Disaster Management

A disaster can be defined as an occurrence causing widespread
destruction and distress. Disaster management does not avert

or eliminate the threats; instead, it focuses on creating plans to
decrease the effect of disasters. Failure to create a plan could
lead to damage to assets, human mortality, and lost revenue.
Events covered by disaster management include acts
of terrorism, fire, human caused disaster (like electrical fire,
structural issues, industrial sabotage), natural
disasters (like earthquakes, hurricanes, Tsunami, flood
etc.), public disorder, and communication failures.
Types of Disaster
 Geophysical (e.g. Earthquakes, Landslides, Tsunamis and Volcanic
Activity)
 Hydrological (e.g. Avalanches and Floods)
 Climatological (e.g. Extreme Temperatures, Drought and Wildfires)
 Meteorological (e.g. Cyclones and Storms/Wave Surges)
 Biological (e.g. Disease Epidemics and Insect/Animal Plagues)
The four phases of disaster: 1) mitigation; 2) preparedness; 3) response; and

4) recovery.
The model helps frame issues related to disaster preparedness as well as

economic and business recovery after a disaster. Each phase has particular
needs, requires distinct tools, strategies, and resources and faces different
challenges. The issues addressed below relate to the resiliency and recovery
of the local economy and business community before and after a major
disaster.
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PHASES OF DISASTER
MITIGATION
Mitigation involves steps to reduce vulnerability to disaster impacts such as

injuries and loss of life and property. This might involve changes in local
building codes to fortify buildings; revised zoning and land use management;
strengthening of public infrastructure; and other efforts to make the
community more resilient to a catastrophic event.
PREPAREDNESS
Preparedness focuses on understanding how a disaster might impact the

community and how education, outreach and training can build capacity to
respond to and recover from a disaster. This may include engaging the
business community, pre-disaster strategic planning, and other logistical
readiness activities. The disaster preparedness activities guide provides more
information on how to better prepare an organization and the business
community for a disaster.
RESPONSE
Response addresses immediate threats presented by the disaster, including

saving lives, meeting humanitarian needs (food, shelter, clothing, public
health and safety), cleanup, damage assessment, and the start of resource
distribution. As the response period progresses, focus shifts from dealing
with immediate emergency issues to conducting repairs, restoring utilities,
establishing operations for public services (including permitting), and
finishing the cleanup process.
 Triage efforts assess and deal with the most pressing emergency

issues. This period is often marked by some level of chaos, which can last a
month or more, depending on the nature of the disaster and the extent of
damage. Federal resources, such as action from the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (in the case of a major disaster declaration) and non-
profit resources such as the Red Cross are deployed immediately
 Business re-entry into the economy begins during this phase.
Businesses initially may face issues with access to their site, preliminary
damage assessment, and communications with staff, vendors, suppliers and
customers. Ongoing issues may include access to capital and workers, the
repair of damaged property or inventory, and a diminished customer base. It
is in this phase that long-term future of a region’s business base will be saved
or lost.
 Business Recovery Centers are quickly set up in a community to
centralize small business recovery resources (e.g. SBA, SBDC, SCORE,
CDFI, etc), local bank officers, technical assistance providers, and other
critical assistance for maintaining business continuity and/or get businesses
up and running.
 Federal resources from SBA, FEMA, HUD, EDA, USDA, etc., as
well as state programs, start to arrive; temporary housing goes up; and the
planning for the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, facilities, and areas
begins. The response phase typically continues through the sixth month,
again depending on the nature of the disaster.
It is not uncommon for disasters to reveal a weakened economic development
landscape, with significant gaps in organizational capacity, staff and
resources. Thus, economic development agencies and stakeholders may need
additional staff, capacity building assistance, and training.
RECOVERY
Recovery is the fourth phase of disaster and is the restoration of all aspects of
the disaster’s impact on a community and the return of the local economy to
some sense of normalcy. By this time, the impacted region has achieved a
degree of physical, environmental, economic and social stability.
The recovery phase of disaster can be broken into two periods. The short-
term phase typically lasts from six months to at least one year and involves
delivering immediate services to businesses. The long-term phase, which can
range up to decades, requires thoughtful strategic planning and action to
address more serious or permanent impacts of a disaster. Investment in
economic development capacity building becomes essential to foster
economic diversification, attain new resources, build new partnerships and
implement effective recovery strategies and tactics. Communities must access
and deploy a range of public and private resources to enable long-term
economic recovery.

CAUSES for disaster
CAUSES RESPONSIBLE FOR NATURAL DISASTERS-
There are different types on natural disasters and depending on different types of
disasters the causes are also different. For example, the causes of earthquake
cannot be same as that of forestfire. Natural disasters are caused due to different
reasons like soil erosion, seismic activity, tectonic movements, air pressure, and
ocean currents etc. natural disaster is not a new phenomenon these natural events
have occurred since the earth began forming and continue to cause serious damage
and loss of life all over the globe from many years. The root causes of most of the
natural disasters that occur on earth can be attributed to the imbalance created in
our environment. This imbalance may either be in the form of air pollution, noise
pollution or water pollution and the collective effect of these imbalances are also
one of the few reasons for natural disaster. Though it also a fact that we cannot
blame anyone because this is just one of the few reasons. Natural disasters like
earthquake, floods etc have also occurred in past era when human was far away
from modernization. So it would not be fair enough to blame modernization for the
same. Natural Disasters are a set of naturally occurring events which can directly
or indirectly cause severe threats to human health and well-being and adversely
affects the human life for quite some time. It has been witnessed that the natural
disasters have their root causes in the normal activities of the earth. However
during past few years we have witnessed some rapid modernization and growth,
man's increased knowledge and technology has served to trigger for some natural
disasters. Flooding and erosion can occur is really prone to the areas where mining,
deforestation, and manufacturing have taken place. Global warming, which could
eventually effect the ocean currents, has its roots in modern man's overuse of fossil
fuels. Earthquakes resulting as a result of tectonic movements and movements of
plates inside the earth’s crust can also be triggered by drilling, bombing, mining,
and construction.
THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON NATURAL

DISASTERS
It has been estimated that rapidly growing modernization is leading to ignorance

towards the environment. Today we are growing at rapid rate neglecting the harm
that we are causing to our environment. Environmental bylaws are being neglected

for personal gains by few businessmen. The dual forces of global warming as well
as poor human management in the field of land and water resources combine to the
cause of natural disasters. Humans have created a situation where ordinary events
like earthquakes and hurricanes become increasingly elevated to the level of
natural disasters which results in heavy losses in the terms of human life as well as
property. Scientists researching on this topic from past many years have found that
the increase in hydrometeorological disasters can be attributed to a combination of
natural and human-caused factors. The main problem is global warming which is
increasing the temperatures of Earth's oceans and atmosphere, leading to more
intense storms of all types, including hurricanes and floods due to melting of these
oceans. Unplanned urbanization is at its peak, no one is really caring about the
environmental risks and everyone is busy making money. There are a lot of
constructions coming up in flood-prone regions which has increasing the
likelihood that their towns and villages will be affected by flash floods and coastal
floods. A recent flood in Uttarakhand is one such example. Human greed is
increasing day by day and people are not at all hesitant in ignoring the
environmental laws and result is the destruction. In one way or the other we are
hampering our environment, the rapidly growing industrialization has led to a lot
of air as well as water pollution. Though there are environmental laws that these
industries need to follow to treat the waste before disposing off into environment
but most of the times the industry owners neglect these laws for their personal gain
and even authorities are also quite relaxed and do not take a prompt action against
the culprits. Rapid construction has led to large land areas being covered with
cement, which means that the flow of water becomes very strong, and the runoff
from the water can't get absorbed by the soil anymore, so it keeps collecting and
rushing down, getting heavier and faster, which may ultimately lead to much
bigger floods. It is not that everyone is being ignorant in the race to be the best.
There are also a lot of people who really cares about the environment and are really
serious about taking up the matter at larger scale. There are many societies and
group of people who are working in the field of environmental awareness and are
working day and night out to make people aware of the harmful effects of the
pollution and other practices that are harmful for our environment. Several NGO’s
are taking up the issue of pollution and global warming publically by taking out
rallies and organizing various campaigns to save environment and such initiatives
need to be appreciated.

Rapid onset disasters
Most of the 'natural' disasters we hear about arrive rapidly and in the
case of earthquakes, with no warning. They are rapid onset disasters.
Cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons - the same hazard with a different

name in different parts of the world - arrive with a few days warning,
and annually we know when the cyclone season is likely to occur in
specific regions, so that preparations can me made for their arrival.
Floods can arrive very fast, but the conditions in which floods are likely
to occur are quite predictable. occur quickly and with little warning. Volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes, flash floods, and landslides are examples of rapid onset hazards.
Slow onset disasters
Droughts are relatively slow disasters. Climate change, environmental

degradation and desertication are very slow onset events, but can and
should be considered as disasters in terms of the damage and disruption
to lives that they may or indeed already do create. occur slowly and may take years to
develop. Epidemics, insect infestations, and droughts are all slow onset hazards
How do slow-onset disasters affect migration, how is it different from rapid-

onset?
We can analyse this by looking at how slow and rapid-onset disasters create
different kinds of human movement.
Do they both create forced movement?

Yes. This is the most obvious similarity. People are forced to move by both kinds
of disasters. In our two earlier examples (Typhoon Haiyan and the Horn of Africa
drought) millions of people had no choice about moving. They simply had to move
in order to survive.
Do they both create voluntary movement?

Sudden disasters tend not to create voluntary movement. Slow-onset disasters can
create both forced and voluntary movement. The slowly unfolding pace of slow-
onset disasters means that some people might choose to move, before they are
forced to move later on. Often people with slightly more money or resources will
leave an area as conditions get worse. Clearly this movement is not entirely
voluntary. However it may leave people with more choices about when they move
and where they go.
Do they both create internal movement?

Yes. In fact the vast majority of people who are affected by both rapid and slow-
onset disasters move within their own country.
KEY RESOURCE
CLIMATE, MIGRATION, NEOLIBERALISM
The lecture sketches out a history of neoliberalism, and then looks at how the
culmination of this political thinking is reflected in the policies that are being
created to address climate change and migration.
Do they both create cross border movement?

Slow-onset disasters are more likely to create cross border movement. For example
during the Horn of Africa drought millions of people fled across international
borders into neighboring countries. As we’ve pointed out in previous posts, this
was the result of a complex web of environmental, economic and conflict drivers.
During sudden disasters people tend to move short distances. They have little or no
time to collect possessions, and often move to the nearest safest place.
“The water came at night and we didn’t have time to save our belongings; we had
to chose whether to save our children and ourselves or our property and assets, so
we chose to save our kids. We left everything and ran to save our lives.” Unnamed
survivor of the 2010 floods (World Food Programme)
There are circumstances in which rapid-onset disasters might influence the choices
of migrants who are already outside their own country. For example a large
number of people from the Philippines work overseas, and the Typhoon will have
affected their decisions about if and when to return.
RELATED VIDEO
CLIMATE, MIGRATION, NEOLIBERALISM
The lecture sketches out a history of neoliberalism, and then looks at how the
culmination of this political thinking is reflected in the policies that are being
created to address climate change and migration.
What about permanent and temporary movement?

People affected by slow and rapid-onset disasters often express a deep desire to
return, as do many people displaced by factors other than disasters. People fleeing
both kinds of disasters often do return. In the case of slow-onset disasters like
drought, people will often return when conditions improve. With rapid-onset
disasters people will often return quickly to take part in reconstruction. This can
leave both groups vulnerable if the same disaster strikes again. Some kinds of
slow-onset disasters might be permanent, and might create permanent
displacement.
For example sea level rise is already creating permanent movement away from low
lying areas. Desertification in many cases is not reversed and creates situations
where farming may not be possible again. In these circumstances the movement
may be permanent rather than temporary. Some kinds of slow-onset disasters may
create seasonal and circular migration.
For example if altered rainfall patterns make farming less profitable people may
move during dryer periods and then return as conditions change. People might also
seek work elsewhere during quieter parts of the agricultural year, and then return
when more work is available.
What are Geohazards?

The word geohazard comes from two words:
1. Geo – from the word ‘geological’ meaning from the earth

2. Hazard – a situation that poses a risk to property, environment or life
So ‘geohazards’ means the risk of damage caused by a geological process.
Sometimes hazards are not obvious until pointed out. For example we wash our
hands to avoid biohazards such as viruses and bacteria even though they are too
small to see. We are told that some foods are poisonous (a biohazard) so we don’t
eat them.
All geological hazards (geohazards) could be considered dormant until they are
triggered.
When the hazard occurs it may then be called an event, accident, emergency,
incident, or disaster. The study and monitoring of geohazards helps us to better
prepare ourselves and respond to these geological events when they do occur.
Geohazards can be small features that have an impact only on their local area such
as a small landslide that partially blocks a road or track through to large
earthquakes that affect entire cities. They can also be very large events that have a
widespread impact such as large tsunami.
Types of geohazard
Geohazards include:
 landslides
 earthquakes
 tsunamis
 volcanoes
 lahars
 hydrothermal eruptions
Common geohazards
New Zealand is geologically active. This is because it sits across the boundary
between the Indo-Australian and Pacific tectonic plates. These moving plates
create huge forces that have shaped our spectacular landscape; uplifting mountains,
carving out lakes and rivers and creating our rugged coastline. These forces
continue to form the land today and can also cause frequent earthquakes,
landslides, volcanic eruptions, hydrothermal activity and even tsunami.
Earthquakes
Earthquakes are caused when rocks break due to the stress applied by movement of
the tectonic plates that make up the outer layer of the Earth. About 15,000
earthquakes occur every year in New Zealand, but we only feel about 150-200 of
these earthquakes a year. While many are small, those that are strong and close to
towns or cities can cause great damage and sometimes loss of life. For this reason
it is important for New Zealanders to know how to prepare for and respond safely
to earthquakes.
Tsunami
A tsunami is a series of powerful ocean surges caused by a large volume of the

ocean floor being displaced – often by an undersea earthquake or landslide. Most
tsunamis are similar to very strong, fast tides, rather than waves. The larger ones
can travel a long way inland. Much of the damage from tsunamis is caused by the
erosion generated by the strong currents and floating debris.
Volcanoes

When molten material (magma) reaches the earth’s surface a volcano is formed.
A volcano will erupt fragmented rock and magma (ash) and release steam and
gases. New Zealand’s volcanoes are often active and are constantly monitored, for
example Ruapehu, Tongariro, White Island. Ash from eruptions can spread over
large distances so can affect people living a long way from the eruption. Hazards
also exist close to the active vent(s).
Lahars
Lahar is an Indonesian word that describes a volcanic mudflow. When moving, a

lahar looks like a mass of wet concrete that carries rock debris. Lahars vary in size
and speed and can cause widespread damage.
Eruptions may trigger lahars by quickly melting snow and ice on a volcano or
ejecting water from a crater lake. Lahars are also formed by heavy rainfall during
or after an eruption, when volcanic ash is washed off the volcano. Some of the
largest lahars begin as landslides.
Hydrothermal activity
Hydrothermal systems are a by-product of volcanic activity. The residual

(volcanic) heat at depth heats the local ground water to create the geothermal
activity. Most of New Zealand’s hydrothermal activity occurs in the Taupō
Volcanic Zone, an area that extends from White Island to Mt. Ruapehu.
Hydrothermal activity is usually confined to hot springs, geysers and warm ground.
However, if they become unstable eruptions can occur. Hydrothermal processes
are often acidic and can alter the nature of rocks and soils, leading to slumping and
collapse of ground, which can cause damage to property and harm people.
Hydrogen sulphide gas can also be emitted and if there are high levels it can be
harmful.
Landslides
A landslide is a movement of soil, rock and debris down a slope. Landslides often
happen as a result of other natural disasters, such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and floods (rainfall).
Landslides are common throughout New Zealand. Serious landslides in built-up

areas can cause thousands of dollars in damage and threaten lives.
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The word geohazard comes from two words:
1. Geo – from the word ‘geological’ meaning from the earth

2. Hazard – something that poses a risk to property, place or life
So ‘geohazards’ means the risk of damage from a geological process.
Sometimes hazards are not easy to see. For example, we wash our hands to avoid
germs (biohazards) even though they are too small to see. We are told that some
foods are poisonous (a biohazard) so we don’t eat them.
All geological hazards (geohazards) could be called dormant until they are
triggered.
When the hazard occurs it may then be called an event, accident, emergency,
incident, or disaster. The study and monitoring of geohazards helps us to better
prepare ourselves and helps us respond to these geological events when they do
occur.
Geohazards can be small features that have an impact only on their local area such
as a small landslide that partially blocks a road or track, through to large
earthquakes that affect whole cities. They can also be very large events that have a
widespread impact such as large tsunami.
What are the effects of geological hazards?
Geologic hazards are responsible for great loss of life and destruction of property.
In the twentieth century more than a million people worldwide have been killed by
earthquakes alone, and the value of the property destroyed by earthquakes,
volcanoes, and tsunamis amounts to scores of billions of dollars.
What Climatology Is
Climatology, or sometimes known as climate science, is the study of the Earth's
weather patterns and the systems that cause them. From the ocean oscillations to
trade winds, pressure systems that drives temperature, airborne particles that
influence local conditions and even the phases of the moon and Earth's wobble all
affect the climate (1). The word “climatology” comes, as may scientific words and

terms do, from the Greek. Klima means “zone” or “area” and “logia” means
“study”. This means that climatology is the “study of zones” although in reality it
is much more complicated than that.
Climatologists today are almost universally directing their efforts towards

understanding, explaining and attempting to do something about global warming,
but as you will see in the list below, that is not the science's only puzzle to solve
nor the limits of its interest (2). Until relatively recently, it was considered a dry
and uninteresting, yet necessary area of science. But since it became clear that
human actions are damaging the environment and changing the climate, it has
become much more prominent nationally and internationally with most
government departments in most countries having responsibilities to mitigate or
prepare for climate change scenario.
What Climatology Is Not

Climatology is not meteorology; both concern weather patterns and their causes
and effects, but differ in many ways although they will be interested in each other's
data. Climate science examines long-term patterns and trends
whereas meteorologists examine short-term weather patterns and their impact,
climatologists study long-term trends such as temperature change, water and ice
levels, cloud cover, flood and drought patterns, and their long-term, long-range
impact on various topographies and globally.
 Meteorology is what the weather is doing now whereas climatology is what

you expect to see (1)
 Meteorology is short-term effects and results, climatology is long-term
consequences
 Meteorology concerns small areas; climatology concerns much larger areas,
or global results

Even how they use equipment differs. Satellites, for example, are used in
meteorology to track weather systems and to monitor atmospheric fronts to predict
what the weather will do next. Climatologists use different data sets from satellites
- temperatures at various levels through the atmosphere and at ground level, for
example, or mapping energy flows and noticing changes that could affect local
climate (2).
• Earth –
–Solid- Geosphere : Geology, Geomorphology, Mineralogy, Seismology
– Liquid – hydrosphere : Hydrology
– Gases – Atmosphere : Meteorology – Hydrology + Meteorology =
Hydrometeorology
Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric

chemistry and atmospheric physics, with a major focus on weather forecasting. The
study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in
meteorology did not occur until the 18th century. The 19th century saw modest
progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad
regions. Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data. It was
not until after the elucidation of the laws of physics and more particularly, the
development of the computer, allowing for the automated solution of a great many
equations that model the weather, in the latter half of the 20th century that
significant breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved. An important
domain of weather forecasting is marine weather forecasting as it relates to
maritime and coastal safety, in which weather effects also include atmospheric
interactions with large bodies of water.
Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the
science of meteorology. Meteorological phenomena are described and quantified
by the variables of Earth's atmosphere: temperature, air pressure, water
vapour, mass flow, and the variations and interactions of those variables, and how
they change over time. Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict
weather on local, regional, and global levels.

Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are
sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose
the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology. The interactions between Earth's
atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system.
Meteorology has application in many diverse fields such as the military, energy
production, transport, agriculture, and construction.
• Hydrology
– deals with occurrence, circulation and distribution of water in the
earth, their physical and chemical properties and their reaction with the
environment
– main concern is - quantities and time distribution of water passing
through the various phases
Phases –
• Atmosphere – water vapor and clouds
• Earth surface – snow, ice, dew, mist, water in streams, lakes and
oceans
• Below surface – soil moisture and groundwater
• Hydrology of a region affected by

– Weather pattern
– physical factors related to topography, geology, vegetation – Human
activities (urbanization etc)
Climate and Weather

• Climate ?
– largely dependent on geographical position on the earth’s surface
– deals with long term conditions
• Important Climatic Factors: ?
–precipitation and its mode of occurrence, humidity, temperature and
wind, all of which directly affect evaporation and transpiration
– Weather ?
• Day to day variation of the climatic factors
Importance of meteorology and hydrology
• Estimation of water resources
• Study the processes such as precipitaion, runoff, evaporation and their

interactions
• Study problems such as floods and droughts and strategies to combat them
• weather forecasting
• preparation of cropping calendar
• determination of suitable cropping system
• irrigation designing • construction of dam, culverts, reservoirs • designing soil

conservation practices
Hydrologic Cycle
• natural circulation of water from the oceans and land surface to the air, air to
land, and back to the ocean

• driving force - radiant energy of the sun
Basic Hydrological Cycle Components
The hydrologic cycle can be subdivided into three major systems: The oceans
being the major reservoir and source of water, the atmosphere functioning as the
carrier and deliverer of water and the land as the user of water. The amount of
water available at a particular place changes with time because of changes in the
supply and delivery. On a global basis, the water movement is a closed system but
on a local basis it is an open system.
The major components of the hydrologic cycle are precipitation (rainfall, snowfall,
hale, sleet, fog, dew, drizzle, etc.), interception, depression storage, evaporation,
transpiration, infiltration, percolation, moisture storage in the unsaturated zone, and
runoff (surface runoff, interflow, and baseflow).

Evaporation of water takes place from the oceans and the land surface mainly due
to solar energy. The moisture moves in the atmosphere in the form of water vapour
which precipitates on land surface or oceans in the form of rain, snow, hail, sleet,
etc. A part of this precipitation is intercepted by vegetation or buildings. Of the
amount reaching the land surface, a part infiltrates into the soil and the remaining
water runs off the land surface to join streams. These streams finally discharge into
the ocean. Some of the infiltrated water percolates deep to join groundwater and
some comes back to the streams or appears on the surface as springs.
This immense movement of water is mainly driven by solar energy: the excess of
incoming radiation over the outgoing radiation. Therefore, sun is the prime mover
of the hydrologic cycle. The energy for evaporation of water from streams, lakes,
ponds and oceans and other open water bodies comes from sun. A substantial
quantity of moisture is added to the atmosphere by transpiration of water from
vegetation. Living beings also supply water vapor to the atmosphere through
perspiration. Gravity has an important role in the movement of water on the earth’s
surface and anthroprogenic activities also have an increasingly important influence
on the water movement.
An interesting feature of the hydrologic cycle is that at some point in each phase,
there usually occur: (a) transportation of water, (b) temporary storage, and (c)
change of state. For example, in the atmospheric phase, there occurs vapor flow,
vapor storage in the atmosphere and condensation or formation of precipitation
created by a change from vapor to either the liquid or solid state. Moreover, in the
atmosphere, water is present in the vapor form while it is mostly (saline) liquid in
the oceans.

Seismic-activity
Seismic activity is defined as the types, frequency and size of

earthquakes that happen over a period of time in a certain area.
An example of seismic activity is how often earthquakes occur in the San

Francisco Bay Area.
The seismic activity of an earthquake is recorded on a seismograph.
Coastal Zones
A coastal zone is the interface between the land and water. These zones are important
because a majority of the world's population inhabit such zones. Coastal zones are

continually changing because of the dynamic interaction between the oceans and the
land. Waves and winds along the coast are both eroding rock and depositing sediment
on a continuous basis, and rates of erosion and deposition vary considerably from day
to day along such zones. The energy reaching the coast can become high during
storms, and such high energies make coastal zones areas of high vulnerability to
natural hazards. Thus, an understanding of the interactions of the oceans and the land
is essential in understanding the hazards associated with coastal zones. Tides,
currents, and waves bring energy to the coast, and thus we start with these three
factors.
Changes in Coastal Zones
The coastal hazards in Liberia can be generalized by change in two major aspects: change in
water level and change in land area. The change in water level can be due to sea/wave action,
local tidal variations, current patterns, flooding from rivers and/or combination of those. The
change in land area can be due to erosion (or accretion) in the coastal area. These factors lead to
a situation where the coastal area is prone to hazards like flooding and erosion. The coast is
exposed and dominated, throughout the year, by consistent patterns of long period low to
moderate energy swell waves originating from storms a long distance away in the Atlantic
Ocean. Therefore, swell waves, with longer periods, can pack a lot more energy than locally
generated waves.
Coastal Erosion
Basic Concept of Coastal Erosion
Coastal erosion is a result of human activities and natural environment
changes making the coastal dynamic action (wave, current, wind) lose
balance in the coastal process, and the long-term loss of sediments of coastal
zone results in the destruction process of coastline retreat and beach erosion.
The concept of coastal erosion is different from transgression. Transgression
is also called sea forwarding; it is the large landward movement of coastline
caused by relative long-term sea level rise, and it is the sea and land change
process in geological history. In temporal and spatial scales, transgression has
much larger space distribution and much longer duration than the coastal
erosion, and its formation mechanism is the planet tectonic evolution and sea
level rise. The concept of coastal erosion is also different from that of

seawater intrusion; seawater intrusion refers to the seawater internal intrusion
and seawater intrusion process of seawater along the permeable stratum into
the terrestrial strata.
At present, coastal erosion is very common, it is worldwide, and it has about
70% of the sandy coast marked erosion in the world. Coastal land is being
swallowed by the seawater and coastal villages and houses are forced to
move inland, which squeezes the living space of humans, destroys the beach
biodiversity and ecological balance, and has direct or indirect harm on human
life and natural environment. So the coastal erosion has changed from a
natural environment change to a serious hazard.
WHAT ARE THE PROCESSES OF COASTAL

EROSION?
There are four main processes of coastal erosion. These are corrasion, abrasion,
hydraulic action and attrition.
Corrasion is when destructive waves pick up beach material (e.g. pebbles) and hurl
them at the base of a cliff. Over time this can loosen cliff material forming a wave-cut
notch.
Abrasion occurs as breaking waves, concentrated between the high and low
watermarks, which contain sand and larger fragments wear away the base of a cliff or
headland. It is commonly known as the sandpaper effect. This process is particularly
common in high-energy storm conditions.
Waves hitting the base of a cliff causes air to be compressed in cracks, joints and folds
in bedding planes causing repeated changes in air pressure. As air rushes out of the
cliff when the wave retreats it leads to an explosive effect as pressure is released. This
process is supported further by the weakening effect of weathering. The material
breaks off cliffs, sometimes in huge chunks. This process is known as hydraulic
action.
Attrition is when waves cause rocks and pebbles to bump into each other and break
up.
WHAT FACTORS AFFECT THE RATE OF

COASTAL EROSION?
Coastal erosion is most significant when:
 waves have a large fetch, e.g. the south-west coast has an 8000 kilometre fetch
across the Atlantic Ocean;
 strong winds blow for a long time creating destructive waves;
 an area of coastline has no beach to buffer the waves;
 the cliff material is soft, e.g. soft boulder clay along the Holderness Coast
means it experiences the highest rate of erosion in Europe;
 cliffs made from rock have many joints;
 a headland sticks out into the sea and waves converge on it (wave refraction).
Erosion
Erosion is the wearing away of rock along the
coastline. Destructive waves are responsible for erosion on the
coastline. There are four types of erosion:
 Hydraulic action - this is the sheer power of the waves as they
smash against the cliff. Air becomes trapped in the cracks in the rock
and causes the rock to break apart.
 Abrasion - this is when pebbles grind along a rock platform, much
like sandpaper. Over time the rock becomes smooth.
 Attrition - this is when rocks that the sea is carrying knock against
each other. They break apart to become smaller and more rounded.
 Solution - this is when sea water dissolves certain types of rocks.
In the UK, chalk and limestone cliffs are prone to this type of erosion.

Beach protection strategies and structures
1. Classification of beach protection measures
Beaches are natural systems that are continuously evolving according to dynamics that
are dictated by climate, context and several other forcings including human impact.
Their evolution is also characterized by shocks, like for instance extreme
meteorological and/or marine events, that may cause sudden changes of the beach's
configuration. Beach evolution is studied by beach hydrodynamics and
morphodynamics. Beach evolution is sometimes conflicting with the need of
maintaining a morphological structure of beaches that ensures the maximum benefit for
the ecosystems and the recreational activities that provide fuel to tourism. In order to
maintain an optima configuration for beaches, humans have devised protection and
recovery strategies.
Interventions for the preservation and maintenance of the morphological behaviors of

coasts can be classified into the following main categories:

 Managed retreat. This strategy does not contrast the changes that are occurring
in the shoreline, but rather identifies a new line of defence where to construct new
protections.
 Interventions to hold the line, such as seawalls.
 Intervention to move the shoreline forward in the seaward direction.
 Indirect measures, like for instance favoring the development of vegetation
and complex ecosystems, and policies to control and limit causes that may have a
harmful effect on the beach. These measures are also called "green engineering"
methods, or "soft engineering methods";
Interventions to hold the line and to move the shoreline forward are also called "direct
measures for shore defense". They include infrastructures that are located in the beach
area to control its morphological evolution. These are also called "hard engineering
methods" and include (1) active measures which modify the local hydrodynamic
behaviors in the seashore and therefore sediment transport, and (2) passive measures
that protect the coast from erosion without modifying the hydrodynamic circulation of
marine water.
Active measures include:
 Breakwaters;
 Groins;
 Beach nourishment (also called beach replenishment);
 Sand by-pass systems.
Passive measures include:
 Seawalls and revetments;

 Berm protections.

Figure 1. Seawall in Sicily. By Oikos-team at English Wikipedia - Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons.,
Public Domain, Link
2. Direct measures
Figure 2 shows a schematic representation of several direct measures for

beach protection.

Figure 2. Direct measures for beach protection - Structures. From De Girolamo, P., Le principali tipologie di
interventi di difesa costiera, Faculty of Engineering, University of l'Aquila, 2006.

Figure 3. Direct measures for beach protection - Nourishment and nourishment
protected with structures. From De Girolamo, P., Le principali tipologie di interventi di
difesa costiera, Faculty of Engineering, University of l'Aquila, 2006.

The interventions with infrastructures have been widely used since a long time ago,
while methods based on beach nourishment are relatively recent. The reason why
infrastructures have been preferred is related to their longer durability, ease of design
and constructions, and very often reduced costs. Beach nourishments need to be
repeated periodically and do not lend themselves to local interventions. However,
experience suggests that hard infrastructures have often induced unexpected
drawbacks, like extended impacts along the shoreline and the need for frequent
maintenance. Indeed, their impact is often not negligible and structures are a
perturbation of the natural context. On the other hand, beach nourishments turned out
to be successful, in the long term, in recovering the natural behaviors of beaches, with
considerable benefit in term of appeal for tourists. For this reason, after the advent of
the green politics there has been an increased consensus towards the use of beach
nourishments and indirect methods like recovery of vegetation.
However, one should not underestimate the impact of beach nourishment. First of all, a
relevant question is the selection of the sand grain size. Some authors suggest to use
larges size sediments, in order to limit the subsequent erosion that would be favored by
the increased availability of material. This strategy, however, may impact the touristic
appeal of the beach that would look different from its original configuration. Therefore,
other authors suggest to use sand of the same original grain size. Furthermore, one
should consider that the volume of sand one needs to allocate is higher than expected,
especially if increased particle size of the new sand is used, which may induce
"overfilling".
Sand by-passing is the process where the longshore sand transport (littoral drift) along
the shoreline travels across inlets in the direction of the net sediment transport. A bar
may therefore form across the inlet to transport sand to the other side. Training walls
may be erected along the cross-shore direction to avoid the formation of the bar to aid
navigation. As a result, the training walls trap the littoral drift such that the updrift
beach accumulates against the training wall, whilst the downdrift beach erodes due to a
lack of sand supply. To avoid the erosion of the downdrift beach a sand by-pass system
may be adopted to transport sand in the eroded location. Different strategies may be
adopted to transport sand. An interesting example of sand by-pass system is the Tweed
Sand Bypassing Project in Australia.

2.1. Peculiarities and limitations of breakwaters and groins
Groins and breakwaters are hard interventions that may impact the natural environment
of beaches. With respect to breakwaters, groins present the advantage of preventing
longshore transport and keeping the seaward visual open, as in natural pocket beaches.
Moreover, groines have a reduced impact on water circulation. On the other hand,
breakwaters may be more effective in the presence of significant orthogonal currents.
They also do not induce rip currents and may provide more safe conditions for bather
and swimmers.
The avoid the disadvantages provided by each solution, the idea is to integrate their
advantages by combining breakwaters and groins (see Figure 2 and 3).
Figure 4. Groin at Raversijde (Belgium) -

2.2. Beach nourishment coupled with structural interventions
In order to ensure durability, beach nourishment may be coupled with structural

interventions. For instance, the nourishment may be coupled with a protective bar (see
Figure 3) that is placed at the foot of the nourishment, whose top is submerged by 1.5-
1.8 meters with respect to the average sea level. The bar is formed by material with
larger particle size with respect to the nourishment. A submerged breakwater formed
by large boulders could also be adopted. The bar has the purpose of limiting the
amplitude of the wave that may erode the nourishment. Such solutions are widely
adopted to protect perched beaches that are developed through nourishment along
rocky coasts to increase the touristic appeal. The bar should not be used in the presence
of a relevant longitudinal currents and associated sediment transport capacity, as in
such conditions the effectiveness of this solution would be limited. Particular care
should be taken to protect the ends of the bar.
In the presence of even limited longitudinal transport the bar should be associated to
groins, submerged or not, to create a series of rectangular cells (see Figure 3). The
limited exchange of material between neighboring cells increases the durability of the
solution. These structures may be created with boulders, sand bags, or geotextiles filled
with sand. These interventions have been frequently adopted in Italy in the past
decades and the results turned out to be not always good.
Nourishments may also be protected with groins only. The most effective solution
seems to be the use of long groins placed at large longitudinal distance, therefore
creating "pocket beaches". Particular care should be taken in checking the possible
presence of rip currents, namely, orthogonal seaward currents which may move the
nourishment away, may undermine the stability of the groins and may be dangerous for
swimmers. T groins are a possible solution to avoid rip currents. They are more
expensive as the extremity of the groins is directly exposed, along the longitudinal
direction, to sea waves. Therefore, the T groins need robust foundations.
2.3. Direct passive measures

Seawalls are the most frequently passive protection of beaches, which has been used
since ancient times. They are typically used to protect areas of human habitation,
conservation and leisure activities. Usually they do not protect beaches but rather hard
structures like sidewalks, roads and other civil structures and infrastructures. The
seawall presents the disadvantage of creating a barrier between the protected area and
the sea. Moreover, it often has a relevant impact on the landscape and therefore it
should not be used in protected environments. although it may be constructed by using
natural materials like boulders or geotextils. The main advantage of seawalls is given
by their effectiveness and durability. The disadvantages are the high economic cost, the
lack of protection for the beach underneath, the reflection of wave energy leading to
scour at their base, the potential disruption of the natural shoreline and destroy of
shoreline habitats such as wetlands and intertidal beaches, the alteration of sediment
transport processes.
A less impacting protection measure is berm protection with hard structures. The berm
is the nearly sub-horizontal portion of beach that stays dry except during extremely
high tides and storms. If the berm is protected with a hard revetment then a barrier
against erosion is created therefore preserving the berm itself. This measure does not
protect the beach face and the swash zone. Moreover, berm protection may have a
relevant impact on the landscape and therefore it may be not useful for preserving the
touristic appeal.
3. Indirect measures
Indirect measures that are gaining more and more popularity in recent times are attempts to reconstruct the
natural environment of the beach that has been eroded. These measures may be advisable to recover the cases
where erosion has been triggered by an extreme event that destroyed the natural structure and vegetation of the
beach. The measures may include beach nourishment to reconstruct the form of the beach, including berm and
foredune, berm protection with boulder and/or cobbles, and reconstruction of the native vegetation of the dune.
Human causes of coastal erosion

The active coastal zone (planform and cross-shore profile of the subaqueous beach, the subaerial beach and
adjacent dune) will always tend to a state of dynamic equilibrium. If some parts are highly resistant to erosion
(presence of hard outcrops or cliffs, for example), this can take a very long time. However, if the active coastal
zone consists exclusively of loose sediments, a state of dynamic equilibrium can be reached in rather short
periods, of the order of years or decades. The longer periods hold for beaches in the vicinity of coastal inlets.
The beach state at equilibrium is not static, but fluctuates around the equilibrium state in response to
fluctuations in hydrodynamic factors (tidal cycles, wave climate) and sediment supply. These beach
fluctuations correspond to alternating phases of erosion and accretion. Structural erosion or accretion can only
happen in response to structural changes in the hydrodynamic conditions, in structural changes in sediment
supply or in subsoil motion. These structural changes can have a natural cause or a human cause. Climate
change, which influences sea level, wave climate and sediment supply, is considered a natural cause. The
largest structural changes in hydrodynamic conditions and sediment supply are generally due to human
interventions.
Interference with coastal structures

Coastal structures interfering with the littoral transport are the most common cause of coastal erosion.
The presence of the structure has a series of effects (see Coastal Hydrodynamics And Transport
Processes and Littoral drift and shoreline modelling):

 Trapping of sand at the upstream side of the structure that reduces sand supply to the adjacent
shores. This causes mostly erosion at the lee side, but large structures may also cause (initial) erosion
on the upstream side.
 Loss of sand to deep water.
 Trapping of sand in entrance channels and outer harbours. Sand is often deposited in deep water
after being removed by dredging.
The structures, which may cause this type of erosion, are:
 Groynes and similar structures perpendicular to the shore.

