BIO 1130 WEEK 9

I. Definition, equation and overview

Respiration

 Process that breaks down complex carbon compounds into simpler molecules and
simultaneously generates adenosine triphosphate (ATP) used to power other metabolic
processes
 Carbon is oxidized – (+0 to +4) as electrons are removed by NAD+ then converted to NADH
 Opposite of photosynthesis
 NADPH carries electron to carbon reducing it
1. Electrons are transferred from carbon in carbohydrate by means of reduced NADH
which carries them to an electron transport chain
2. It turns deposits into oxygen reducing it
3. Electrons are added, protons are attracted and incorporated converting oxygen to water
 Breaking down of carbohydrates to simpler molecules and generate ATP in the process
 Also, redox respiration

How do plants store carbohydrates?

Store it in the form of starch

Why do we need to talk about respiration?

ATP provides the needed energy for functions to maintain life

Where is the energy used?

Plant growth – power up metabolism

Plant repair and maintenance

Definition and purpose

Aerobic Respiration

 Requires oxygen (terminal electron receptor) and produces many ATP molecules for
each glucose molecule transpired
 Oxygen is inexpensive because it is absorbed and distributed by molecular diffusion that
requires neither active transport nor ATP consumption
 Most efficient catabolic pathway in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with
the organic fuel
 Aer- air
 Bios-life

Anaerobic respiration

 Does not require oxygen but produces fewer ATP molecules per glucose molecule
 Also called fermentation
 Obligates anaerobes

 carry out anaerobic respiration exclusively; bacteria are killed by oxygen

Equation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 +6H2O +ATP

C6H1206 + 6O2 → CO2 +6H2O + Energy

Glucose oxidized to carbon dioxide

Oxygen is reduced to water & energy

Where does it occur?

Ae= mitochondria

An= cytoplasm

Stages (describe the process, enumerate the steps in each stage, what are produced and how
much)

Consist of 3 parts:

1. Glycolysis & pyruvate

2. The citric acid cycles
3. Oxidative phosphorylation in an electron transport chain & chemiosmosis

Overview of respiration

1. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol and after it will be pyruvate

2. then would then enter into the mitochondria that will oxidized to produce Acetyl CoA
3. In which it combines to oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle then NADH and FADH2 is produced a
4. It carries electrons that will be transported to ETC which will power the ATP synthase to produce
ATPs in a process oxidative phosphorylation - oxygen is needed as the final electron acceptor to
produce ATP

1ST stage of photosynthesis ATP was also produced in

photophosphorylation because you need light to occur

Glucose may continue to pyruvate via glycolysis or

ribose 5-phosphate via pentose phosphate pathway

Glycolysis and pentose phosphate pathway

 Glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhoff pathway)

 A metabolic pathway in which the glucose is broken down during anaerobic respiration
 Major portion of anaerobic respiration and first part of aerobic respiration
 Degradation process by breaking glucose into two molecules of pyruvate
 Same with gluconeogenesis; use different enzymes at certain key concepts
o Allows cell to regulate the two processes so that one stopped while the other
runs
o Useless if operate simultaneously within a single cell

STEPS:
Energy investment stage
1. ATP phosphorylates (drive by hexokinase) glucose to glucose 6- phosphate that is converted
into (drive by phosphoglucoisomerase) fructose 6-phosphate

2. 2nd molecule of ATP then phosphorylates (drive by phosphofructokinase) this to fructose 1,6
bisphosphate

3. Aldolase breaks down into 3-phosphoglyceralhyde (or G3P) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate
(do not proceed to the energy pay off stage)

- it yields two ATPs; four ATP are produced and two ATPs are consumed in the process

4. Converted into second molecule of 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and both can be oxidized to 1,3
diphosphoglycerate (2 molecules)
 Electrons are transferred from a carbon of 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde to NAD+,
converting it to NADH
 A phosphate group is attached to the oxidized substrate making high energy product
from exergonic redox reaction

