Alwadi International School Grade 9 Biology 10. Diseases and Immunity Notes

ALWADI INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL GRADE 9 BIOLOGY 10.
DISEASES AND IMMUNITY NOTES
2020-2021 Page 1
ALWADI INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL GRADE 9 BIOLOGY 10. DISEASES AND IMMUNITY NOTES
KEY DEFINITIONS
1. Pathogen is a disease-causing organism.
2. Disease is any condition that impairs the normal functions of an organism.
3. Transmissible disease is a disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one
host to another.
4. Host is an organism to which the pathogens cause harm/disease.
5. Vector is an organism which carries a pathogen from one host to another host.
6. Toxin is the poisonous substance produced by certain bacteria, which causes the
symptoms of the disease.
Pathogens are organisms which cause diseases and may be cellular or non-cellular. They
include many bacteria, viruses and some fungi, as well as several protozoans.
Pathogen Description of disease they cause
Bacteria • Bacteria produce poisonous waste products called toxins.

• Toxins damage the cells in which the bacteria are growing. They also
upset some of the systems in the body giving rise to a raised
temperature, headache, and diarrhea, vomiting, etc.
• Examples of bacterial diseases: Cholera, Food poisoning, Tetanus,
Tuberculosis, etc.
Fungi • They cause diseases in plants, animals, including humans.
• One example is ringworm. The fungus attacks the skin and produces
a patch of inflamed tissue giving a ring-like appearance.
• Another example is athlete’s foot. The fungus affects the feet and
causes cracks in the skin between the toes.
Viruses • Viruses cause diseases in plants, animals, including humans
• Human viral diseases include the common cold, polio, measles,
mumps, chickenpox, herpes, rubella, influenza, and AIDS.
• Tobacco mosaic virus affects tomato plants as well as tobacco,
eventually stunting the growth of the plant.
Protozoans • Malaria is a disease caused by a protozoan, Plasmodium which is
transmitted by the bites of infected female mosquitoes.
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MODES OF DISEASE TRANSMISSION

In human’s transmission of pathogens for a transmissible disease can occur through
direct contact or indirectly.
DIRECT CONTACT
This involves transfer of pathogens through direct contact of body parts, blood, and
other body fluids.
1. Direct contact-Pathogens may spread through direct contact such as shaking hands,
kissing, etc.
2. Blood transfusion results in pathogen transmission by blood if it is contaminated.
3. Body fluids-HIV is commonly passed on through body fluids due to unprotected sex.
4. Sharing needles amongst drug users leads to pathogen transmission through
plasma/blood.
5. Blood-Surgeons may contract disease by direct contact with the patient’s blood, for
example by cutting themselves while conducting an operation.
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INDIRECTLY
Indirect transmission of pathogens occurs in different ways:
1. THROUGH AIR.
• Viral diseases such as flu, measles and chickenpox spread in this way.
• When an infected person sneezes, coughs, laughs, just breathes out, viruses or
bacteria are sent out in small droplets into the air. These might be transmitted to
healthy people.
2. THROUGH CONTAMINATED SURFACES
• Sometimes if pathogens are present on surfaces of objects such as doorknobs, and you
are exposed to it, they get transmitted when you touch them and then touch your
mouth or nose before washing hands.
• Fungal diseases such as Athlete’s foot spread through infected towels, clothes,
socks/shoes, from the floors of showers and swimming pools contaminated by fungi.
3. THROUGH CONTAMINATED FOOD OR WATER.
• Food and water get contaminated by dumping wastes, sewage, flies and other
animals and pathogens get transmitted when a healthy person eats or drinks it.
4. THROUGH VECTORS
• Flies are found everywhere. They also visit decaying
food or human faeces where they may pick up
bacteria on their feet or their mouthparts and then
sit on our food and transmit bacteria.
• Examples: Food poisoning, amoebic dysentery, etc.
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1. Salmonella food poisoning