 Ports (see also Port breakwaters and coastal erosion).
 Inlet jetties at tidal inlets and river mouths.
 detached breakwaters.
 Coastal reclamations.
The accumulation and erosion patterns adjacent to coastal structures depend among other things on:
 The wave climate and the orientation of the shoreline (see Classification of sandy coastlines)
 The extent of the structure relative to the width of the surf zone
 The detailed shape of the coastal structure
The typical impact on coastal processes and related shore erosion problems for different types of
structures will be discussed briefly in the following. A more comprehensive description of the structures
and their function is given in Hard coastal protection structures. The relation between structures and
coastal erosion is also described in the articles: Dealing with coastal erosion, Port breakwaters and coastal
erosion and Accretion and erosion for different coastal types.
Seawalls and revetments

Other types of coastal protection that do not protrude into the sea will, however, also cause increased
coastal erosion. Seawalls and revetments are typically constructed along coastal sections to provide
protection of the coast. Seawalls are alongshore structures built as vertical walls, as sea dikes with smooth
sloping stone revetments, as geotubes or as rip-rap concrete blocks or rock. Coasts protected by seawalls
are called 'armoured coasts'.
The impact of seawalls on coastal erosion depends, among other things, on the location of the structure in
the coastal profile, on the littoral drift and on the natural beach evolution [4].
In the case of a naturally accreting coast, the main reason for building a seawall is to protect coastal
settlements from storm surge damage or to protect low-lying hinterland from flooding. The seawall is
usually fronted by a wide beach and its impact on beach dynamics is negligible.
Seawalls are built most often on eroding coasts; their primary function is to stop erosion. However, the
erosion process seaward of the structure continues and may even be enhanced. After some time no beach
will be left in front of the seawall. At that stage the toe of the seawall will be scoured by waves and the
structure will collapse if the toe is not sufficiently protected [5] (Fig.3). Whether a seawall enhances
erosion before the beach has disappeared (so-called 'active erosion') is site dependent. Active erosion
increases with decreasing beach width. Three processes play a role:

1. Beach lowering by enhanced wave energy dissipation at the toe of the seawall. This process is
significant in the case of frequent wave attack on the seawall or insufficient sand supply by littoral drift
for beach recovering after storm erosion
2. Enhanced beach lowering and shoreline retreat after storm erosion [8]. In the case of a non-armoured
dune coast, sand is supplied to the beach from dune erosion, whereas in the case of an armoured coast,
dune sand is retained behind the seawall. However, this effect is not always observed and may be
temporary. Basco (2004) [9] found that for a 2m/year retreating beach at Virginia "the seasonal
variability of sand volume in front of walls was slightly greater than at non-walled locations. Winter
season waves dragged more sand offshore in front of walls but summer swell waves piled more sand up
against walls in beach rebuilding. Walled beaches were found to recover about the same time as non-
walled beaches for both seasonal transitions (winter to summer) and following erosional storm events."
3. Erosion at the leeside of the seawall, after the front beach has disappeared [10] [11]. An eroding
shore/coast supplies material to the littoral transport budget if the erosion is allowed to continue. When
the erosion is stopped at certain sections by the construction of seawalls or revetments, the supply of sand
from this section of the shoreline to the sediment budget along the adjacent sections of shorelines will
stop, whereby these adjacent shorelines will be exposed to increased erosion (Fig.4). The active trapping
structures, such as groynes and breakwaters, will also act in this way in addition to their more direct
coastal impact as discussed above.
Erosion due to decrease of fluvial sand supply

Decrease of fluvial sand supply to the coastal zone is a common cause of coastal erosion. Reduction of
fluvial sand supply can result from different human interventions:
 creation of reservoirs for power production and irrigation purposes by the construction of river
dams,
 deepening of navigation channels,
 mining of river sand.
River dams
Thousands of dams have been constructed on rivers worldwide, creating reservoirs which retain a large
part of the sediment discharge from the catchment areas (Fig.5). Perhaps the best-known example of
coastal erosion related to sediment trapping behind a river dam is the erosion of the Nile Delta coast after
the construction of the High Aswan Dam in the 1960´s, see Fig.6. The promontory propagated until 1909
and then began to erode. The reasons for the erosion of 42 m/year during the period 1909-1971 were
mainly a reduction in the river discharge and the construction of the Low Aswan Dam, whereas the
drastically increased erosion rate of 129 m/year after 1971 was caused by the construction of the High
Aswan Dam.
Sand mining in rivers
Sand mining in rivers is a major cause of coastal erosion in many countries. Sand mining in a river lowers
the river bed, causes bank erosion and reduces the supply of sand to the coast. There are five components
in the sediment balance for a degrading river section, schematically represented in Fig.7.

Fig.7. Sediment balance for a rive segment
The components are:

Sources:
 Sand supply from the catchment, Qcatch

 Lowering of the river bed, Qbed
 Bank erosion, Qbank
Erosion of bays enclosed between headlands

Small sandy bays enclosed between headlands have in general a crescentic shape, which is due to wave
diffraction at the headlands and wave refraction in nearshore shallow water (see Shallow-water wave
theory). However, the shape and position of the shoreline depends not only on the wave climate, but also
on sand supply to the bay. There are two possible sources (see Fig.8):
 Sand from another bay passing by littoral drift along one of the headlands, Q B;
 Sand supply from a river, QR.
The overall transport mechanisms in a crescent-shaped bay can be characterised as follows. The supply of
sand from the upstream bay QB will pass the headland and cross the bay via a bar. If a river also
contributes QR to the littoral budget, this material will be transported downdrift into the bay, partly along
the shoreline and partly onto the bar. These transport processes are fairly complicated and 2-dimensional
in nature, but they result in the supply of Q B + QR to the straight downdrift section of the crescent-shaped
shoreline of the bay. The direction of this straight section is given by the wave climate and the actual sum
QS1 = QB + QR according to the transport correlation between incident wave direction α 1 and the transport
QS1, shown in Fig.8 (The dependence of littoral drift on the wave incidence angle is explained in Shallow-
water wave theory and Littoral drift and shoreline modelling).
The shape of the crescent-shaped bay is stable, apart from seasonal variations, as long as the supply of
material to the bay QS1 is not changed. However, if the supply of material to the bay is reduced, typically

by changes to the updrift bay or by changes to the river, the overall shape of the bay will also change, as
the direction of the straight section will adjust to the new sum Q 2, where Q2 < Q1, leading to erosion in the
entire bay, as sketched in Fig.8.
This means that human interventions, which cause changes in one bay will gradually penetrate into the
downdrift bays. Hence, crescent-shaped bays, although they appear fairly stable, are actually very
sensitive to interventions that modify the supply of sand.
Wake from Fast Ferries

Wakes from fast ferries cause shore degradation in sheltered coastal environments [15][16]. The special
wake generated by fast ferries is characterised by a series of approximately 10 relatively low waves
(significant wave height below 1 m), but relatively long waves. These wake waves are very similar to
swell waves and they are exposed to considerable shoaling when approaching the coast. They often break
as plunging breakers.
If a fast ferry navigates through protected waters, the wake waves are very different from the natural
waves along the navigation route. The wake waves caused by fast ferries may influence coastal conditions
in the following ways:
 by higher wave uprush than that produced by normal waves;

 by changing the coastal morphological processes in the area. This can result in erosion as well as
the formation of a large beach berm;
 by breaking unexpectedly and violently, the waves can be dangerous for dinghies and for bathers.
A precondition for approval of a new fast ferry route is therefore to perform an environmental impact
assessment study [17]. This will often result in navigation restrictions for certain parts of the route. An
example of the impact of such waves is presented in Fig.9. Note the violent breaking, turbid water and rip
currents.
Sand and Coral Mining, and Maintenance Dredging

The mining of sand and gravel along beaches and in the surf-zone will cause erosion by depleting the
shore of its sediment resources. In connection with maintenance dredging of tidal inlets, harbours, and
navigation channels, sand is very often lost from the littoral budget because the sand, unless otherwise
regulated by legislation, is normally dumped at deep water. Coral mining and other means of spoiling the
protective coral reefs, for example, fishing by the use of explosives or pollution, will also cause coastal
erosion and beach degradation. The protective function of the reef disappears and the production of
carbonate sand stops.
Natural causes of coastal erosion

Temporal erosion and ongoing erosion
An important notion for understanding coastal erosion refers to the concept of coastal sediment cell. A
coastal sediment cell (also called littoral cell or sediment cell) is a coastal compartment that contains a
complete cycle of sedimentation including sources, transport paths, and sinks. Erosion at one place in a
coastal sediment cell implies accretion at another location within the same cell; the sediment distribution
within the cell changes without affecting other coastal regions. A coastal sediment cell is in
morphodynamic equilibrium if changes in the sediment distribution under the influence of fluctuating
forcing (fluctuations in water levels, wave climate, including storms) have a temporal, quasi-cyclic
character. Ongoing trends of erosion or accretion are excluded; ongoing erosion or accretion will finally
lead to destruction or basic alteration of the coastal sediment cell. In practice there is always a net leakage
of sediment from or to other coastal regions, but this can be a very slow process. So even though the
coastal sediment cell is a theoretical concept, it can be very useful in practice for analysing and managing
coastal erosion processes.
One example of a coastal sediment cell is a pocket beach enclosed between headlands, assuming absence
of net offshore or onshore sand transport. The orientation of the beach can change in response to
fluctuations in the dominant direction of incident waves. However, the resulting erosion and accretion
have just a temporal character.
Another example of a coastal sediment cell refers to the concept of active coastal zone. The active coastal
zone (sometimes also called active coastal profile) is the beach zone over which sand is exchanged in
cross-shore direction by natural processes. The seaward limit corresponds to the closure depth and the
landward limit to a hard boundary (seawall, cliff, ..). In the case of a dune coast the active zone comprises
part of the front dune that can be eroded by storm waves (see Dune erosion). In the absence of net
offshore or onshore sand transport and in the absence of gradients in littoral drift the active coastal zone is
a one-dimensional sediment cell; the sediment volume in the active zone will be constant in time.
Shoreline erosion and accretion in response to fluctuations in water level and wave climate (including
storms) are temporal quasi-cyclic phenomena in this case.

An obvious example of ongoing erosion is cliff erosion. A coastal cliff eroded by wave attack will never
be rebuilt by natural processes. Cliff erosion can be a fast process in case of soft cliffs (till, clay) and very
slow in case of hard-rock cliffs. Other examples of ongoing natural erosion are given below.
Longshore sand loss due to transport gradients
Fig. 1. Increasing littoral drift rate along Skaw Spit, Denmark. This causes coastal erosion along the entire 25 km
long section.
One cause of ongoing natural coastal erosion is a longshore increase of sand transport: in this case more
sand is leaving a coastal section than entering. As longshore sand transport (also called littoral drift)
depends primarily on the direction and height of breaking waves, a gradient in longshore transport can be
due to longshore varying wave conditions, coastline curvature, or nearshore bathymetric features. An
example of this kind of coastal condition is the West Coast of Skaw Spit, the northernmost tip of
Denmark. The presence of the headland and the port at Hirtshals, combined with the shadow effect of
southern Norway, results in increasing transport along the section of coastline some kilometres east of
Hirtshals to Gammel Skagen. For this reason the entire NW-oriented section of the Skaw spit is exposed
to erosion.
Cross-shore sand loss

Sand loss from the active coastal zone in cross-shore direction can occur by different processes.

Fig. 2. Over-wash fans at Skallingen, S part of the Danish North Sea coast.
Breaching and over-wash

The loss of sand inland due to breaching and over-wash of a barrier island. This kind of sand loss takes
place along the exposed coast of Skallingen barrier island on the southern part of the Danish North Sea
coast, see Fig. 2.
Aeolian transport to the dunes

Fig. 3. The old village Egmond at the North-Holland coast was swallowed by the sea due to fast shoreline retreat
in the 17th-19th century. The new village has been reconstructed behind the present shoreline.
A wide vegetated dune area can trap fine sands carried inland from the beach by onshore winds. When the
dunes along the Dutch coast were fixed by vegetation from the 16th century they started growing by
capturing large amounts of sand. This contributed to fast shoreline retreat, illustrated in Fig. 3. The import
of beach sand to the dune area at the Dutch is estimated at 5-35 m3/m/year [2] Assuming that this sand
volume is withdrawn from the active zone (width of the order of 2 km, average slope of the order of
1/100), the resulting shoreline retreat can be estimated at 0.2-2 m/year.
Offshore sand loss under extreme wave and storm surge conditions
High energetic waves cause seaward migration of breaker bars and high storm surges further cause an
offshore movement of sand due to non-equilibrium in the profile during the high surge. Sand that is
transported sufficiently far offshore will not return to the coast by wave-induced onshore transport under
a milder wave climate.
Offshore sand loss to canyons
If there is a deep canyon close to the shore, sand may be lost into the canyon by littoral drift.
Offshore transport at the tip of a sand spit

Fig. 4. Sand deposition at the north beach at Skaw Spit and corresponding loss of sand from the downstream
beach.
Sand can get lost by littoral drift into deep water at the tip of a sand spit forming the end point of a littoral
cell. Sand lost in this way causes accumulative shore and shoal features in the deposition areas, at the
expense of the downstream coast. An example of this is the Skaw Spit, see Fig.4.
Erosion downstream of accumulative forms
Fig. 5. Grünerevle at the north coast of Fehmarn Island (grey colour), Germany. Littoral drift is from west to east
(left to right in the figure). Sand spit formation at Grünerevle, parallel to the coast, starves the downstream
coastline. Sand capture by the spit also explains the absence of sand accumulation west of the downstream port.