5. stage
Energy pay off 1,3 diphosphoglycerate is energetic that an enzyme can transfer one of its phosphate groups
onto an ADP converting it to ATP and changing the 1,3 diphosphoglycerate into 3-
phosphoglycerate – substrate level phosphorylation
Phosphogylcerate kinase or phosphoglycerokinase – enzyme in which the kinase
constitutes of a large group of enzymes that remove phosphate groups from substrates
Phosphorylases – opposite; adds phosphates to substrates

6. 3-phosphoglycerate is converted (drive by Phosphoglyceromutase) first to 2-phosphoglycerate

and (drive by enolase – causes the double bond to form in the substrate by extracting a water
molecule) then to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) – metabolite & CO2 acceptor in C4 metabolism
and CAM; energetic to transfer its phosphate group onto ADP to make ATP

7. Dephosphorylation causes PEP to become pyruvate (two molecules) drive by pyruvate kinase

G3P is oxidized → 2 molecules of pyruvate

2 ATP and 2 NADH; 2H20

Produces:
 2 pyruvates
 2 ATPs
 2 NADH
Occurs:
 Cytosol and plastids

Pyruvate
 Electron acceptor of animal tissues under anaerobic conditions
 NADH reacts with lactate – anion of lactic acid
 First converted to acetaldehyde and then NADH reacts with it forming ethanol
Glycolysis

Produce ATPs from substrate level phosphorylation

Sugar splitting

2 stages:
- Energy investment stage – uses 2 ATPS
- Energy pay off stage – produce 4 ATPs
- Net ATP – 2 ATPs

Pentose phosphate pathway / hexose monophosphate shunt / phosphogluconate pathway

 Several intermediates that are phosphorylated five-carbon sugars (pentoses) – an important

source for many fundamental compounds
 Transforms glucose into four-carbon sugars (erythrose) and five-carbon sugars (ribose) that are
essential monomers in many metabolic pathways

Intermediates:

A. Begins with glucose 6-phosphate the gives off carbon dioxide and involves oxidation that
produce NADPH
B. Ribose 5- phosphate produced can be shunted into nucleic acid forming basis of RNA
(ribonucleic acid) and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) monomers – nucleotides are the basic
structural units of the nucleic acid
C. Four carbon sugar erythrose 4-phosphate is the starting material in synthesis of many
compounds – two types: lignin and anthocyanin
Also occurs in plastids:
 Synthesis of amino acids such as tyrosine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan
Also produces:
NADPH
Occurs:
 Cytosol and plastids
Products:
  NADPH
 RNA & DNA

- making RNA and DNA

- one of the intermediates may be used to produce lignin important component of secondary cell
wall and anthocyanin – a pigment such as in the poinsettia
- occurs in the cytosol

Pyruvate Oxidation and Citric Acid Cycle/ Tricarboxyllic acid (TCA) cycle/Kreb cycle
Pyruvate oxidation

 Pyruvate is attached to CoA releases CO2 molecule and forms NADH

 Does not occur during anaerobic respiration; only use when pyruvate is needed as an electron
acceptor but would generate more NADH
 Results are detrimental under anaerobic conditions and both are beneficial when oxygen is
present
1. Electrons are transported to NAD+ bonding orbitals holding the last COO- rearrange and
CO2 is liberated
2. CO2 and NADH are produced along with two-carbon fragment – acetyl
3. CO2 and NADH remains free in the matrix solution but the acetyl become attached to
carrier molecule – coenzyme A (CoA) and results in combining to acetyl CoA

Pyruvate cannot immediately enter into the mitochondria; it needs the help of transport protein.

