DNA molecule consists of two long

❖ There are four types of bases: A= Adenine,

USE OF DNA IN CLASSIFICATION

Based on the above figure:

WHY DO WE NEED FOOD

BALANCED DIET: A balanced diet is a diet, which

Dietary needs are not the same for all.

1. Age: Growing children need more of some

VITAMIN SOURCES IMPORTANCE

D Butter, milk, cheese, egg yolk, • Strengthen bones and teeth.

MINERAL SOURCES IMPORTANCE

Calcium Milk, cheese, yoghurt, fish, • Formation of healthy teeth and

The table below include deficiency diseases and their symptoms.

VITAMIN/ DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

Vitamin C Scurvy Swollen and bleeding gums,

DCPIP test for vitamin C

Test for vitamin C using Iodine

As shown in the figure lemon

MALNUTRITION AND ITS EFFECT ON THE BODY

❖ Malnutrition might result in:

3. CORONARY HEART DISEASE

Coronary heart disease occurs when blood vessels

• Obesity and diabetes may also lead to heart disease.

• Due to severe deficiency in carbohydrates, fats and

Effects & Symptoms:

• Severe weight loss and retarded growth.

• Growth stops and results in loss of muscle mass.

Similarities between marasmus and kwashiorkor symptoms

SUMMARY OF FOOD TESTS

✓ Heating is required in Benedicts test only.

PAST PAPERS QUESTIONS LIST

Year Paper-1 Paper-2 Paper-3 Paper-6

Choose the correct answer

Answer the following questions

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