A similar process of natural coastal erosion occurs downstream of accumulative forms at coastlines with
very oblique wave approach, coast types 4M, 4E, 5M and 5E. Along such coastlines there is a tendency
for the natural formation of spits parallel to the coast. They accumulate the sand and shift the sand supply
offshore, which means that the downstream coastline is starved and begins to erode, see Fig. 5.
Sand loss at coastal protrusions
Fig. 6. The NW coast of North Zealand, Denmark, an example of a simplificated coast. The moraine landscape
(red) has been cut back to a nearly straight line; the marine platform (yellow) has been formed in between.
The loss of material from a protruding area to one or two sides is a natural cause of coastal erosion. This
typically happens at till/sandstone headlands, where fine eroded material is washed away by currents and
coarse material is transported alongshore or offshore away from the headland. More generally, any semi-
hard seaward-concave section of a coastline will suffer erosion in case of insufficient supply of sand from
rivers. The natural state of such a coastline is erosion and straightening; the straightened coastline is
referred to as a simplificated coast, see Fig. 6.
Marine deposit shorelines suspended between eroding headlands (till or sandstone, for example) will
retreat similarly. The headlands have historically provided material for building up the sedimentary
shorelines and the suspended shoreline is consequently dependent on the presence of the headlands.
However, as the headlands continue to erode, the sedimentary shorelines will follow suit despite the fact
that they were originally accumulative forms. This development is part of the simplificated coast (see
previous paragraph).
Erosion also occurs at deltas coasts when the natural fluvial sand supply is reduced, depriving the delta

protrusion from fluvial sand supply for its maintenance. This is generally caused by human interventions,
see Human causes of coastal erosion, but it can also have natural causes. Droughts in large river basins
can result in long periods with almost no sand supply to the shoreline, leading to shore erosion. The
historic large variations in the shorelines of the Nile delta were partly due to this situation, whereas the
more recent erosion is mainly the result of human interventions along the Nile. Natural shifts between
distributary channels are another cause of delta erosion.
Climate change and sea-level rise

Climate change impacts
Climate change will impact on coastal erosion in different ways. Here the focus is on sea-level rise; other
potential impacts are related to changes in meteorological conditions – wind, temperature and
precipitation. Changes in the precipitation regime will affect the sediment discharge of rivers and the
resulting sand supply to the coast. Extreme conditions of strong precipitation and long periods of drought
are expected to become more frequent. Temperature may play a role too, by its impact on soil erosion.
The influence of variations of fluvial sand supply to the coast were shortly discussed in the previous
section. Change in temperature will affect all life forms in the coastal zone. Coastal erosion is particularly
sensitive to changes in coastal vegetation, dune vegetation for example. Mangrove coasts are sensitive to
temperature change, but also to sea-level rise, see Potential Impacts of Sea Level Rise on Mangroves.
Change in the wind regime and wave climate will modify the alongshore and cross-shore sand
distribution. The alongshore sand distribution is very sensitive to the littoral drift, which strongly depends
on wave direction. The shape of the cross-shore coastal profile is strongly influenced by wave run-up,
with an important role for storm events with high waves and water levels. Great uncertainty still exists
regarding predictions for local changes in wind regime and wave climate caused by climate change.
Relative sea-level rise

The sea level will rise globally as a consequence of global warming, but regional differences are
considerable. This holds in particular for relative sea-level rise, i.e. the change of sea level with respect to
the local land level. Some coasts experience uplift (especially in previously glaciated regions) while
others are subject to subsidence. Uplift can always be considered "natural", whereas subsidence often has
an important human-induced component (groundwater, oil, gas extraction). According to the so-called
"Bruun rule", an increasing relative sea level will cause a shoreline setback, which is approximately equal
to the sea level rise divided by the average slope of the active coastal profile, when considering
equilibrium profiles. Consider, for example, a sea level rise of 0.5 m and an equilibrium coastal profile
with a slope of the shoreface and the shore of 1/100. The setback caused by such a sea level rise will be
50 m. Littoral coasts consisting of fine sediments will be exposed to higher setbacks than coasts
consisting of coarser sediments.
http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Natural_causes_of_coastal_erosion
2018 mdu m.sc question paper

Q1.types of rapid onset diaster which are caused due to endogenetic process of earth
Ans.Endogenic is a geologic term describing internal processes of the earth, such as, the operation of plate tectonics.
Tectonic disasters therefore, relate to the same phenomena, referring to disasters that occur due to the tectonic activities of
the continental plates, which manifest themselves in earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
An earthquake is a perceptible vibration of the surface of the earth. The crust of the earth, the lithosphere, is a
patchwork of continental plates, that slowly, and constantly move in diverse directions, shoving against one another.
When the tensions in the plates, deriving from the movement and shoving, exceed the strength of the crust, an
earthquake occurs. These “tectonic” earthquakes are the most frequent and strongest, but they can also derive from
volcanic eruptions or mining activities.
Volcanism describes geological activities that are connected with the rising of magma from the mantle of the earth
up to the surface. Volcanoes can evolve at the collision lines of the continental plates, oceanic trenches, on mid-
ocean ridges and at so called hot spots – irregular formations in the crust underneath the continental plates. Volcanic
eruption material can be solid, liquid or gaseous.
The most popular form of volcanoes are shield volcanoes, that erupt extremely hot, pure, liquid lava. As it flows
with great speed (60 km/h), it leaves a large area covered with a huge flat shield.
Stratovolcanoes erupt all kinds of volcanic material. The magma of stratovolcanoes derives from upper layers of the
mantle, from the bottom of the crust, and from an upper layer of the interior and contains more gas, therefore
different kinds of volcanic material erupt in phases of explosions of solid material, ashes, lava and gases.
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions can also trigger other disasters such as, tsunamis, volcanic winters, glacial lake
outburst floods (Icelandic: “Jökulhlaup”) or Lahars.
Tremendous volcanic eruptions can burst huge amounts of ashes into the atmosphere which can shield the earth
from the radiation of the sun and as a consequence diminish the earth’s temperature or the average temperature on
earth for some amount of time. For example, the outbreak of Mount Tambora in Indonesia in 1815, caused the “year
without a summer”, frost and snow in the summer in England and the USA, harvest failures, famines and emigration
waves resulted until 1819.
In 1991, the eruption of Mount Pinatubo on the Philippines interrupted the trend of global warming for two or three
years.
A glacial outburst flood occurs when a volcano covered by a glacier erupts, melts the ice and releases a tremendous
flood wave.
A lahar is a gigantic mudflow caused by a volcanic outburst, consisting of mixture of erupted material, loose soil
and water, that can be extremely dangerous, covering large areas with a height of some meters and a possible
breadth of more than a hundred meters, running with a speed of up to 100 km/h.
 Some of the questions we hope to answer for each possible natural disaster are:
o Where is each type of hazard likely to be present and why?

o What scientific principles govern the processes responsible for the disasters?
o How often do these hazards develop into disasters?
o How can each type of disaster be predicted and/or mitigated?
As discussed before, natural disasters are produced by processes that have been
operating since the Earth formed. Such processes are beneficial to us as humans
because they are responsible for things that make the Earth a habitable planet for
life. For example:

 Throughout Earth history, volcanism has been responsible for producing much of the
water present on the Earth's surface, and for producing the atmosphere.
 Earthquakes are one of the processes responsible for the formation of mountain ranges
which which direct water to flow downhill to form rivers and lakes.
 Erosional processes, including flooding, landslides, and windstorms replenishes soil and
helps sustain life.
Such processes are only considered hazardous when they adversely affect
humans and their activities.
Classification of Natural Hazards and Disasters
Natural Hazards and the natural disasters that result can be divided into several
different categories:
 Geologic Hazards - These are the main subject of this course and include:
o Earthquakes
o Volcanic Eruptions
o Tsunami
o Landslides
o Floods
o Subsidence
o Impacts with space objects
 Atmospheric Hazards - These are also natural hazards but processes operating in the
atmosphere are mainly responsible. They will also be considered in this course, and
include:
o Tropical Cyclones
o Tornadoes
o Droughts
o Severe Thunderstorms
o Lightening
 Other Natural Hazards - These are hazards that may occur naturally, but don't fall in to
either of the categories above. They will not be considered to any great extent in this
course, but include:

o Insect infestations
o Disease epidemics
o Wildfires
Natural Hazards can also be divided into catastrophic hazards, which have

devastating consequences to huge numbers of people, or have a worldwide effect,
such as impacts with large space objects, huge volcanic eruptions, world-wide
disease epidemics, and world-wide droughts. Such catastrophic hazards only have
a small chance of occurring, but can have devastating results if they do occur.
Natural Hazards can also be divided into rapid onset hazards, such as Volcanic
Eruptions, Earthquakes, Flash floods, Landslides, Severe Thunderstorms,
Lightening, and wildfires, which develop with little warning and strike
rapidly. Slow onset hazards, like drought, insect infestations, and disease
epidemics take years to develop.

Anthropogenic Hazards
These are hazards that occur as a result of human interaction with the
environment. They include Technological Hazards, which occur due to exposure
to hazardous substances, such as radon, mercury, asbestos fibers, and coal dust.
They also include other hazards that have formed only through human interaction,
such as acid rain, and contamination of the atmosphere or surface waters with
harmful substances, as well as the potential for human destruction of the ozone
layer and potential global warming.

Effects of Hazards
Hazardous process of all types can have primary, secondary, and tertiary effects.
 Primary Effects occur as a result of the process itself. For example water damage
during a flood or collapse of buildings during an earthquake, landslide, or hurricane.
 Secondary Effects occur only because a primary effect has caused them. For example,
fires ignited as a result of earthquakes, disruption of electrical power and water service
as a result of an earthquake, flood, or hurricane, or flooding caused by a landslide into a
lake or river.

 Tertiary Effects are long-term effects that are set off as a result of a primary event.
These include things like loss of habitat caused by a flood, permanent changes in the
position of river channel caused by flood, crop failure caused by a volcanic eruption etc.

Vulnerability to Hazards and Disasters
Vulnerability refers the way a hazard or disaster will affect human life and
property Vulnerability to a given hazard depends on:
 Proximity to a possible hazardous event

 Population density in the area proximal to the event
 Scientific understanding of the hazard
 Public education and awareness of the hazard
 Existence or non-existence of early-warning systems and lines of communication
 Availability and readiness of emergency infrastructure
 Construction styles and building codes
 Cultural factors that influence public response to warnings
In general, less developed countries are more vulnerable to natural hazards than
are industrialized countries because of lack of understanding, education,
infrastructure, building codes, etc. Poverty also plays a role - since poverty leads
to poor building structure, increased population density, and lack of
communication and infrastructure.
Human intervention in natural processes can also increase vulnerability by
 Development and habitation of lands susceptible to hazards, For example, building on
floodplains subject to floods, sea cliffs subject to landslides, coastlines subject to
hurricanes and floods, or volcanic slopes subject to volcanic eruptions.
 Increasing the severity or frequency of a natural disaster. For example: overgrazing or

deforestation leading to more severe erosion (floods, landslides), mining groundwater
leading to subsidence, construction of roads on unstable slopes leading to landslides, or
even contributing to global warming, leading to more severe storms.
Affluence can also play a role, since affluence often controls where habitation
takes place, for example along coastlines, or on volcanic slopes. Affluence also
likely contributes to global warming, since it is the affluent societies that burn the
most fossil fuels adding CO2 to the atmosphere.

Assessing Hazards and Risk
Hazard Assessment and Risk Assessment are2 different concepts!
Hazard Assessment consists of determining the following
 when and where hazardous processes have occurred in the past.

 the severity of the physical effects of past hazardous processes (magnitude).
 the frequency of occurrence of hazardous processes.
 the likely effects of a process of a given magnitude if it were to occur now.
 and, making all this information available in a form useful to planners and public
officials responsible for making decisions in event of a disaster.

Risk Assessment involves not only the assessment of hazards from a scientific

point of view, but also the socio-economic impacts of a hazardous event. Risk is a
statement of probability that an event will cause x amount of damage, or a
statement of the economic impact in monetary terms that an event will cause. Risk
assessment involves
 hazard assessment, as above,

 location of buildings, highways, and other infrastructure in the areas subject to hazards
 potential exposure to the physical effects of a hazardous situation
 the vulnerability of the community when subjected to the physical effects of the event.
Risk assessment aids decision makers and scientists to compare and evaluate
potential hazards, set priorities on what kinds of mitigation are possible, and set
priorities on where to focus resources and further study.

Prediction and Warning
Risk and vulnerability can sometimes be reduced if there is an adequate means of

predicting a hazardous event.
Prediction
Prediction involves:

 A statement of probability that an event will occur based on scientific observation
 Such observation usually involves monitoring of the process in order to identify some
kind of precursor event(s) - an anomalous small physical change that may be known to
lead to a more devastating event. - Examples:
o Hurricanes are known to pass through several stages of development: tropical

depression - tropical storm - hurricane. Once a tropical depression is identified,
monitoring allows meteorologists to predict how long the development will take
and the eventual path of the storm.
o Volcanic eruptions are usually preceded by a sudden increase in the number of

earthquakes immediately below the volcano and changes in the chemical
composition of the gases emitted from a volcanic vent. If these are closely
monitored, volcanic eruptions can be often be predicted with reasonable
accuracy.
Forecasting
Sometimes the word "forecast" is used synonymously with prediction and other
times it is not.

 In the prediction of floods, hurricanes, and other weather related phenomena the word
forecast refers to short-term prediction in terms of the magnitude, location, date, and
time of an event. Most of us are familiar with weather forecasts.
 In the prediction of earthquakes, the word forecast is used in a much less precise way -
referring to a long-term probability that is not specific in terms of the exact time that the
event will occur. For example: Prior to the October 17 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake
(also know as the World Series Earthquake) the U.S. Geological Survey had forecast a
50% probability that a large earthquake would occur in this area within the next 30
years. Even after the event, the current forecast is for a 63% probability that a major
earthquake will occur in this area in the next 30 years.
Early Warning
A warning is a statement that a high probability of a hazardous event will occur,

based on a prediction or forecast. If a warning is issued, it should be taken as a

statement that "normal routines of life should be altered to deal with the danger
imposed by the imminent event".
The effectiveness of a warning depends on:
 The timeliness of the warning

 Effective communications and public information systems to inform the public of the
imminent danger.
 The credibility of the sources from which the warning came.
If warnings are issued too late, or if there is no means of disseminating the

information, then there will not be time enough or responsiveness to the warning.
If warnings are issued irresponsibly without credible data or sources, then they
will likely be ignored. Thus, the people responsible for taking action in the event
of a potential disaster will not respond.

Frequency of Natural Disasters
Again, it is important to understand that natural disasters result from natural

processes that affect humans adversely.
First - Size Matters
For example:

 Humans coexist with rivers all the time and benefit from them as a source of water and
 transportation.
Only when the volume of water in the river becomes greater than the capacity of the
stream channel is there a resulting disaster.
 Small earthquakes occur all of the time with no adverse effects.

Only large earthquakes cause disasters.
Second – Location, location, location
For example:

 A volcanic on an isolated uninhabited island will not result in a natural disaster.
 A large earthquake in an unpopulated area will not result in a disaster.
 A hurricane that makes landfall on a coast where few people live, will not result in a
disaster.
So, what we have to worry about is large events that strike areas where humans
live.
Thus, in natural hazards studies, it is important to understand the relationship

between frequency of an event and the size of the event. Size is often referred to
a magnitude.
For just about any event, statistical analysis will reveal that larger events occur
less frequently than small events.
Statistical analysis of some types of events for specific locations allow one to
determine the return period or recurrence interval.
Examples:
Flood Frequency -
For any river, high discharge events are rare.
Large discharge events occur much less frequently than

small discharge events.
Meteorite Impacts -
Although we as humans have not had the opportunity (fortunately) of observing large asteroid
or meteorite impacts, the data suggest that impacts of large asteroids (1 km or larger) occurs
only once every 10 million years.

Earthquakes -
As we have just noted, large earthquakes occur much less frequently than smaller earthquakes.
Those with magnitudes greater than 8.5 only occur once every 3 years on the average (see Table
3.3 in your text
or https://www.iris.edu/gallery3/general/posters/exploring_earth/EarthquakeFrequency)
Is the Frequency of Natural Disasters Increasing?
Are natural disasters becoming more frequent as it seems from news reports of recent activity?
The short answer appears to be that yes, natural disasters are increasing in frequency
(see https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trends_in_natural_disasters.jpg. But, this
suggests some other important questions before we start making conclusions about the end of
the world:
1. Is the frequency of hazardous events increasing?
2. Why is the frequency of natural disasters increasing (what could explain the trend)?
First, Is the frequency of hazardous events increasing? This is much more difficult to answer
since natural events responsible for natural disasters have been occurring throughout the 4.5
billion year history of the Earth. Nevertheless, there is no evidence to suggest that hazardous
events are occurring more frequently.
What about global warming? There is evidence to suggest that weather related disasters are
becoming more frequent, compared to other disasters like earthquakes. For example, the
frequency of disasters from tropical cyclones and floods has been increasing, the frequency of
earthquakes has changed little. Although this is what we expect from global warming, there is
not yet enough statistical data to prove this right now.
Second, is there another explanation for the the frequency of natural disasters increasing? First
consider the following facts:
Human population has been increasing at an exponential rate. With more people, vulnerability
increases because there are more people to be affected by otherwise natural events.
Human population is moving toward coastal areas (see http://www.livescience.com/4167-

flocking-coast-world-population-migrating-danger.html). These are areas most vulnerable to
natural hazards such as tropical cyclones, tsunami, and, to some extent, earthquakes.
Our ability to communicate news of natural disasters has been increasing, especially since the
invention of the internet. Earlier in human history there may have been just as many disasters,
but there were few ways the news of such disasters could be communicated throughout the

world.
Meanwhile: Deaths from natural disasters has decreased in developed countries and increased in
developing countries. What could explain this? Politics? Economics? Cultural Differences?
Education?
The cost of natural disasters has been increasing in developed countries. What could explain
this? Economics?
This Course
This course is not about the political, cultural, or economic aspects of natural disasters.
It is about the science of natural disasters and how can use our knowledge of the scientific
aspects of disasters to reduce the death and destruction caused by otherwise natural events.
Textbook Theme
The textbook selected for this course uses 5 fundamental concepts in the study of natural
hazards and disasters:
1. Science helps us predict hazards

2. Knowing hazard risk can help people make decisions
3. Linkages exist between natural hazards
4. Humans can turn disastrous events into catastrophes
5. Consequences of hazards can be minimized
Q2. coastal erosion due to natural and anthropogenic factors.
Ans. Natural causes of coastal erosion

Human causes of coastal erosion
The active coastal zone (planform and cross-shore profile of the subaqueous beach,

the subaerial beach and adjacent dune) will always tend to a state of dynamic
equilibrium. If some parts are highly resistant to erosion (presence of hard outcrops
or cliffs, for example), this can take a very long time. However, if the active
coastal zone consists exclusively of loose sediments, a state of dynamic
equilibrium can be reached in rather short periods, of the order of years or decades.
The longer periods hold for beaches in the vicinity of coastal inlets. The beach
state at equilibrium is not static, but fluctuates around the equilibrium state in
response to fluctuations in hydrodynamic factors (tidal cycles, wave climate) and
sediment supply. These beach fluctuations correspond to alternating phases of
erosion and accretion. Structural erosion or accretion can only happen in response
to structural changes in the hydrodynamic conditions, in structural changes in
sediment supply or in subsoil motion. These structural changes can have a natural
cause or a human cause. Climate change, which influences sea level, wave climate
and sediment supply, is considered a natural cause. The largest structural changes
in hydrodynamic conditions and sediment supply are generally due to human
interventions.