• It spreads through contaminated food and is caused by bacteria which live in the
intestines of cattle, chickens, and ducks without causing disease to them.
• Humans develop food poisoning if milk, meat, or eggs are eaten contaminated with
bacteria. The symptoms of food poisoning are diarrhoea, vomiting and abdominal
pain.
• The Salmonella bacteria are killed when meat is cooked, or milk is pasteurised.
2. Typhoid, Cholera and Amoebic dysentery
typhoid causes fever
• These diseases spread through contaminated food and water, but Typhoid and Cholera
are caused by bacteria while Amoebic dysentery is caused by a protozoan.
• Pathogens live in the intestines of a sick person and will pass out with the faeces and
are then carried into waters of rivers, reservoirs, etc. which are used for drinking.
• Flies and other small insects may also transmit pathogens to food or drinking water.
• Sewage water must be treated well and drinking water needs to be purified to prevent
this disease.
• Vomiting and diarrhea are common symptoms of this disease.
3. Malaria
• Malaria spreads through vector-mosquito.
• The disease is caused by a protozoan called Plasmodium which is transmitted from
person to person by the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
• When a mosquito bites a human, it inserts its sharp, pointed mouthparts through the
skin to suck the blood. To stop blood from clotting the mosquito then injects saliva. If
the mosquito is infected, it will also inject hundreds of pathogens.
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DEFENCES AGAINST DISEASES

Most pathogens must have to get inside our body in order to spread infection. Once they
are in, the body provides ideal living conditions: plenty of food, water, and warmth.
Standing in their way, our body has three main lines of defense against disease. They are
mechanical barriers, chemical barriers and cells.
1. Mechanical barriers
In humans, mechanical barriers include:
✓ Keratinized skin which makes it difficult for many pathogens to enter through.
✓ Nasal hairs in nose which trap dust and pathogens if any.
✓ Blood clots which cover the wound and prevents entry of pathogens until it heals.
2. Chemical barriers
Chemical barriers include:
✓ Mucus produced in trachea (by goblet cells) which traps pathogen and then cilia
sweep them away out of the respiratory tract.
✓ Hydrochloric acid released by stomach lining kills any bacteria that might enter
our body through food and water.
✓ Lysozyme enzyme found in secretions such as tears and saliva which kills bacteria
by breaking down their cell walls.
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3. Cells
If pathogens manage to breach outer defenses, they are immediately met with further
defenses inside the body. They are – Phagocytes and antibodies produced by
Lymphocytes.
✓ Phagocytes fight infection by engulfing bacteria by a process called phagocytosis
and then digesting them.
✓ Lymphocytes produce antibodies that attach themselves to bacteria, making it
easier for other white blood cells to engulf them.
PHAGOCYTOSIS
The process by which a phagocyte cell engulfs and then digests the pathogen to destroy it,
is called as phagocytosis. During phagocytosis:
1. The cell membrane of phagocyte entraps
or encircles the bacteria and engulfs it.
2. A vacuole or a sac is formed within the
cell which is called as phagosome.
3. Phagosome fuses with lysosomes which
contains enzymes.
4. Enzymes of the lysosomes digest and
destroy the pathogen and digested
products are released out of the cell
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ROLE OF BENEFICIAL BACTERIA PRESENT IN GUT

The microorganisms present in the gut play a crucial role in digestive health; however,
they also contribute to our immune system.
These bacteria act as a strong barrier, preventing toxins from the faeces getting
reabsorbed.
They also protect us against pathogen colonization and invasion of harmful microbes
that enter the body every day.
ANTIGENS AND ANTIBODIES

Antigens
• Antigens are the molecules which trigger immune response in our body.
• Antigen molecules, usually made of proteins or carbohydrates, are found on the
surfaces of every cell including bacteria and the outer coats of viruses.
• They may be released by bacteria as toxins.
Antibodies
• Antibodies are large proteins produced by lymphocytes and released into the blood.
• They are basically Y-shaped, with two identical arms
that bind to antigen molecules.
• They are highly specific/ selective. Each pathogen has
its own antigens, which have specific shapes, so specific
antibodies complimentary to the antigen are needed
to destroy a particular pathogen.
• This means that an antibody that attacks a bacterium
which causes typhoid will not affect a bacterium which causes tuberculosis.
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HOW ARE ANTIBODIES PRODUCED?

1. Bacteria have antigen on their surface.
2. Lymphocyte, when it detects a particular antigen, it starts dividing by mitosis to
produce large number of identical cells called as plasma cells.
3. These plasma cells produce and secret antibodies specific to the antigen of the
pathogen.
The diagram below shows a bacterium with its antigens and two types of antibodies.
✓ Antibody X is non-complementary to the
antigen of this bacterial cell so it cannot bind
with antigen.
✓ While antibody Y is complementary to the
antigen of this bacterial cell so it can bind with
the antigen and destroy the bacterial cell.
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HOW DO ANTIBODIES DESTROY PATHOGENS?