Citric Acid cycle/ Tricarboxyllic acid/ krebs cycle

Citrate

 Anion of citric acid

 Carried out by Hans Krebs
 Several intermediates are tricarboxylic acids – 3 carboxyl (-COOH) groups
 Generation of more ATP
 Four steps in which more NAD+ is reduced to NADH and one in which FAD is reduced to FADH2
 Metabolic furnace that functions as a metabolic furnace that further oxidizes organic fuel
derived from pyruvate

Exergonic – can occur without energy

1 turn
 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2
 2 Pyruvates = 2 turns
Electrons are carried by NADH and FADH → electron transport chain

Occurs:
Cytosol – where pyruvate is transported across the mitochondrial membranes to the mitochondrial
matrix

Acetyl CoA

High potential energy that is used to transfer the acetyl group to a molecule in the citric acid
cycle

Entry into the citric acid cycle by transfer of acetyl group to an acceptor molecule –
oxaloacetate (compound with four carbons)

1. Oxaloacetate is converted to a six-carbon compound, citrate

2. Then rearranged to cis-aconitate, which in turn transformed to isocitrate
3. One of the carbons of isocitrate is oxidized by passing electrons onto NAD+, creating NADH
4. Oxidized carbon is liberated as carbon dioxide leaving alpha ketoglutarate, which has only five
carbons
5. It is then oxidized by NAD+, liberating another CO 2, and the four-carbon remnant becomes
attached to a new molecule of CoA in the process forming succinyl CoA
 Produce NADH and release CO2
6. The energy released by the breakdown into free CoA and free succinate can power
phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
7. The succinate still contains considerable energy and is oxidized to fumarate (four-carbon
compound) as electrons and protons are passed to flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) reducing it
to FADH2; molecules are oxidized but no CO2 is lost
8. It then reacts with a water molecule and becomes malate, which passes a final set of electrons
onto NAD+ and is transformed into the original acceptor molecule, oxaloacetate
 Also forms NADH

2 TURNS

Glucose → 2 pyruvate → 2 acetyl CoA

= 6 NADH, 2FADH2, 2 ATP

Produce ATP from substrate level phosphorylation

Oxidative phosphorylation
 Mode of ATP synthesis that is powered by the redox reactions of the electrons transport chains
 90% of the ATP generated by respiration

Electron transport chain

 Energy in the NADH and FADH2 drives the synthesis of ATP, and NADH is simultaneously
oxidized back to NAD+
 Number of molecules mostly proteins built into the inner membrane of the
mitochondria of eukaryotic cells (and the plasma membranes of respiring prokaryotes)
  Component of the chain becomes reduced when it accepts electrons from its “uphill”
(less electronegative) which then returns to its oxidized form as it passes to its
“downhill” (more electronegative) , Releasing free energy

Prosthetic groups

 Nonprotein components such as cofactors and coenzymes essential for the

catalytic functions of certain enzymes

Transfer of electrons through complex I-IV to the final electron acceptor, O2

Protons are being pumped into the intermembrane space

 If oxygen is pump into space = Ph gradient that will power ATP synthase –
production of ATPs (chemiosmotic phosphorylation)
 1ST stage of photosynthesis the change in gradient that will power ATP synthase
and is used for the carbon reactions of photosynthesis same as NADPH

NADH and FADH2

 Passes electrons to electron carriers in series of protein complexes (complex I, II, III, IV)
 Thousands of these complexes are in the mitochondria – give plants energy to stay alive
 H+ is released as they move along causing a Ph gradient across the membrane

STEPS:

1. Electrons acquired from glucose by NAD+ during glycolysis and citric acid cycle are transferred
from NADH to the first molecule of the electron transport chain; the molecule is a flavoprotein –
I prosthetic group of flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
2. The FMN returns to its oxidized form as it passes electrons to an iron-sulfur protein (Fe-S) family
of proteins with both iron and sulfur tightly bond
 Every electron received 4 H+ are pumped into the intermembrane space

3. The Fe-S then passes the electron to ubiquinone (or coenzyme Q ; not a protein) – electron
carrier that is a small hydrophobic molecule that is not a protein; mobile within the membrane
II rather than residing in a particular complex
 No H+ are pumped in the intermembrane space

4. The remaining electron carriers between ubiquinone and oxygen are cytochromes – heme is
their prosthetic group that has an iron atom that accepts and donates electrons; similar to heme
III in hemoglobin though the iron carries oxygen not electrons
5. Several types of cytochromes (cyt) with a letter and number distinguishing in different protein
with difference in electron-carrying heme group
IV
6. Last cytochrome (Cyt a3) passes its electrons to oxygen – very electronegative
 Pumps H+ in to intermembrane space (III &IV)