This article describes how different kinds of human interventions may affect
coastal erosion. Natural causes of coastal erosion are discussed in another article.
Most of the content of this article is drawn from Mangor et al. 2017 [1].
Q2. Slow-Onset Hazards
Ans • Slow onset hazards, like drought, insect infestations, and disease
epidemics take months or years to develop.
• A slow-onset emergency or disaster is defined as one that does not emerge from a
single, distinct event but one that emerges gradually over time, often based on a
confluence of different events.
• Two main slow onset hazards related to climate change are expected to have an
impact on population mobility

– Changes in rainfall and water availability
– Sea level rise
• Rainfall variability and changes in water availability (slow onset events)
– Increases in areas affected by drought
– Crop damage and failure, lower yields, livestock deaths, and wildfires;
– Water stress
– Food and water shortages, risk of malnutrition, risk of water and food-borne
diseases
– Water shortages for settlements and industry, reduced hydropower generation,

increased population migrations
• Rising sea level (very slow onset)
– Salinization of irrigation water
– Saltwater intrusion of aquifers and coastal water sources
– Risk of death from drowning
– Movements of populations and infrastructure, high costs of relocation or

armaments
• Predicted impacts vary substantially by geographic location
Changes in water availability
Rising sea level
Environmental displacement and climate change: what is

known and what is expected
• Current underlying factors:
• globalization • urbanization and population distribution
• development status • current migration patterns/systems

• Overall, probability of displacement is higher in developing countries
• Socioeconomic status as predictor, but the effect is not linear
• The direction of the flows is uncertain
• Relevance of previous migration systems and networks
• Sea Level Rise:
• the most certain impact leading to displacement and resettlement
• it will worsen saline intrusions, inundation, storm surges, erosion, and other
coastal hazards, the threat is particularly grave vis-à-vis island communities
• different options for adaptation, including mobility
• Changes in rainfall/water availability:
• key factors: disruption of livelihoods, progressive impoverishment, and general

deterioration of population’s living conditions
• Some recent findings

• Although economic and political factors are the dominant drivers of displacement
and migration today, climate change is already having a detectable effect
• The breakdown of ecosystem-dependent livelihoods is likely to remain the

premier driver of long-term migration during the next two to three decades.
Climate change will exacerbate this situation
• Seasonal migration already plays an important part in many families’ struggle to

deal with environmental change. This is likely to become even more common, as is
the practice of migrating from place to place in search of ecosystems that can still
support rural livelihood
• What is expected?
• most environmentally induced migration would remain within national
boundaries, particularly in the case of sea-level rise, eventually increasing the
numbers of IDPs (internally displaced people)

• where international migration takes place, the direction of flows will likely be
determined by prior migration ties between sending and receiving countries, and
on political considerations within receiving countries
• international migration is highly likely and indeed may be the only option in the
cases of small-island states (e.g. Tuvalu and Maldives) and of countries that share
threatened coastal areas (e.g. India and Bangladesh)
• indirect effects are likely, linked to adaptation and mitigation infrastructure

leading to displacement and resettlement:
• Sea walls, dykes, freshwater injection facilities
• Dams, irrigation works, water transfer schemes, desalination plants
UNIT-2
floods and cyclones:

Disaster is a sudden change in the environmental condition causing
excessive damage to human as well as plants, animals and surrounding. It
is an immediate event with very less prior knowledge. Disaster is a
damaging event of nature. The gravity of the loss or the intensity of the
event is measured by the amount of loss by way of living beings and
national property. Flood, Cyclone, Earth quakes are some of the disaster
events. Tsunami is also one of the disaster events.
There are different types of disaster. Some are natural and some are
manmade. Nuclear holocausts, Fire accidents are manmade disasters but
floods, cyclones, drought, earthquakes are natural disaster as they are due
to changes in the natural conditions.
1. Floods:
Floods are due to passage of water to habitation. Water stays for longer
time covering the land area having human beings, plants and animals.
Flood is a direct result of heavy rainfall in a continuous way for longer
days. Indian states suffer due to flood every year.
Ganga, Brahmaputra is two major rivers which a use floods every year.
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam are the states which suffer much due to floods
of these rivers. In Orissa, it is Mahanadi and Baitarani which cause floods
in the adjoining areas of Cuttack, Puri, Balasore etc.
Floods destroy agriculture of various crops. It destroys land mass by way

of washing away its nutrients on the soil top. Floods also affect forests and
wildlife. Floods cause soil erosion. During flood people do not get drinking
water and all types of water-borne diseases spread in the population.

When the water level in a stream or river increases and overflows its
natural banks, a flood occurs. The excess water that overflows submerges
adjacent land. Floods are natural occurrences in river systems.
Floods are caused due to many reasons: heavy and prolonged rainfall,
heavy molting of snow, changes in the course of a river, silting of river
beds, dam collapse, landslides, deforestation, land utilisation in an
unscientific manner and tsunamis.
In India, floods cause greater damage than any other single disaster. They
affect human lives, crops and livestock, devastate land and other property,
and disrupt transport and communication lines. They occur in almost all
parts of India, except the hilly and mountainous regions.
Most of the flood-prone areas are in the middle and lower Ganga and
Brahmaputra plains. The states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal, Manipur, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and Tamil Nadu
are most affected. Apart from the Ganga and Brahmaputra, the Yamuna,
Satluj, Jhelum, Krishna, Godavari, Mahanadi and Cauvery record frequent
floods.
The government of India has taken planned steps to check floods. In the
initial phase of the flood control plan, multi-purpose projects were
designed: the Damodar Valley, Kosi, Bhakhra, Hirakud, Rihand among
others. In 1976, the National Flood Commission was set up. The
Commission identified the areas prone to flooding.

Some steps to reduce floods are as follows:
(i) Flood forecasting involves providing information regarding occurrence
of floods beforehand so that timely action can be taken to reduce the
destruction caused by floods. Flood forecasting was started by the Central
Water Commission in November 1958. The flood forecasting network at
present covers 15 states and two union territories. Daily forecasts are
issued throughout the flood season from May to October every year.
(ii) Reducing run-off by inducing and increasing infiltration of surface

water into the ground in the catchment area is an effective way of checking
floods. Large-scale afforestation in upper catchment areas of rivers reduces
flooding.
(iii) The rivers that are prone to floods are identified and the channels of
these are deepened and widened to reduce floods. Canals are built to divert
excessive river water due to rains.
(iv) Dams and multi-purpose projects across rivers store surplus water in
the reservoirs and reduce run-off of the river water.
(v) Embankments along rivers check the menace of floods effectively.
(vi) There must be detailed maps of the flood- prone areas after examining
the flood cycles in a region or vis-a-vis a river, based on information
regarding floodways in relation to land use.
Management:
Floods can be prevented and controlled by the following ways:

1. Construction of suitable dams to store sudden flow of water due to
heavy rain.
2. Inflow of water from the upper catchment to the river should be stopped
by building artificial reservoir.
3. Proper network of inter connected river will greatly manage flood water
by diverting excess water to the deficit areas
4. Strategic plantation of trees can save flow of water to human habitat.
5. Proper scientific knowledge about heavy rainfall within short duration

can help people to stay in safe areas.
2. Cyclones:
Cyclones are atmospheric storm. It is caused due to rise in temperature in
the sea surface for a longer time. It is built in the sea water and moves to
the land area in a swirling fashion taking lots of moisture in the air.
Cyclone also strikes suddenly out of low pressure formed in the sea water;
Cyclones are very regular event in India. Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil
Nadu are few states which are frequently affected by cyclone. The recent
cyclone to hit Orissa coast was in 1999. Cyclones Rita hit Southern USA
in the year 2005 causing extensive damages to man and environment.
Cyclones cause extensive damage to crops, animal and human lives. It

uproots trees and destroys houses and buildings. Electric and Telephone
towers are uprooted causing electrical and network failure. Communication
is cut off due to cyclones.

Cyclones are tracked by satellite pictures and accordingly preventions are
made to control damages. People are informed before hand to shift
themselves along with their valuable to safe homes. Cyclone homes are
built at different affected areas to accommodate people. Tents, funds etc.
are stored to help people during this home. Cyclone is a natural disaster.
There is very less option to prevent the happening of cyclones. The only
way is to check the intensity of damage to human lives and property. Trees
plantation along the coastal areas help in checking the speed of air.
Mangrove plantations have proved to be the best to check damages during
Cyclones. Good scientific information can help to know about the direction
and speed of cyclone.
3. Earthquakes:
Earthquakes are the effect of events happening inside the earth’s interior.
Earthquakes are seismic waves coming from the interior of the earth when
one continental late moves over another plate floating inside the fluid of
interior earth. There are many continental plates in the earth’s interior over
which the landmasses are present. Any shift or cracks on those plates cause
earthquake whose effect is felt on the population present on the landmass
over the plates.
The magnitude of the earthquake or the intensity of energy coming from

the quake is measured by a scale called Richter scale developed by a
scientist named Charles F. Richter in the year 1935. The range of the
Richter scale is from 0 to 9 and only earthquake measuring over 6 point, on
the Richter scale is considered to be very damaging.

The place in earth’s interior at which quake happens is called focus and the
landmass above the focus is called epicenter. The instrument which records
earthquakes is called Seismograph. Major earthquakes hitting India in the
recent times are Maharashtra’s Latur town in 1999 and Gujarat’s Kutch
area in Jan 26′ 2001.
One major earthquake was happened in the boarder of Pakistan and India
along Jammu Kashmir in 2005 killing about one lakh people and damaging
many buildings and bridges. Asian countries like Japan, China, and Iran
are always affected by earthquakes. Turkey is another country in Europe
where earthquakes are regular phenomena. Our North Eastern regions are
very earthquake prone. There is very little to prevent earthquake as it
occurs inside earth due to natural causes. The precautions are very
important to save various losses.
The following are few steps to prevent losses during earthquakes.

They are:
1. The house building procedure should be earthquake resistant or even if
when house collapses during quakes, the building should not be a death
trap for man.
2. Bamboo material or very light weight materials should be used in

earthquake prone areas.
3. Much scientific research should be done to know earthquake much

earlier than the actual seismic waves damage people.

4. All big structures like dams, bridges, buildings etc. must be built by
quake resistant procedure.
5. People in earthquake prone areas should be taught the ways to save

themselves during earthquake.
6. It is the building which takes life and not the quake so structure of the
building should take all preventive measures particularly in areas declared
as earthquake prone by Geological Survey of India.
What Causes a Flood?

Severe flooding is caused by atmospheric conditions that lead to heavy rain or the
rapid melting of snow and ice. Geography can also make an area more likely to
flood. For example, areas near rivers and cities are often at risk for flash floods.
A flood is an overflow of water onto land that is normally dry. Floods can happen
almost anywhere. They can cover an area with just a few inches of water or they can
bring enough water to cover the roof of a house. Floods can be dangerous for
communities, lasting days, weeks or sometimes even longer.
Many different situations can cause a flood. Here are just a few:
Here are eight of the most common causes of flooding, both natural and human-induced. And
the consequences of flooding can be savage.
1. Heavy Rains
The simplest explanation for flooding is heavy rains. No matter where you live, you are
surrounded by infrastructure and systems designed to move rainwater into appropriate basins and
reservoirs. In most cases, the infrastructure does its job, and you never have to think about where
the rain goes when it runs off.
When it rains heavily, however, those systems are overwhelmed, and that water doesn’t drain
nearly as quickly as it needs to. In short, the drainage systems back up, and the water rises —

sometimes into homes. This typically happens only in cases of sustained heavy rains over a long
period.
2. Overflowing Rivers
You do not necessarily need to have heavy rains to experience flooding in your area. For
example, if you live along a river and areas upstream from you experience heavy rains, it could
lead to a serious overflow where you live. Most larger rivers include a series of dams to help
manage large amounts of rainfall, and most river systems are managed by government
authorities.
Sometimes, however, those authorities have to make tough decisions about how to operate dams.
They often can manage the water and prevent flooding altogether — but not always.
3. Broken Dams
Much of America’s infrastructure was built in the 20th century, so it is getting old. When heavy
rains come, and water levels rise, aging dams can fail and unleash torrents of water on
unsuspecting households.
This is part of what happened after Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans in 2005. Levees failed
and made the flooding far worse than it would have been otherwise. While we have come to
depend on 20th-century architecture, and much of it does its job well, there is always a
possibility that a structure will fail.
4. Urban Drainage Basins
Many of our cities are made of mostly concrete and other impermeable material. When you have
an urban drainage basin that is made of concrete, there is no ground for water to sink into. So,
when those drainage basins fill up, it is going to mean flooding for low-lying areas.
This is mostly the case in large urban areas — think Houston and Los Angeles. When heavy
rains strike, the basins used to drain them cannot always handle the load.
5. Storm Surges and Tsunamis
Rain is not always the culprit when it comes to flooding. Storm surges related to hurricanes and
other storms can lead to significant flooding, as can tsunamis that are sometimes caused by
underwater earthquakes.
Given modern technology, we often know about storm surges and tsunamis before they arrive,
but this is not always the case. For example, in 2004, an earthquake off the coast of Indonesia
created a tsunami that gave little warning before coming ashore.

6. Channels with Steep Sides
Flooding often occurs when there is fast runoff into lakes, rivers and other reservoirs. This is
often the case with rivers and other channels that feature steep sides. It is a similar issue to
having a lack of vegetation, which is explained in more detail below.
7. A Lack of Vegetation
Vegetation can help slow runoff and prevent flooding. When there is a lack of vegetation,
however, there is little to stop water from running off. This can be a bit of a conundrum after a
drought.
While area residents likely welcome the rain, the lack of vegetation after the drought can cause
flash flooding. This does not always happen given that basins and reservoirs are close to empty,
but it can occur in cases of extreme rains following long periods of drought.
8. Melting Snow and Ice
A winter of heavy snow and other precipitation can lead to a spring of flooding. After all, that
snow and ice have to go somewhere when they melt. Most mountainous areas experience
relatively consistent snowfall totals from year to year, but an unusually heavy winter of
precipitation can spell bad news for low-lying areas around the mountains when spring hits.
The good news is that sustained winter precipitation provides a long lead time to prepare for
potential flooding. That is a silver lining at the very least.
These are just a few examples of common causes of floods, but there does not need to be an
incredible weather event for you to experience flooding at your home. You can experience
devastating flooding simply due to a clogged or broken pipe as well as other plumbing issues. No
matter how or why you experience a flood, you need a qualified water restoration professional
with quality tools to help you get your home back into working order again.
Geography can also make an area more likely to flood. For example, areas near
rivers are often at risk for floods. Urban areas (areas near cities) are also at higher
risk for floods because rooftops funnel rainfall to the ground below, and paved
surfaces such as highways and parking lots prevent the ground from absorbing the
rain.
Mountains or steep hills can increase an area’s flood risk, too. Rain or snowmelt
running down a mountain can cause streams and rivers to rise quickly. In fact, if a

thunderstorm lingers over a mountain, a creek only 6 inches deep can swell to a 10-
foot-deep river in less than an hour.
What is a flash flood?

Flash floods are very dangerous floods that can happen with little or no warning.
When there is more rain than the soil can absorb, the excess water quickly runs into
rivers and creeks, overwhelming storm drains and ditches and causing a flash flood.
Flash floods can cause water to rise significantly in a short amount of time.
Where does all of that rain come from?

Several different weather conditions can cause extreme rainfall in a region. Tropical
cyclones form in some tropical and subtropical areas, usually in the summer and
fall. When they appear in the Atlantic Ocean or the northwest part of the Pacific
Ocean and reach a certain intensity, they are called hurricanes. Tropical cyclones
can produce huge amounts of rain, causing flooding and flash flooding once the
storm reaches land.
They can also send a rush of water from the ocean onto coastlines in an event
called a storm surge, which floods low-lying areas
Another phenomenon that can cause extreme rainfall is called an atmospheric

river. Atmospheric rivers are long, narrow conveyor belts of moisture that move
through the atmosphere.
Strong atmospheric rivers can deliver enormous amounts of rain and snow in
California, the Pacific Northwest and Alaska, especially during the winter months.
This can lead to serious flooding and mudslides.
Hazards Associated with Flooding

Hazards associated with flooding can be divided into primary hazards that occur
due to contact with water, secondary effects that occur because of the flooding,
such as disruption of services, health impacts such as famine and disease, and
tertiary effects such as changes in the position of river channels. Throughout the
last century flooding has been one of the most costly disasters in terms of both
property damage and human casualties. Major floods in China, for example, killed
about 2 million people in 1887, nearly 4 million in 1931, and about 1 million in
1938 The 1993 flood on the upper Mississippi River and Midwest killed only 47

people, but the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers estimates the total economic loss at
between 15 and 20 billion dollars.
Primary Effects
Again, the primary effects of floods are those due to direct contact with the flood
waters. As seen in the video last lecture, water velocities tend to be high in floods.
As discharge increases velocity increases.
 With higher velocities, streams are able to transport larger particles as

suspended load. Such large particles include not only rocks and sediment,
but, during a flood, could include such large objects as automobiles, houses
and bridges.
 Massive amounts of erosion can be accomplished by flood waters. Such

erosion can undermine bridge structures, levees, and buildings causing their
collapse.
 Water entering human built structures cause water damage. Even with minor
flooding of homes, furniture is ruined, floors and walls are damaged, and
anything that comes in contact with the water is likely to be damaged or lost.
Flooding of automobiles usually results in damage that cannot easily be
repaired.
 The high velocity of flood waters allows the water to carry more sediment as
suspended load. When the flood waters retreat, velocity is generally much
lower and sediment is deposited. After retreat of the floodwaters everything
is usually covered with a thick layer of stream deposited mud, including the
interior of buildings.
 Flooding of farmland usually results in crop loss. Livestock, pets, and other
animals are often carried away and drown.
 Humans that get caught in the high velocity flood waters are often drowned
by the water.
 Floodwaters can concentrate garbage, debris, and toxic pollutants that can
cause the secondary effects of health hazards.