Antibodies destroy pathogens in the following ways:
1. Agglutination: Antibodies cause agglutination (clumping together) of bacteria,
preventing their entry into cells and therefore reducing their chances of spread
throughout the body.
2. Neutralisation: Some antibodies combine with toxins and neutralize them to
make them harmless, such molecules are called as antitoxins.
3. Opsonisation: They bind with antigen, attach onto the surface of bacteria and act
like markers making it easier for phagocytes to recognize, engulf and destroy them.
4. Lysis: They lock on to the antigen and destroy the pathogen by causing their
cells to burst, by punching hole in their cell walls.
IMMUNITY
Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist a particular infection or toxin by the
action of specific antibodies or sensitized white blood cells.
There are two types of immunity: Active immunity and Passive immunity.
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PASSIVE IMMUNITY
• The immunity which results by transfer of immune components such as antibodies
from an immune individual to a nonimmune one.
• Passive immunity gained when a person is given someone else's antibodies. When
these antibodies are introduced into the person's body, they help prevent or fight
certain infectious diseases.
• The temporary immunity conferred by these methods is called passive immunity
because the antibodies have not been produced by the patient.
• It is only temporary because it does not result in the formation of memory cells.
1. Passive immunity can occur naturally, when maternal antibodies are transferred to
the fetus through the placenta.
Example:
When a mother breastfeeds her baby, the milk contains some of the mother’s white
blood cells, which produce antibodies. These antibodies provide the baby with
protection against infection at a vulnerable time: the baby’s immune responses are not
yet fully developed. This is why passive immunity is very important for breast-fed
infants.
2. Passive immunity can also be induced artificially, when high levels of antibodies
specific to a pathogen or toxin are transferred to non-immune person. Such antibodies
are usually obtained from humans, horses, or other animals.
Example:
People who have recently received an anti-tetanus inoculation will have made anti-
tetanus antibodies in their blood. The anti-tetanus antibodies are then extracted from
their blood plasma and used to treat patients who are at risk of contracting tetanus.
Antibodies against chickenpox and rabies can be produced in a similar way.
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ACTIVE IMMUNITY
• The immunity which results by the production of antibodies against an antigen is
called as Active immunity.
• It is gained by the active development of antibodies in the infected individual after
an infection by a pathogen or by vaccination.
• When a pathogen enters our body, Lymphocytes undergo rapid cell division by
mitosis and produce antibodies which bind to the antigens of bacteria and destroy
them.
• Some of the lymphocytes remain in the lymph nodes. They are called as memory
cells.
• If the same pathogen gets into the body in future, these memory cells will divide
rapidly and make more antibodies in short time. This means that the body has
become immune to the disease caused by the antigen and this is why, once you have
recovered from some diseases like measles or chickenpox, you are very unlikely to
catch the same disease again.
• As shown in the graph above, the initial
exposure (when body encounters a pathogen for
the first time) resulted in primary immune
response. Primary response is slower and short
lived as small number of antibodies are
produced.
• The secondary exposure (when body
encounters same pathogen for the second time) resulted in secondary immune
response which is rapid, and a large number of antibodies are produced.
• This is because of the presence of memory cells (produced in the primary response)
which quickly produce specific antibodies to fight the infection.
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In summary:
PASSIVE IMMUNITY
A. Naturally acquired passive immunity is when a baby gets

antibodies through mother’s milk.
B. Artificially acquired passive immunity is when
antibodies produced by one organism/individual are given
to another organism/individual.
ACTIVE IMMUNITY
A. Naturally acquired active immunity, involves response to

a pathogen by the infected individual himself.
B. Artificially acquired active immunity involves use of
vaccines.
VACCINATION
• Vaccination involves exposing our body to a weakened or harmless form of the
pathogen to stimulate/enhance white blood cells to produce antibodies.
• Different vaccines are needed for different diseases.
• A vaccine is introduced into your body by injection or by swallowing.
• The vaccine contains one of the following:
1. A harmless form of the micro-organism
2. The killed micro-organisms
3. A toxoid-the inactivated toxin from the bacteria
4. Small quantity of antigen
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• The presence of the pathogen/antigen/toxin triggers immune response by lymphocytes