7. Each oxygen atom picks up a pair of hydrogen ions (protons) from the aqueous solution,
neutralizing the 2 charge of the added electron and forming water(H20)
No production of ATPs

Importance is H+ is pump and causes the Ph gradient to power the ATP synthase

Breaks a large free-energy drop into a series of smaller steps that release energy in manageable
amounts

Chemiosmosis

 Process in which the inner membrane of the mitochondrion is the site of electron
transport chain
 Energy stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane is used to
drive cellular work such as the synthesis of ATP
 Osmos – push; flow of H+ across a membrane
 Energy-coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the form of an H+ gradient
across a membrane to drive cellular work

H+ gradient created during ETC is used to drive the ATP synthase to produce ATP

Proposed by Peter Mitchell – awarded the Nobel prize in 1978

ATP synthase (molecular mill)

 Protein complex
 Enzyme that makes ATP and ADP and inorganic phosphate
 Uses the energy of the existing ion gradient to power ATP synthesis
 Works like an ion pump running in reverse
 Sites that provide a route through the membrane for H+

Inner membrane of the mitochondrion and chloroplast in eukaryotes and plasma membrane for
prokaryotes

Can be complex V

Protein complex; enzyme that makes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate

Ion pump

 Use ATP as an energy source to transport ions against gradients

Proton-motive force

 Results of H+ gradient emphasizing the capacity

Production of ATP

1. H+ ions flowing down their gradient enter a channel in a stator, which is anchored in the
membrane
2. H+ ions enter binding sites within a rotor, changing the shape of each subunit so that the rotor
spins within the membrane
 3. Each H+ ion makes one complete turn before leaving the rotor and passing through the second
channel in the stator into the mitochondrial matrix
4. Spinning of the rotor causes an internal rod to spin as well. This rod extends like a stalk into the
knob below it, which is held stationary by part of the stator
5. Turning of the rod activates catalytic sites in the knob that produce ATP from ADP and (P)

Occurs:

Mitochondria (electron transport chain & ATP synthase)

Chloroplast (chemiosmosis)

Plasma membrane (prokaryotes)

Produce ATPs making oxygen through

Summary of oxidative phosphorylation

NADH pass through complex I, then FADH2 pass through complex II both receive by CoQ, then pass
through complex III to a series of acceptors, then passed through cytochrome c , then pass through
complex IV and series of intermediates then received by oxygen then water is produced

During the passing of electrons complex I, III, & IV pumping H+ into the intermembrane space that
power the ATP synthase to produce ATPs.

ATP counting

1. Conversion of NADH and FADH2 to ATP

- 1 NADH in the ETC = 10 H+
- 4 H+ re-enters the mitochondrial matrix

Conversion
1 NADH = 3 ATPs
1 NADH = 2.5 ATPs
- TCA contribute FADH2
- Enters ETC via complex II = 6 H+

Conversion
1 FADH2 – H+ = 2 ATPs
1 FADH2 – H+ = 1.5 ATPs

2. ATP yield varies slightly depending on the type of shuttle used to transport electrons from the
cytosol into the mitochondrion
- Glycolysis to pyruvate oxidation
- Electrons are passed either to NAD+ or to FAD
- FAD produces less ATP than NAD+
 Energy counting/glucose molecule

NADH FADH2 ATP

Glycolysis 2 2
Pyruvate 2
oxidation
TCA 6 2 2
Chemiosmosis 34
TOTAL 10 2 38

Glycolysis 2 NADH 2 ATP

‌ 2 ATP
Pyruvate Oxidation 2 NADH
TCA 6 NADH 2 ATP
2 ATP
2 FADH2
ETC 2 NADH @ 3 ATP 6 ATP
(glycolysis)
8 NADH @ 3 ATP 24 ATP
(pyruvate oxidation &
TCA)
2 FADH @ ATP 4 ATP
38 ATPs
NADH FADH2 ATP
Glycolysis 2 2
Pyruvate 2
oxidation
TCA 6 2 2
Chemiosmosis 32
TOTAL 10 2 36