Secondary and Tertiary Effects

Remember that secondary effects are those that occur because of the primary effects
and tertiary effects are the long term changes that take place. Among the secondary
effects of a flood are:
 Disruption of services -
o Drinking water supplies may become polluted, especially if sewerage

treatment plants are flooded. This may result in disease and other
health effects, especially in under developed countries.
o Gas and electrical service may be disrupted.
o Transportation systems may be disrupted, resulting in shortages of

food and clean-up supplies. In under developed countries food
shortages often lead to starvation.
 Long - term effects (tertiary effects)-
o Location of river channels may change as the result of flooding, new

channels develop, leaving the old channels dry.
o Sediment deposited by flooding may destroy farm land (although silt

deposited by floodwaters could also help to increase agricultural
productivity).
o Jobs may be lost due to the disruption of services, destruction of

business, etc. (although jobs may be gained in the construction
industry to help rebuild or repair flood damage).
o Insurance rates may increase.
o Corruption may result from misuse of relief funds.
o Destruction of wildlife habitat.
Predicting River Flooding
Floods can be such devastating disasters that anyone can be affected at almost
anytime. As we have seen, when water falls on the surface of the Earth, it has to go
somewhere. In order to reduce the risk due to floods, three main approaches are
taken to flood prediction. Statistical studies can be undertaken to attempt to
determine the probability and frequency of high discharges of streams that cause
flooding. Floods can be modeled and maps can be made to determine the extent of
possible flooding when it occurs in the future. And, since the main causes of
flooding are abnormal amounts of rainfall and sudden thawing of snow or ice,
storms and snow levels can be monitored to provide short-term flood prediction.
Frequency of Flooding
In your homework exercise you will see how flood frequencies can be determined
for any given stream if data is available for discharge of the stream over an
extended period of time. Such data allows statistical analysis to determine how
often a given discharge or stage of a river is expected. From this analysis a
recurrence interval can be determined and a probability calculated for the likelihood
of a given discharge in the stream for any year. The data needed to perform this
analysis are the yearly maximum discharge of a stream from one gaging station
over a long enough period of time.
 In order to determine the recurrence interval, the yearly discharge values are first ranked.
Each discharge is associated with a rank, m, with m = 1 given to the maximum discharge
over the years of record, m = 2 given to the second highest discharge, m = 3 given to the
third highest discharge, etc.
 The smallest discharge will receive a rank equal to the number of years over
which there is a record, n. Thus, the discharge with the smallest value will
have m = n.
 The number of years of record, n, and the rank for each peak discharge are
then used to calculate recurrence interval, R by the following equation, called
the Weibull equation:
R = (n+1)/m

 A graph is then made plotting discharge for each year of the record versus recurrence
interval. The graph usually plots recurrence interval on a logarithmic scale. An example
of such a plot is shown here for the Red River of the North gaging station at Fargo, North
Dakota.
 A best-fit line is then drawn through the data points. From the best-fit line, one can
determine the discharge associated with the a flood with a recurrence interval of say 10
years. This would be called the 10-year flood.
For the data on the Red River, above, the discharge associated with the 10-year flood is
about 12,000 cubic feet per second. Similarly the discharge associated with a flood with a
recurrence interval of 50 years (the 50-year flood) would have a discharge of about 21,000
cubic feet per second. The 100-year flood would have a discharge of about 25,000 cubic
feet per second.
 Note that for the Red River data, shown above, the April 18, 1997 flood had a
discharge of 30,000 ft3/sec, which is equivalent to a 250-year flood. Also
note that a flood that reached a similar stage occurred on the Red River in
Fargo in the year 1887, only 110 years before. Furthermore, the Red River
reached a bit more than 30,000 ft3/sec in 2009. Does this make the statistical
analysis unreliable? The answer is no. As we shall see, it is possible to have
two 100-year floods occurring 100 years apart, 50 years apart, or even 2 in
the same year.
 The probability, Pe, of a certain discharge can be calculated using the inverse
of the Weibull equation:
Pe = m/(n+1)
 The value, Pe, is called the annual exceedence probability. For example, a

discharge equal to that of a 10-year flood would have an annual exceedence
probability of 1/10 = 0.1 or 10%. This would say that in any given year, the
probability that a flood with a discharge equal to or greater than that of a 10
year flood would be 0.1 or 10%. Similarly, the probability of a flood with
discharge exceeding the 100 year flood in any given year would be 1/100 =
0.01, or 1%.
 Note that such probabilities are the same for every year. So, for example,
the probability that discharge of the Red River at Fargo, North Dakota will
exceed 25,000 ft3/sec (the discharge of the 100-year flood) this year or any
other year would 1%. You can think of this in the same way you would think
about rolling dice. The probability on any roll that you will end up with a
six, rolling only on die, is 1 in 6 or 16.67%. Each time you roll that one die
the probability is the same, although you know that it is possible to roll two
or three sixes in a row.
 Thus, it is important to remember that even though a 250-year flood occurred in Fargo in
1997 and 2009, there is still a 0.4% probability that such a flood, or one of even greater
magnitude, will occur this year.

Despite the fact that the 100 year flood has only a 1% chance of occurring each year, the
probabilities do accumulate over time.
The probability of a certain-size flood occurring during any period can be

calculated using the following equation:
Pt = 1-(1-Pe)n
where Pt is the probability of occurrence over the entire time period, n, and Pe is the
probability of occurrence in any year.
We can use this equation to calculate how the probabilities change over time. The
result is depicted in the graph below for Pe = 0.01 (100 year flood)

Two important points emerge:
1. The probability of a 100 year flood occurring in 100 years is NOT 100%! (See below)
2. The probability of a 100 year flood occurring in 30 years (the lifetime of the average home
mortgage) is 26.0%!
Flood Hazard Mapping
Food hazard mapping is used to determine the areas susceptible to flooding when
discharge of a stream exceeds the bank-full stage. Using historical data on river
stages and discharge of previous floods, along with topographic data, maps can be
constructed to show areas expected to be covered with floodwaters for various
discharges or stages.

In constructing such maps aerial photographs and satellite images of prior floods are studied to
help to determine the areas that would be covered. The illustration above shows a possible hazard
map based on estimated discharges or river stages for a hypothetical 10-year flood, 50-year flood,
and 100-year flood.
In addition, scale models are often constructed of areas prone to flooding. Such
models only work if they are kept up to date with current flood prevention
structures and drainage modifications.
Monitoring the Progress of Storms

If factors such as amount of rainfall, degree of ground saturation, degree of
permeable soil, and amount of vegetation can be determined, then these can be
correlated to give short-term prediction, in this case called a forecast, of possible
floods. If a forecast is issued, then a flood warning can be communicated to warn
the public about the possible extent of the flood, and to give people time to move
out of the area. Such forecasts are very useful for flooding that has a long lag time
between the storm and the peak discharge. Flash floods, which characteristically
have short lag times, are more problematical. Thus, in some areas known to be
susceptible to flash floods, a flash flood warning is often issued any time heavy
rainfall is expected because there is always the chance of a flash food
accompanying heavy rainfall.
In conjunction with the National Weather Service, various agencies in the U.S.
provide information on the internet that forecast potential floods. For example
- http://water.weather.gov/ahps/

Human Intervention
Humans can modify the landscape in many ways. Sometimes humans attempt to
modify drainage systems to prevent flooding, but sometimes these efforts have
adverse effects and actually help to cause flooding in other areas. Any modification
of the landscape has the potential to cause changes in the drainage system, and such
changes can have severe consequences.
Channel Modifications
Humans often decide that a stream should flow along a specified path for such
reasons as flood control, enhancement of drainage, control of erosion, increasing
access to the floodplain for development, or improvement of the appearance of the
channel. Such channel modifications involve measures such as the straightening
the channel, deepening or widening the channel, clearing vegetation from the banks,
or lining the channel with concrete. These modifications are referred to
as channelization.
 In order to control floods, channel modification should involve increasing the

channel cross-sectional area, so that higher discharge will not increase the
stage of the river. Straighter channels also allow higher velocity flow and,
enable the stream to drain faster when discharge increases. Lining the
channel with concrete provides a smoother surface over which the water can
flow, thereby reducing friction and also increasing the velocity of the stream.
 While channelization for flood control may reduce the incidence of flooding
in the channelized area, it often results in more severe flooding both upstream
and downstream from the channelized area.

 Channelization can also interfere with the natural habitat of the stream
system and decrease the aesthetic value of the stream.
 Channelization, or any other modification of a stream system, changes the

validity of all historic data collected over the years on that stream. During
flooding of the Mississippi River in 1973 and 1993 water levels rose to
higher levels than expected from the statistical data, because modification of
the stream had made the data invalid. The 1973 flood caused damage and
rose to levels that might be expected from a 200-year flood, even though
discharge was only at a level predicted for a 30-year flood. Thus, it appears

that modifications of the drainage system had an adverse effect.
Effects of Development on Flood Hazard

Whenever humans modify the landscape in any way changes are to be expected in
the way water drains from the land. Unless careful consideration is given to the
possible drainage consequences, such landscape modifications can result in higher
incidence of flooding. Development on floodplains should therefore be undertaken
only with great care. Existing developments that have enhanced flooding problems
are often costly to fix. Among the factors that enhance the flood potential are:
 Channelization - As
noted above, most
channelization is
undertaken to reduce
flood hazards. But,
channelization is also
undertaken to allow
development on the
floodplain.
If the channelization results in decreasing the cross-sectional area of the

stream, as in the example above, then the same discharge that may not have
produced flooding prior to channelization, may overflow the banks and cause
extensive flooding after channelization.
 Subsidence - As will be discussed in a later lecture, subsidence often results

in developed areas due to compaction of the sediment, both due to the
increasing weight of structures and hydrocompaction associated with the
lowering of the water table. Any time the elevation of an area is lowered, it
becomes subject to collection of more water, and in severe cases, could
drastically change the drainage pattern.
 Storm Sewers - In order to collect run off from streets, parking lots, and
buildings, all of which block the infiltration of water into the soil, storm
sewers are installed to provide underground drainage of the surface. While
this may prevent local flooding of streets, it moves water more rapidly to the
major stream systems and thus decreases the lag time and increases the peak
discharge of the streams collecting the runoff from the storm sewers.
 Reduction of infiltration - Any time the surface materials of the Earth are

covered with impermeable materials like concrete, asphalt, or buildings, the
infiltration of water into the soil is prevented. Urbanization tends to reduce
infiltration, and thus water must collect in storm sewers and eventually in the
main drainage systems. Thus, extensive urbanization also decreases the lag
time and increases the peak discharge even further. Urbanization can
therefore lead to a higher incidence of flash floods.
Mitigation of Flood Hazards
Mitigation of flood hazards can be attempted in two main ways: An engineering

approach, to control flooding, and a regulatory approach designed to decrease
vulnerability to flooding.
Engineering Approaches
 Channel modifications - As discussed above, channelization. can enlarge cross-sectional

area and thus create a situation where a higher stage is necessary before flooding. In
other words by enlarging the cross-sectional area, higher discharge can be held within the
channel. Channelization also increases water velocity, and thus reduces drainage time.

 Dams - Dams can be used to hold water back so that discharge downstream can be
regulated at a desired rate. Human constructed dams have spillways that can be opened to
reduce the level of water in the reservoir behind the dam. Thus, the water level can be
lowered prior to a heavy rain, and more water can be trapped in the reservoir and released
later at a controlled discharge.
 Retention ponds - Retention ponds serve a similar purpose to dams. Water can be trapped
in a retention pond and then released at a controlled discharge to prevent flooding
downstream.
 Levees, Dikes, and Floodwalls - These are structures built along side the channel to
increase the stage at which the stream floods. Some controversy has developed
concerning the use of such structures. For example, during the 1993 floods on the upper

Mississippi River, the city of St. Louis was prevented from flooding by closing the
floodwalls. This essentially narrowed the river channel as it passed St. Louis and caused
slowing of the River. Because of the restricted channel, flood waters were forced to flow
into areas both upstream and downstream from St. Louis, perhaps increasing the damage
in the these areas.
 Floodways - Floodways are areas that can be built to provide an outlet to a stream and
allow it flood into an area that has been designated as a floodway. Floodways are areas
where no construction is allowed, and where the land is used for agricultural or
recreational purposes when there is no threat of a flood, but which provide an outlet for
flood waters during periods of high discharge. The Bonnet Carrie Spillway west of New
Orleans is such a floodway. During low stages of the Mississippi River the land between
the River and Lake Pontchartrain is used for recreational purposes - hunting, fishing, and
dirt bike riding for example. During high stages of the River when there is a potential for
the River to rise to flood stage in New Orleans, the spillway is opened so that water drains
into Lake Pontchartrain. This lowers the level of water in the Mississippi and reduces the
possibility of a levee break or water overtopping the levee.
Regulatory Approaches to Reduce Vulnerability

With a better understanding of the behavior of streams, the probability of flooding,

and areas likely to be flooded during high discharge, humans can undertake
measures to reduce vulnerability to flooding. Among these non-structural measures
are:

 Floodplain zoning - Laws can be passed that restrict construction and habitation of
floodplains. Instead floodplains can be zoned for agricultural use, recreation, or other uses
wherein lives and property are not endangered when (note that I did not use the word if)
flood waters re-occupy the floodplain.
 Floodplain building codes - Structures that are allowed within the floodplain could be
restricted those that can withstand the high velocity of flood waters and are high enough
off the ground to reduce risk of contact with water.
 Floodplain buyout programs - In areas that have been recently flooded, it may be more
cost effective for the government, which usually pays for flood damage either through
subsidized flood insurance or direct disaster relief, to buy the rights to the land rather than
pay the cost of reconstruction and then have to pay again the next time the river floods.


 Mortgage limitations - Lending institutions could refuse to give loans to buy or construct
dwellings or businesses in flood prone areas.
Flood forecasting
Flood forecasting is the use of
forecasted precipitation and streamflow data in rainfall-
runoff and streamflow routing models to forecast flow rates and water
levels for periods ranging from a few hours to days ahead, depending on
the size of the watershed or river basin.[1] Flood forecasting can also
make use of forecasts of precipitation in an attempt to extend the lead-
time available.
Flood forecasting is an important component of flood warning, where
the distinction between the two is that the outcome of flood forecasting
is a set of forecast time-profiles of channel flows or river levels at
various locations, while "flood warning" is the task of making use of
these forecasts to tell decisions on warnings of floods.
Real-time flood forecasting at regional area can be done within seconds
by using the technology of artificial neural network.[2] Effective real-time
flood forecasting models could be useful for early warning and disaster
prevention.
The goal of flood forecast is to issue advance warning about water level or discharge
large enough that threatens safety of structures and flood plain activities. As observed
in previous module, an advance warning of this nature help authorities adopt a series
of measures to contain adverse impacts of flood.
Unlike several other disasters, approaching flood can be forecast ahead of its occurrence
with advance collection of hydro-meteorological data, and its transformation into flood
water level or flood hydrograph. Succeeding paragraphs of this module unfolds a range
of commonly employed models in India.
FLOOD FORECASTING TECHNIQUES
According to the various concepts used in developing models, the models can be classified into five

categories.

a) Based on correlation/coaxial diagrams between two variables or even more;
Mathematical equations developed using regression/multiple linear regression
b)
techniques which combines independent variable with one or more than one variable;
c) Hydrological models
c.1 Rainfall run-off model
i) Lumped
ii) Quasi-distributed
iii) Distributed
c.2 Routing techniques
i) Lumped, & Distributed
d) Hydraulic models
i) Dynamic Wave routing
e) Data driven hydrological models
i) Artificial Neural Networks
ii) Fuzzy expert system design for FF
iii) ANFIS (Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System) models

a. Correlation/Co-axial Diagrams
Forecasters in India have developed a large set of correlation, and coaxial diagrams
which display the pattern of correlation exhibited by two or more variables. Such charts
are relatively less complex, and are quite popular among its users. Nevertheless, they
need periodical updating to account for constant alteration in catchment characteristics
and river regime. One out of several such diagrams used in India is shown here. When
a number of tributaries affect the water level at the forecasting station, the variation in
water level at base station (base station is a location upstream of forecast station) on the
main river as well as base stations on the tributariesare considered to prepare co-axial
diagrams. One such diagram developed for formulation of forecast at Patna
(Gandhighat) on river Ganga is shown in Fig.1. In this diagram, water level fluctuation
at Patna takes into account the variation in water level at Buxar on river Ganga; Darauli
on river Ghaghra; Chopan on river Sone; and Rewaghat on river Gandak.
This concept can also be extended to account for rainfall in upland area. Fig.2
is for formulating the forecasts at Khowang on river Brahmaputra considering
rise and fall in water level at Naharkatia site. Additionally, rainfall
observation at Naharkatia is also accounted for to incorporate its likely
influence to the water level at Khowang.
However, these charts carry limitations in that they provide only peak flow or
water level information, and drop no hint about the shape of likely flood

hydrograph at forecast site. This aside, there is absence of statistical test to
measure the strength of correlation between dependent and independent
variables. Nevertheless, such diagrams are proved quite useful in absence of
fully developed network of hydro-meteorological stations; skilled personnel
to operate sophisticated models; and seamless flow of data from remote
locations to forecast centre.
b. Mathematical Equations
Unlike previous method, this method defines relationship mathematically
among variables by 'regression/multiple regression techniques'. The strength
of such pattern is easily determined by correlation coefficient, 'r', and thus
subjective judgment of a person in drawing a best-fit line is eliminated.
Mathematical equations offer much ease in calculation of dependent variable,
and in turn speed up forecast process. Chart at Fig. 3 displays an equation
that estimates water level at downstream location, Mahemdabad, Gujarat
with change in water level at upstream site. A respectable degree of r 2 as
0.9854 is achieved by introducing a time lag/shift of 4 hrs between two sets of
data. The arrival of this time lag is based on output obtained through cross-
correlogram technique. With no time lag, two sets of data are poorly
correlated.
Another approach is to develop a mathematical model relating forecast

station water level with water level of a tributary joining in-between base and
forecasting station, and of base station. This method is elaborated by an
example comprising three stations. Location of stations may be visualized as
shown in Fig.4. Table 1 lists water levels observed at these locations.