which begin to multiply by mitosis, increase in numbers and produce specific
antibodies- this is primary response.
• In the process memory cells are made and stored in the body.
• The concentration of antibodies decreases after the primary immune response as
they are broken down and are no longer being produced. However small
concentration of antibodies will remain in the blood, as shown in the graph.
• This gives long term active immunity because if the real micro-organisms attack our
body in future, some antibodies are already present or are very quickly made by the
stored memory cells.
• Thus, when the person is exposed to the same pathogen later, antibodies are
produced in large numbers and very quickly-This is secondary response.
• Thus, the person will not develop the disease and is said to be immune to that disease.
• Without vaccination, white blood cells need to be exposed to the disease organism
before they make the appropriate antibody. If the disease is potentially lethal, the
patient could die before the white blood cells have time to act.
IMPORTANCE/ROLE OF VACCINATION
1. Results in active immunity it give long term protection against disease.

2. Can avoid permanent damage to body parts caused by some diseases.
3. Routine vaccination prevents the spread of infectious disease.
4. Vaccination has led to the eradication of smallpox and the control of many infectious
diseases, including polio, measles, and whooping cough.
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CONTINUED USE OF VACCINE:

• Even if a disease disappears from a country the vaccine should continue to be used.
This is because bacteria may still be present in some people (carriers of disease) who
have no symptoms.
• In such a case they may infect freshly to people who are not vaccinated. This will
cause the disease to spread once again. Therefore, vaccination must be given to
every individual even of disease has disappeared from an area.
• Sometimes vaccine booster (additional dose of vaccine) is required to boost the
immune system because the immune response ‘memory’ weakens over time. For
example, anti-tetanus injections need to be repeated every ten years.
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IMMUNE SYSTEM DISORDERS: TYPE 1 DIABETES

• It is also known as juvenile onset diabetes as it mainly affects young people.
• It occurs due to the inability of cells in the pancreas to produce sufficient insulin.
• There is a slight inherited tendency towards the disease, but it may be triggered by a
virus infection, which causes the body’s immune system to attack the cells that
produce insulin. It is therefore classed as an autoimmune disease.
• The outcome is that the patient’s blood is deficient in insulin and he or she needs
regular injections of the hormone in order to control blood sugar levels and so
lead a normal life.
• This form of the disease is, therefore, sometimes called ‘insulin-dependent’ diabetes.
SYMPTOMS OF TYPE 1 DIABETES TREATMENT OF TYPE 1 DIABETES
1. Frequent urination, thirst and hunger 1. Giving regular injection insulin
2. Fatigue and weight loss 2. Regular exercise to use up extra calories
3. Itchy skin, wounds heal slowly 3. Restricted carbohydrate content of diet.
4. More susceptible to infection

4. Regular blood sugar tests are done to
5. High blood glucose sugar monitor glucose level
6. Glucose in urine
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CONTROLLING SPREAD OF DISEASES
1. Hygienic food preparation: Hygienic food preparation practices can stop the spread of
diseases caused by pathogens. This can be done in following ways:
• Wash and clean, food, hands and equipment thoroughly.
• Keep food covered always, to prevent flies and other vectors form transmitting
pathogens. Reheat food at higher temperature before eating.
• Cook food, thoroughly at correct temperature so as to kill bacteria if any.
• Keep cooked and uncooked food separate to avoid contamination. Raw fruits and
vegetable must be thoroughly washed before eating.
• Food must be stored at correct storage temperature, example milk, meat and bread
cannot be stored at same temperature.
• Kitchen must be kept free from animals like pets, rodents, insects, etc.
• Empty waste bins frequently to avoid breeding of flies and pathogens.
• Use different preparation surfaces such as for chopping boards, etc.
• Keep the kitchen environment dry, as moist environment attracts pathogens and
vectors.
• Keep wounds under waterproof dressings, tie the hair properly.
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2. Good personal hygiene:

• Brush teeth regularly to keep bacteria under control.
• Trim nails regularly, as the dirt and pathogens find a good breeding ground under
nails which may lead to diseases.
• Take shower regularly, so as to wash away
dirt, sweat from the body which encourage
bacteria and other pathogens to grow. Use a
good soap and shampoo.
• Wash hands carefully before and after
eating food.
• Wash hands with antibacterial hand wash
after using toilets.
• Wash clothes, socks regularly and avoid
wearing same clothes for long time.
• Use alcohol based deodorant to keep
pathogens away.
• Keep your inner garments always clean and
dry.
3. Waste disposal:
• Do not throw garbage/rubbish outside house or on roads. Dispose them safely so that
they are collected and taken to landfill sites by refuse collection vehicles.
• Use dust bins with closely fitting lids to avoid
breeding of pathogens and vectors.
• Never fill a bag or container to full to avoid
spilling of wastes.
• Separate dust bins for dry and wet waste.
• Cleaning contaminated surfaces using anti-
bacterial cleaners.
• Recyclable material must be used to avoid a
lot of production of rubbish.
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• Waste disposal sites/landfill sites should be away from living

places and paly grounds, etc.
• Insecticides must be sprayed regularly in waste disposal
areas.
• In hospitals syringes, needles, plasters, bandages, soiled
clothing, toilets, materials used to clean wounds, etc. have to
be very safely disposed.
4. Sewage treatment:
• Sewage is the waste coming out of toilets, kitchens in houses and offices. It also
includes wastes from industries. It includes urine, feces, toilet papers, detergents, oils
and many other chemical.
• Substances in sewage promote the growth of decomposers such as bacteria which
can cause diseases.
• This can not only cause harm to humans but also to plants and animals living in water
bodies like lakes and rivers, as the sewage usually ends up there.
• Diseases such as cholera spread through water polluted with sewage.
• Thus sewage water must be treated well before it is dumped into water bodies.
• In sewage treatment plants, sewage water must be treated by physical, chemical and
biological process to make it harmless.
• Chlorination of water helps to kill any bacteria in water making it safe for drinking
and using.
• Drinking water must be boiled and cooled before drinking to kill any bacteria
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PAST PAPERS QUESTIONS LIST
CORE
Year Paper 1 Paper 3
June 16 - -
Nov 16 21/12; 21/13; 4/31;
Feb-Mar 16 - -
June 17 18,19/11;19/13 -
Nov 17 21/11,12
Feb-Mar 17 17/12 -
June 18 19/11,12,13 3/32,4/33
Nov-18 18/11,12,13 -
Feb-Mar 18 15/12
March 19 21/12
Nov 19 18/11,12,13
June 20 17/11,12,13
EXTENDED
Year Paper 2 Paper 4 Paper 6
June 16 20/21;17/22;13,19/23 6c/42 -
Nov 16 21/21;22/22;21,22/23 4/41;5c-e/43 -
Feb-Mar16 21/22 - -
June 17 19/21;19/23 2/41;6a-c/42;6/43 -
Nov 17 27/21;19/22,23 6/41;5/42;5d/43
Feb-Mar17 17/22 - -
June 18 19/21,22,23 - -
Nov-18 19/21,22,23 - -
Feb-Mar 18 15/22
March 19 21/22
Nov 19 18.22
June 20 19/11,12
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CHOOSE THE CORRECT ANSWER:
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11
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13
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ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

1
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(ii)
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ALWADI INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL GRADE 9 BIOLOGY 10.

DISEASES AND IMMUNITY NOTES

Bacteria • Bacteria produce poisonous waste products called toxins.

MODES OF DISEASE TRANSMISSION

1. Salmonella food poisoning

DEFENCES AGAINST DISEASES

ROLE OF BENEFICIAL BACTERIA PRESENT IN GUT

ANTIGENS AND ANTIBODIES

HOW ARE ANTIBODIES PRODUCED?

HOW DO ANTIBODIES DESTROY PATHOGENS?

A. Naturally acquired passive immunity is when a baby gets

A. Naturally acquired active immunity, involves response to

• The presence of the pathogen/antigen/toxin triggers immune response by lymphocytes

1. Results in active immunity it give long term protection against disease.

CONTINUED USE OF VACCINE:

IMMUNE SYSTEM DISORDERS: TYPE 1 DIABETES

SYMPTOMS OF TYPE 1 DIABETES TREATMENT OF TYPE 1 DIABETES

1. Frequent urination, thirst and hunger 1. Giving regular injection insulin

2. Fatigue and weight loss 2. Regular exercise to use up extra calories

3. Itchy skin, wounds heal slowly 3. Restricted carbohydrate content of diet.

4. More susceptible to infection

CONTROLLING SPREAD OF DISEASES

2. Good personal hygiene:

• Waste disposal sites/landfill sites should be away from living

PAST PAPERS QUESTIONS LIST

CHOOSE THE CORRECT ANSWER:

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

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