Glycolysis 2 NADH → 2 FADH2 2 ATP

2 ATP
Pyruvate Oxidation 2 NADH
TCA 6 NADH 2 ATP
2 ATP
2 FADH2
ETC 2 FADH2 @ 2 ATP 4 ATP
(glycolysis)
8 NADH @ 3 ATP 24 ATP
(pyruvate oxidation &
TCA)
2 FADH @ ATP 4 ATP
36 ATPs

Campbell counting – used 2.5 or 1.5 causing lower amount of ATP

Efficiency of Respiration
Input:
- Complete oxidation of one mole glucose (Ph 7) = 2880kJ
Output:
- Hydrolysis of 36 ATP (41kJ/ATP)
- 36 x 41 = 1476kJ
Efficiency:
Output/ Input x 100 = 1476/2880 x 100 = 51.25%
What happens to 48.75%?
Lost as heat
II. Alternate pathways
Fermentation (when does it happen, describe the process, enumerate the steps, what is
produced?)
 Difference with anaerobic is it uses ETC while fermentation does not
 Way of harvesting chemical energy without using either oxygen or ETC / cellular respiration
 Extension of glycolysis that allows continuous generation of ATP by the substrate-level
phosphorylation of glycolysis
 Consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD+ by transferring electrons from NADH
to pyruvate or derivatives of pyruvate
 Partial degradation of sugars or other organic fuel that occurs without the use of oxygen

Chemical energy without using either oxygen or any electron transport chain

Extension of glycolysis that allows continuous generation of ATP by the substrate-level phosphorylation

- Produces 2 ATPs

Requires supply of NAD+ to accept electron

Lactic acid fermentation

1. Pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactate as end product regenerating
NAD+ with no release of CO2; Lactate – ionized form of lactic acid

 Cheese & Yogurt – lactic acid fermentation by fungi and bacteria for dairy
industry
 Human muscle cells – make ATP by lactic acid fermentation when oxygen is
scarce during strenuous activity; sugar catabolism for ATP production outpaces
the muscle’s supply of oxygen from the blood in which cells switch from aerobic
respiration to fermentation
 Bacteria, fungi
 Does not have to enter mitochondria directly converted to lactate
 Alcohol fermentation
 Pyruvate is converted to ethanol (ethyl alcohol)
 Most bacteria carry this process under anaerobic condition
 Yeast – CO2 bubbles generated by baker’s yeast during alcohol fermentation
allows the bread to rise
 Wine, beer

1. Releases CO2 from the pyruvate which is converted to the two-carbon compound
acetaldehyde
Acetaldehyde is reduced by the NADH to ethanol which regenerates the supply of NAD+
needed for the continuation of glycolysis

2 ATPs produce in both fermentation

III. Compare and contrast photosynthesis and

respiration
Photosynthesis

 Anabolic
 Light is essential
Respiration

 Catabolic
 Light is not essential
Organelle involved

 R= cytosol & mitochondria

 P= chloroplast (thylakoid & stroma)

Requirements

 P= CO2, LIGHT, WATER

 R= O2 & Glucose

Products

 R = CO2, ATP & H20

 P= G3P

TERMS
Catabolic pathways – metabolic pathways that release stored energy by breaking down complex
molecules
Reducing agent – electron donor

Oxidizing agent – electron acceptor

Oxidation – total or partial loss of electrons

Reduction – total or partial addition of electrons

Redox reactions – transfer of electrons; oxidation-reaction

NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)

 Derivative of niacin
 Coenzyme that is well suited as an electron carrier
 NAD+ = oxidized form
 NADH = reduced form

Substrate-level phosphorylation

 Smaller amount where ATP is formed directly in a few reactions of glycolysis and citric acid cycle
 Occurs when an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ADP, rather
than adding an inorganic phosphate to ADP as in oxidative phosphorylation

Substrate molecule – organic molecule generated as an intermediate during the catabolism of glucose

ATP is produced by direct transfer of phosphate group from an organic substrate to ADP by an enzyme

Exergonic

 Chemical reaction where the change in free energy is negative