c. Hydrological Models

c.1 Rainfall-Runoff Models
Top of page
i) Lumped Models
ii) Quasi Distributed Model

iii) Distributed Model
c.2 Routing Techniques
Top of page
i) Lumped, & Distributed Routing
(a) Storage equation
(b) Continuity Equation

d. Hydraulic Models

i) Dynamic Wave Routing Technique
To demonstrate the strength of this approach through an example, the succeeding part of this module
illustrates the application of HEC-RAS software in routing an unsteady flow hydraulically. HEC-RAS
software is a one-dimensional flow hydraulic model designed to aid hydraulic engineers in channel
flow analysis and flood-plain determination. The results of the model can be applied in floodplain
management studies including flood forecasting. Like HEC-HMS, this software is also available for
free, and can be downloaded from web-page http://www.hec.usace.army.mil/software/hec-ras/hecras-
download.html .
By the end of this part of module, you will be able to:
 Import and edit cross-sectional geometry data

 Perform a unsteadyflow simulation for flood forecasting
 View and analyze HEC-RAS output and use GIS RAS mapper for flood delineation.
In this part, a real case study of unsteady flood modelling through HEC-RAS has been dealt with for a
reach (Karad - Kurundwad, chainage 140 km to 260 km) in Krishna river. Lateral inflows to the main
river on the corresponding dates have been considered at Sangam, where tributary Panchganga
contributes to the Krishna flow. The technique provides a reliableinitialization of stage/discharge
profile for the flood forecast. The examinations includingthe initialization of stage profile, conservation
of mass, iteration convergence, Manning's N,effectiveness evaluation, and convergence with optimum
theta (implicit weighing factor) values are conductedto verify the forecast capability.The forecasting
results show that the stage recalculated by updatingthe Manning N, in current time has a good
agreementwith the observed stage.
e) Data driven hydrologic models

Sometimes,it is argued that deterministic, reductionist models are inappropriate for real-time
forecasting because of the inherent uncertainty that characterizes river catchment dynamics
and the problems of model overparameterization. The advantages of alternative, efficiently
parameterized data-based mechanistic models, identified and estimated using statistical
methods, are discussed.
Neuromorphic modelling techniques are now well established methods for describing
physical processes occurring in the aquatic environment. The development in information

technology over the last decade has presented opportunities of extended computational ability
together with improved data manipulation, storage and retrieval. As a result, the
Neuromorphic models are now being used more extensively in the management, design and
operation of water based assets. The reason behind this is that in many areas of applications
pertaining to the complex flow systems, the demands on computing time are of such a
magnitude, which is far from acceptable. An elementary brief part of ANN has been added
here in the distance learning course for easy insight, though there are advanced architectures
like recurrent neural network (RNN), radial basis function (RBF),self-organizing map (SOM)
and othersused in flood forecasting
Top of page
i) Artificial Neural Networks

An artificial neural network is nothing but a collection of interconnected processing elements (PEs).
The connection strengths, also called the network weights, can be adapted such that the network's
output matches a desired response.
ii) Fuzzy expert system design for flood forecasting

Linguistic terms are chosen to describe the input variable stage and the results. Further
refinement of the models could not be achieved by adding extra membership functions.
Gaussian membership functions (the function is generally suited for Indian rivers) can be
used. Applying a similar method of data classification, membership functions are determined
for the output variable discharge.
Rule definition
Some years of average hourlystage data and expert knowledge are used to create a rule base
for the fuzzy logic model. Rules are defined for both the high and low extreme conditions,
with regard to actual occurrences, because of the physical nature of the relationships.
Depending on number of membership functions for each input variable; the minimum rule
base is created. For each data point, all rules are evaluated.
Fuzzy model construction
The platform selected for the fuzzy logic expert system is MATLAB and MATLAB'S Fuzzy
Logic Toolbox. The variables are combined into rules using the concept of 'AND'. The fuzzy
operator 'minimum' is applied as the 'AND' function to combine the variables. No weightings
are applied, which means no rule is emphasized as more important in respect to estimating the
discharge. Implication is performed with the minimum function, and aggregation is

performed with the maximum function. The centre of gravity method is applied as a means of
defuzzification of the output membership functions to determine a crisp set. Based on this
structure a baseline model fuzzy logic expert system for stage-discharge relationship is
constructed for the G&D stations. Alternate functions for the expert system are investigated
through sensitivity analysis.
Sensitivity analysis
A sensitivity analysis is performed for the fuzzy logic operator AND, and for methods of
implication, aggregation and defuzzification. The results of changing a single operator or
method while the rest of the model is held constant are compared with the results from the
baseline model. The results are evaluated on the basis of correct linguistic matches. Based on
this sensitivity analysis, the AND operator 'minimum' and the implication method 'minimum'
are found to perform better than the product method. The fuzzy logic and ANN models are
evaluated based on their ability to predict the discharge.
Top of page
iii) ANFIS (Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System) models

The hybrid system of learning has been attempted at combining ANN and fuzzy logic for
developing the stage-discharge relationship to achieve a faster rate of convergence by controlling
the learning rate parameter with fuzzy rules. The objective is to get a minimizer, which has a low
computing cost and a large convergence domain. This learning ability is achieved by presenting a
training set of different examples to the network and using learning algorithm, which changes the
weights in such a way that the network reproduces a correct output with the correct input values.
The main dissimilarity between fuzzy logic system (FLS) and neural network is that FLS uses
heuristic knowledge to form rules and tunes these rules using sample data, whereas NN forms
"rules" based entirely on data. Sugeno type ANFIS can be used. Gaussian membership functions
can be used with rule bases, because of their low computational requirements and as it has the
important properties of smooth mapping, universal approximation, normal distributions can be
approximated well by this type of functions.Learning rate control by fuzzy logic has been depicted
at fig 41. ( FLC - fuzzy logic controller, MLP - multilayer perceptron

Validation and comparison of results
The ANN, fuzzy and neuro-fuzzy models thus developed is validated and compared with the
observed data points and the statistical measures of goodness-of-fit of the neuromorphic models.
Numerous goodness of fit statistical criteria are proposed in the literature for evaluating
hydrological modelling results. Goodness of fit can be tested from standard statistics literature as
has been shown in the aforesaid ANN paragraph.Fig 42 shows the validation and comparison of
models with observed data.
Conclusions
As could be seen in preceding paragraphs, advance warning about the incoming flood peak and its
probable time of occurrence can be achieved by several models. However, selection of a particular
method or model, and its accuracy for a given site is largely governed by threefactors - data
availability; forecaster's knowledge of, and his experience with the basin; and forecaster's
familiarity with software to be used in the forecast process.
The illustrated texts mentioned in this module are just the trail of a beginning and more of the

subject and in-depth precision knowledge base, the readers are suggested to refer to advanced
literature layouts.
FLOOD CONTROL AND FLOOD MANAGEMENT
Flood control:
Flood control refers to all methods used to reduce or prevent the damaging effects of
flood waters. Some of the common techniques used for flood control are the installation
of rock beams, rock rip-raps, sand bags, maintenance of normal slopes with vegetation
or application of soil cements on steeper slopes and construction or expansion of
drainage. Other methods include dykes, dams, retention basins or detention. Following
2005-Hurricane Katrina disaster in the United States, some areas prefer not to have
dykes as flood controls. Communities have chosen to improve drainage structures with
detention basins.
Some methods of flood control have been practiced since Antiquity. These methods
include planting vegetation to retain excess water, terrace slopes to reduce slope flow,
and building alluviums (man-made channels to divert water from flooding), construction
of dykes, dams, reservoirs or holding tanks to store extra water during flood periods.
In many countries, flood-prone rivers are often carefully managed. Defenses such as
dykes, reservoirs and dams are used to keep rivers from overflowing. A dam is one of
the methods of flood protection, which reduces the risk of flooding compared to other
methods, once it can help preventing damage. However, it is best to combine dykes
with other flood control methods to reduce the risk of a collapsed embankment. When
these defenses fail, emergency measures such as sandbags or portable inflatable tubes
are used. Coastal floods have been controlled in Europe and North America with
defenses such as ocean walls or barrier islands that are narrow, long strips of sand
usually parallel to the coastline.
The engineering works that can prevent and mitigate the effects of floods are as follows:
1) On highways, the implantation of steel pipes should take water by gravity away from
the road from catchment basins; 2) The severe flooding problems in a city that paved
much of its soil would be alleviated in part by the construction of great swimming pools
that are large underground water tanks to store the waters; 3) Mandatory placement of
permeable drainage floors in huge courtyards of parking lots in malls, supermarkets and
cinemas, to allow the water infiltration in part of the ground, being the same for
monuments and spaces around buildings; 4) using drains and gutters around all houses
to divert rainwater to a reservoir or disposal area; 5) Maintenance, whenever possible,
of some green areas so that the water is reabsorbed by the soil; 6) Rectification of rivers
and streams, construction of dams and canals in large rivers that extend their
containment basins; and 7) Implementation of a civil defense system that should be
able to at least warn people and have a scheme to remove them from homes in time
with some belongings and accommodate them.

Caring to avoid flooding in urban areas is, as follows: 1) keeping streets and sidewalks
always clean; 2) cleaning and unclogging manhole and storm drain; 3) keeping in the
houses the channels and other channels of rainfall free of branches and leaves of trees
to avoid clogging and, consequently, return of water; 4) putting garbage bags on the
sidewalks only near the time the garbage collection truck will come, preventing them
from being drawn into the manhole when it rains; 5) having a drain pump on hand if
flooding cannot be avoided; and 6) using Dutch and British flood proof technology as a
floating amphibian house that allows buildings to float in the same way as a boat.
Hydrological experts recommend that, in order to avoid flooding in urban areas, the
following measures should be adopted: 1) Combating erosion by minimizing
sedimentation of natural drainage and built up through rigorous and extensive soil
erosion control and irregular disposition of urban garbage and construction rubble , as
well as the expansion of the river gutters; 2) Combating waterproofing with the creation
of domestic and business reservoirs, as well as the expansion of green areas; 3)
Forbidding traffic on high traffic avenues when nearby rivers overflow; 4) Implantation of
avenues covered by vegetation that, in cases of overflowing rivers or streams, water
would be absorbed by the pavement free soil; 5) Constructing great swimming pools to
receive rainwater and mini swimming pools in houses and buildings; 6) Investing in
small and large streams of the urban center to support the increase of water and act as
containment barriers; 7) Review of occupied areas – continuous planning and land-use
planning; and 8) Action and planning – preparation of a plan to deal with the occurrence
of floods as well as extreme climatic variations, and construction of reservoirs capable
of storing billions of cubic meters of water and their use for non-potable purposes.
Correction and prevention measures to minimize flood damage are classified according
to their nature into structural and non-structural measures. The structural measures
correspond to the works that can be implemented aiming at the correction and / or
prevention of problems arising from floods. Non-structural measures are those that seek
to prevent and/or reduce the damages and consequences of floods, not by means of
work, but by the introduction of norms, regulations and programs that aim at, for
example, disciplining land use and occupation, implementing warning systems and the
awareness of the population.
The structural measures comprise the engineering works, which can be characterized
as intensive and extensive measures. Intensive measures, according to their purpose,
can be of four types:
 Acceleration of outflow: pipeline and related works

 Flow retardation: reservoirs (detention / retention basins), restoration of natural
gutters
 Flow deviation: tunnels of derivation and channels of deviation
 Individual actions to make buildings flood proof
On the other hand, the extensive measures correspond to small storage in basin,

vegetation cover restoration and soil erosion control along the drainage basin.
Structural measures can create a sense of false security and even induce the
expansion of flood areas occupation. Non-structural actions can be effective at lower
costs and longer horizons, as well as territorial discipline, people's behavior and
economic activities.
Non-structural measures may be grouped as follows:
 Actions to regulate land use and occupation

 Environmental education focused on the control of diffuse pollution, erosion and
waste
 Insurance-flood
 Flood warning and forecasting systems
By delimiting subject-to-flooding areas depending on the risk, it is possible to establish a

zoning and the respective regulations for the construction, or for possible individual
protection works (such as the installation of floodgates, watertight doors and others) to
be included in existing buildings. In the same way, some areas can be expropriated to
be used as squares, parks, parking lots and other uses.
In certain cases where structural measures are technically or economically unviable (or
even untimely), non-structural measures, such as warning systems, can reduce
expected damage in a short-term, with small investments.
Inada [13] discusses issues related to structural and non-structural flood prevention
measures. He reports that disaster management and flood protection were a prominent
theme at the 2nd Asia-Pacific Water Summit in Chiang Mai. He said that there is a large
gap between the groups who prefer "structural" solutions to disaster management and
those who prefer "non-structural" solutions. Structural solutions include engineered
solutions such as redesigning buildings and designing physical barriers to disaster
events in order to reduce damage. Non-structural solutions include social solutions such
as early warning, evacuation planning, and emergency response preparedness.
Structural groups, which are often comprised of engineers, insist that only structural
solutions can surely prevent countries from economic loss and contribute to the
development of the nation. On the other hand, non-structural groups often warn, "Do not
trust engineering solutions because they sometime do not work. Early warnings, quick
evacuations and emergency response are easy investments."Which solution is more
important? This question will cause endless discussions.
Inada [13] reports that the term "resilience" has recently been introduced to disaster
management dialogue. The word implies that people should accept damages from a
disaster and have plans in place for recovery. As you know, warning, evacuation and
emergency response can help save lives; however, it cannot protect properties and
physical assets. For structural groups, non-structural solutions are not investments at

all. Investments should contribute for development and therefore reduce future
expenditures. Structural solutions can protect people's lives and property.
It is a false dilemma to choose between structural and non-structural measures to deal

with flooding. We should opt for the two measures. Non-structural measures should be
taken in conjunction with structural measures and caution against the latter's failure to
do so.
Chakravartty [14] states that any combination of structural and non-structural additions,
changes, or adjustments to structures which reduce or eliminate flood damage to real
estate or improved real property, water and sanitary facilities, structures and their
contents is called flood-proofing. Flood-proofing requires that home owners, builders,
architects, engineers and planners engage in detailed assessment of the feasibility of
building in high-risk flood-prone areas. Also, flood-proofing structural measures and
plans to initiate standby or emergency measures in anticipation to the flood preparation
have to be adopted, such as sandbagging and moving furniture and valuables to high
floors, blocking openings or safely evacuating. Flood-proofing is not a cure for all flood
problems; it is just one of the many available flood damage reduction tools.
Chakravartty [14] reports that the primary objective of flood-proofing is to reduce or

avoid the impacts of coastal flooding upon structures. This may include structures
elevating above the floodplain, employing designs and building materials which make
structures more resilient to flood damage and preventing floodwaters from entering the
flood zone, among other measures. When floodwaters surround a building, they impose
uplift (vertical) and lateral (horizontal) loads on the structure and sub-structure. The
pressures exerted by these loads must be pre-determined in order to design adequate
flood-proofing.
Chakravartty [14] states that most commercial and industrial buildings have sufficient
anchorage and connections and that they are massive enough to resist to lateral forces
produced by floodwaters. In contrast, residential buildings often require special design
modifications because they usually have neither the necessary anchorage nor the
strength to resist lateral forces. Uplift and lateral forces against a foundation slab and
walls caused by the infiltration of floodwaters through the foundation backfill are
especially significant in building design and construction.
Chakravartty [14] points out that the decision to use flood-proofing techniques, alone or
in combination with flood protection working as dykes requires a cost-benefit analysis. If
you are seriously considering adapting any flood damage reduction methods, get the
services of a qualified professional engineer to help you select and design the right
measure tailored to your particular needs. This is especially important if the house or
light-framed structure is or will be located in an area that is susceptible to fast-moving
flood waters or if the cost involved is substantial.
Chakravartty [14] says that flood-proofing measures will not necessarily eliminate the
risk of the house being flooded. If anticipated benefits exceed the estimated cost, then

flood-proofing will be economically justified. One of the main advantages of flood-
proofing is that it avoids the need to elevate, demolish or relocate structures and, as a
result, it is often much more cost-effective approach to reducing flood risk. Flood-
proofing measures are also much more affordable than the construction of elaborate
flood protection works such as seawalls and dike systems and also advantageous
because it does not require the additional land that would be required to provide the
same degree of flood protection through seawalls or dikes.
Flood-proofing measures require the current risk of flooding to be known and

communicated to the public through flood hazard mapping studies and flood warning
systems. This will allow measures to be appropriately applied and will allow time for
residents to vacate flood-proofed buildings in the event of an emergency. In case of dry
flood-proofing, it will also allow residents to close barriers in a timely fashion. Although
the provision of flood hazard maps and flood warnings bring benefits themselves, it is
an additional cost that should be borne when implementing flood-proofing measures.

Flood management:
In order to deal with flood risks, it is essential that prevention and precaution measures
are adopted to avoid catastrophic events. The Preliminary Environmental Impact
Assessment of Floods is an important instrument for the formulation of civil defense
plans as it is used to assess, predict and prevent further economic and social damages
resulting from floods. It should be noted that preventive or precautionary measures
should be based on risk management policies and, above all, be present in the
proposals and actions of the Civil Defense in dealing with the floods.
Prevention and precaution are two prudence aspects that are put in front of situations
when there is the possibility of damage. These principles should guide any flood
protection policy. The distinction between potential and proven risks underpins the
parallel distinction between precaution and prevention. Precaution is about potential
risks and prevention about proven risks. The potential risk corresponds to a dangerous
event that may or may not occur to which no probability can be attributed, while proven
risks can be attributed to events with probabilities of occurrence.
The prevention principle is applicable to impacts caused by known floods and from
which it is possible to establish a set of causal links that is sufficient to identify the most
likely future impacts; that is, when there is already an information history about them.
The principle of prevention is intended, in a narrow sense, to avoid immediate, imminent
and concrete dangers, according to an immediate logic, as a search, in a broad sense,
to remove any future risks, even if not yet entirely determinable, according to a logic
prospective of anticipation of future events. In case of certainty of the economic and
social damage caused by floods, this must be prevented, as recommended by the
principle of prevention.

In case of doubt or uncertainty about floods caused, for example, by global climate
change, action must be taken on the basis of the precautionary principle. Floods could
have an uncertain occurrence and their impacts would reach different dimensions,
which would require specific actions to avoid possible damages with associated risks
that should lead to adopting an action that provides the least risk of economic and social
damage. The decision to take precautionary measures to address the consequences of
global climate change and to avoid its catastrophic consequences of global warming is
correct.
Attention must, therefore, be drawn to the distinction between the risk of a future nature,
on which the precautionary principle is based, and danger of an immediate nature,
associated to the logic of prevention. Prevention means the act of anticipating and
precaution, in turn, means to early admission of care. The economic calculation should
serve as a basis for decisions related to prevention and precaution. In deciding on the
economic alternatives to be adopted, one factor that greatly complicates the solution of
a problem is uncertainty. Another complicating factor is insufficient information.
Uncertainty can be minimized and insufficient information can be remedied by the

constitution of what is called Big Data. In information technology, the term Big Data
refers to a large set of stored data. It is said that Big Data is based on 5 factors: velocity,
volume, variety, veracity and value. It’s necessary to take the right information, to the
right people, at the right time to make decisions. This requires asking the right questions
and analyzing the data knowingly to understand the flood dynamics. Big Data enables
the analysis of a huge amount of information to show patterns and correlations, in many
cases totally unknown. Big Data opens up a wider range of possibilities that can turn
into paths to innovation.
It should be noted that decision-making is a process of analysis and choice of several

alternatives available, of the course of action to be followed. The decision-making
process consists of 6 steps: 1) Perception of the situation; 2) Analysis and definition of
the problem; 3) Definition of objectives; 4) Search for solution alternatives; 5) Evaluation
and comparison of these alternatives; 6) Choice of the most appropriate alternative
(Simon, 2010).
In deciding about the most appropriate alternative, the decision rule used in Decision
Theory can be adopted: Maximin, Minimax, Maximax and Minimin. The Maximin
criterion is based on a pessimistic view of the problem. Maximin aims to maximize the
minimum gain. The alternative to be chosen will be the one that is the best among the
worst options of all alternatives considered. Economically, one should determine the
minimum economic benefit for each alternative and then choose the alternative with the
highest minimum benefit. In the case of floods, the minimum economic benefit would
correspond to the smallest difference between the economic loss that would result from
them if nothing was done and the cost to avoid them. The Minimax criterion is a
decision rule to minimize the possible loss for a worst-case scenario, that is, to choose
the lowest of the possible maximum costs. In the case of floods, would be chosen the
alternative of minor maximum cost to avoid flooding.

It´s possible also adopt the Maximax and Minimin criteria. The Maximax criterion is
based on an optimistic view of the problem. The alternative to be chosen would be the
one that is the best among the best options of all possible alternatives. Applied to the
economic scope, one must determine the maximum economic benefit for each
alternative and then choose the alternative with the highest maximum benefit. In the
case of floods, the maximum economic benefit would correspond to the greater
difference between the economic loss that would result from them if nothing was done
and the cost to avoid them. The Minimin criterion is completely opposite to the Maximax
criterion: in this one, the decision-makers thinking is pessimistic. In this case, he would
examine the worst possible outcome and then choose the alternative that would
minimize their losses. In the case of floods, the lowest cost alternative would be chosen
to avoid flooding. Finally, one can use the criterion of Hurwicz [15], intermediate
between the most pessimistic (Maximin) and the most optimistic (Maximax).
Integrated Flood Management (IFM): a new approach to flood

management
The traditional approach to floods focused on reactive practices to reduce

exposure to flooding and susceptibility to flood damage, mainly through
structural measures separating the river from its floodplain. In the course of
time, these ad-hoc interventions proved to be only partially effective,
shifting rather than mitigating flood risk. The acknowledgment of the
necessity of a wider multi-disciplinary approach led to a paradigm shift from
flood control to flood management. This indicates a proactive mentality
recognizing that floods can never be fully constrained, but, at the same
time, present positive (besides negative) aspects.
The concept of flood management lies within the framework of the

Integrated Water Resources Management. The latter promotes a
coordinated management of water resources, in order to optimize the
resultant economic and social welfare without compromising the
sustainability of ecosystems.

Integrated Flood Management (IFM) endorses this idea, aiming at
maximizing the net benefits from flood plains, meanwhile minimizing loss of
life. In fact, the concept of IFM rests upon the consideration of the river
basin as a unique dynamic system: within it, interactions between land and
water resources ensure that every single change affects the other
components in a positive or negative way.
Therefore, any intervention to improve the use of the river basin assets
(both in terms of water and land) cannot ignore that flood risk and its
consequences (i.e. economic and human life losses) cannot be totally
controlled. The concept of IFM thus brings an innovation: although reducing
loss of life should remain the top priority, the objective of flood loss
reduction should be secondary to the overall goal of the optimal utilization
of floodplains.
In this sense, the defining feature of IFM, i.e. integration, is intended both in
a horizontal and a vertical direction. While the first indicates a cross-
sectoral decision-making process, the second entails a participatory and
transparent approach. Together, they materialize in different forms: an
appropriate mix of strategies, carefully selected points of interventions, and
appropriate types of measures (structural or non-structural, short or long-
term).

As a result, an IFM plan should be built on the following six pillars:
• Manage the water cycle as a whole
• Integrated land and water management
• Manage risk and uncertainty
• Adopt a best mix of strategies
• Ensure a participatory approach
• Adopt integrated risk management approaches.
The Associated Programme on Flood Management (APFM)
The Associated Programme on Flood Management (APFM) is a joint

initiative of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the Global
Water Partnership (GWP) with the objective to promote the concept of IFM
as a new approach in dealing and living with floods. To this aim, it
facilitates dialogue and provides governmental agencies (in particular
National Meteorological and Hydrological Services) with guidance on flood
management for the implementation of IFM national strategies. More
specifically, the APFM’s goals are to: • Promote the principles of Integrated
Flood Management (IFM)
• Help assimilate IFM within the overall Integrated Water Resources
Management
• Identify gaps in present flood management practices, and to stimulate
partners to meet critical needs within their available human and financial
resources
• Support IFM actions at all levels: national, regional, local and river basin-
wide

• Provide a platform for a common strategic vision on IFM issues, and to
promote the implementation of effective policies and strategies worldwide
• Promote awareness about flood management issues, build political
commitment and trigger action at all levels
• Provide advice and relevant information to institutions and decision-
makers on flood management issues
The APFM was founded in 2001, at the end of a decade of great attention
and activism around the concept of Integrated Water Resources
Management (IWRM), firstly raised during the international conferences of
Dublin and Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Driven by the individuation of a sectoral
gap in IWRM concerning flood management, WMO presented a project
proposal for the creation of a programme specifically dealing with this topic,
later endorsed by GWP.
Since its inception, the APFM activity has experienced three

implementation phases. Whereas the first one (Aug 2001 – Jul 2006)
mainly focused on the definition of the basic principles of IFM (published in
the Concept Paper and the Policy Series), the realization of regional pilot
projects and the establishment of a global network of partners, the second
phase (Aug 2006 – Mar 2010) centered on the implementation of the
concept of IFM through guidance, trainings and awareness building at the
local and regional level and the creation of the IFM HelpDesk. The third
and actual phase tries to continue and build upon previous work by
strengthening the network of partners, providing long-term support and
follow up to previous trainees, developing new guidance material and
updating existing publications. At the same time, new activities are put in
place, like field demonstration projects, national and regional training
courses, e-Learning and an enhanced communication strategy.

As shown in the picture, the Get Help utility gives access to three different
services:
• Rapid Guidance, to get in touch with the APFM Technical Support Unit
and obtain guidance on flood management policy, law and strategy;
• Capacity Building, to request the organization of training courses tailored
on the needs of the applicant;
• Pilot Projects, to get assistance to implement IFM principles in the field, in
cooperation with regional, national and local organizations.
On the other hand, through the Help Yourself function users can access
four sub-sections:
• Tools and Publications, from which it is possible to download the whole
range of publications developed over the years (the Policy Series, the Tool
Series, Training Manuals, Case Studies);
• Education, a wide range of material to facilitate self-study targeting
different kinds of readers (teachers and kids, flood managers, policy-
makers, trainers);
• Reference Centre Database, a set of interactive databases gathering
institutions, policies and literature related to flood management;
• Questions & Answers, a collection of Frequently Asked Questions to re-
direct the user to the relevant section.

Although freely accessible online, the Helpdesk has been especially
conceived for some categories of audience, in particular government
agencies in charge of flood management, river basin organizations, bi- and
multilateral development agencies in the field of water resources and
disaster management, community-based organizations and NGOs
engaged in flood preparedness, universities and other capacity building
institutions for the water and disaster management sectors.
The good performance of the HelpDesk is made possible by the active

support of the Support Base Partners (SBPs), a network of professional
institutions and organizations contributing their expertise and technical
backup in various areas of activity. These range from advice and advocacy
in policy formulation as well as technical issues to facilitation of training
courses on IFM to development of tools and capacity building materials.
Flood Management Information System (FMISC), Uttar Pradesh
This FMIS Centre created by vide G.O. No 2058/14-27-Si-4-25(W)/14 on Dated

20/10/2014. This FMISC will act as Technical Secretariat for flood management in
UP, act as clearing house for all flood related information, promote innovative
concepts and technologies to improve flood management, develop databases,
analytical tools, information products; enable effective dissemination; and provide
interface amongst flood management stakeholders including GoUP agencies and
communities. The detailed functions would be:
Functions of Flood Management Support Centre.

Main functions of FMISC are listed below. To coordinate all FMIS activities such as
Embankment Asset Management System (EAMS), river/embankment and topographic
surveys, flood forecast and inundation mapping, GIS based knowledge base, improving
hydrologic observation network including real-time transmission, community
participation in flood risk management, capacity building, etc. To liaise with State and
Central stakeholders, such as National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Remote
Sensing Applications Centre (RSAC), Central Water Commission (CWC). India
Meteorological Department (IMD), Ganga Flood Control Commission (GFCC), and
Survey of India (SOI). State Relief Commissioner, State Disaster Management

Authority, other State line departments involved in flood management for sharing of data
and experience in flood management.
To create a comprehensive Flood Management Knowledge Base by collating and

compiling all flood related data, information and knowledge.
To provide data, information and knowledge support for improved flood management in
the State, during both flood and normal periods
To provide analytical support in remote sensing and Geographic Information System

(GIS) for UPIWRD activities such as planning anti erosion control schemes, river
management, emergency flood management, and in rehabilitation and reconstruction.
To develop and operationally disseminate standard and customized flood information

products including alerts
To follow-up on dissemination to enable effective utilization
To produce an Annual Report, describing and analyzing Centre's performance in each

flood season for improving FMIS
To develop, maintain and upgrade flood website for effective stakeholder dissemination,
interaction and utilization
To build capacity within FMISC and in UPIWRD for sustained flood management,
through workshops, training, national and international visits, expert visits, etc.
FMISC Objective
The overall objective is to strengthen existing institutional capacity and
arrangements for flood management in the state and make extensive use of
modern technology (e.g. satellite remote sensing, Geographic Information System
(GIS), internet, etc.).
The long term objective of FMIS development would be to effectively support

flood control and management. In short term, this will be achieved by piloting
flood hazard characterization and operational flood management information
products supplemented by improved flood forecast modeling, plans for upgrading
hydrologic measurement, automation of measurements and telemetric
transmission of data. It is expected that on successful piloting, FMIS would be
extended to all the flood-prone river basins in the State.

FMISC FUNCTIONS
Act as Technical Secretariat for flood management in UP.

Synergize flood management across UPID offices
Act as clearing house for all flood related information

Promote innovative concepts and technologies to improve flood management
Provide interface to flood management stakeholders including GOUP agencies

and Communities
Develop database analytical tools, information product and effectively

disseminate
FMISC would support improved Flood Management through

 Satellite monitoring of river behaviour though the years & including in flood season.
 Centralized accessible GIS based database
 Real-time metrological & hydrometric data collection
 Promote innovative concepts and technologies to improve flood management
 Advanced flood modelling technique
 Rational embankment management
 Community based flood risk management
 Provide technical support to flood offices across UPID
Information Products
Heavy rainfall & Flood Alert- Forecast of rainfall, Flood level & discharge strong
the river upto 3 days in advance; real-time, flood warning: predicted & actual
flood inundation maps
Embankment alert-changing river behaviour, erosion potential, impact on flood

protection works & river training works, corrective & preventive maintenance
schedule
Targeted public, Institutional & Community alert

Customised analysis outputs (eg. Planning new/strengthening existing flood
protection works & river training works, proofing, emergency flood management,
recovery & reconstruction etc.)
Water-related Hazards
Water-related hazards like floods, droughts, pollution and related issues, are
increasing in frequency and intensity almost everywhere around the globe due to
population growth and effects of climate change.
When disaster strikes, it usually manifests itself through water. Floods,

landslides, tsunamis, storms, heat waves, cold spells, droughts and
waterborne disease outbreaks are all becoming more frequent and more
intense.
The impacts and costs of these events are exacerbated by such factors as
unplanned urbanization and degradation of ecosystem services. Reducing
risk to, and improving the resilience of, water and sanitation services will be
key to maintaining access during a climatically uncertain future.
Challenges
Water-related disasters pose both direct impacts (e.g. damage to buildings, crops and
infrastructure, and loss of life and property) and indirect impacts (e.g. losses in
productivity and livelihoods, increased investment risk, indebtedness and human health
impacts).
The increasing economic cost and toll of disasters should be a significant incentive for
governments and humanitarian organizations to focus more attention on preparedness,
prevention and addressing the root causes of vulnerability.
Opportunities

Meeting the challenges associated with water-related disasters requires investment in
and implementation of good disaster risk-reduction. Despite improvements in preventive
efforts, scaling these up to meet current and future needs remains a central challenge.
Tropical Cyclone Structure(2018)

The main parts of a tropical cyclone are the rainbands, the eye, and the eyewall.
Air spirals in toward the center in a counter-clockwise pattern in the northern
hemisphere (clockwise in the southern hemisphere), and out the top in the opposite
direction.
In the very center of the storm, air sinks, forming an "eye" that is mostly cloud-
free.
The Eye
The hurricane's center is a relatively calm, generally clear area of sinking

air and light winds that usually do not exceed 15 mph (24 km/h) and is
typically 20-40 miles (32-64 km) across. An eye will usually develop when
the maximum sustained wind speeds go above 74 mph (119 km/h) and is
the calmest part of the storm.
But why does an eye form? The cause of eye formation is still not fully
understood. It probably has to do with the combination of "the conservation
of angular momentum" and centrifugal force. The conservation of angular
momentum means is objects will spin faster as they move toward the

center of circulation. So, air increases it speed as it heads toward the
center of the tropical cyclone.
One way of looking at this is watching figure skaters spin. The closer they
hold their hands to the body, the faster they spin. Conversely, the farther
the hands are from the body the slower they spin. In tropical cyclone, as
the air moves toward the center, the speed must increase.
However, as the speed increases, an outward-directed force, called the

centrifugal force, occurs because the wind's momentum wants to carry the
wind in a straight line. Since the wind is turning about the center of the
tropical cyclone, there is a pull outward. The sharper the curvature, and/or
the faster the rotation, the stronger is the centrifugal force.
Around 74 mph (119 km/h) the strong rotation of air around the cyclone
balances inflow to the center, causing air to ascend about 10-20 miles
(16-32 km) from the center forming the eyewall. This strong rotation
also creates a vacuum of air at the center, causing some of the air
flowing out the top of the eyewall to turn inward and sink to replace the
loss of air mass near the center.
This sinking air suppresses cloud formation, creating a pocket of

generally clear air in the center. People experiencing an eye passage at
night often see stars.
Trapped birds are sometimes seen circling in the eye, and ships trapped
in a hurricane report hundreds of exhausted birds resting on their decks.
The landfall of Hurricane Gloria (1985) on southern New England was
accompanied by thousands of birds in the eye.
The sudden change of very strong winds to a near calm state is a

dangerous situation for people ignorant about a hurricane's structure.
Some people experiencing light wind and fair weather of an eye may
think the hurricane has passed. Actually, the storm is only half over with
dangerous eyewall winds returning shortly, this time from the opposite
direction.

The Eyewall
Where the strong wind gets as close as it can is the eyewall. The eyewall
consists of a ring of tall thunderstorms that produce heavy rains and usually
the strongest winds. Changes in the structure of the eye and eyewall can
cause changes in the wind speed, which is an indicator of the storm's
intensity. The eye can grow or shrink in size, and double (concentric)
eyewalls can form.
In intense tropical cyclones, some of the outer rainbands may organize into
an outer ring of thunderstorms that slowly moves inward and robs the inner
eyewall of its needed moisture and momentum. During this phase, the
tropical cyclone is weakening.
Eventually the outer eyewall replaces the inner one completely and the
storm can be the same intensity as it was previously or, in some cases,
even stronger.
Rainbands
Curved bands of clouds and thunderstorms that trail away from the eye wall
in a spiral fashion. These bands are capable of producing heavy bursts of
rain and wind, as well as tornadoes. There are sometimes gaps in between
spiral rain bands where no rain or wind is found.
In fact, if one were to travel between the outer edge of a hurricane to its
center, one would normally progress from light rain and wind, to dry and
weak breeze, then back to increasingly heavier rainfall and stronger wind,
over and over again with each period of rainfall and wind being more
intense and lasting longer.

Cyclones nature
Cyclones are transferred energies equal to several megaton nuclear

bombs, from the ocean to the atmosphere every year. Every year, nearly
70 to 90 cyclonic systems develop all over the globe. The Coriolis force
that compels the surface winds to spiral towards the low-pressure
system. As Coriolis force is negligible in the equatorial belt between
latitudes 5 degrees north and 5 degrees south, cyclonic systems do not
develop in this region.
The topography and the intensity as well as frequency of cyclones that

could strike a coast decide the vulnerability of the place. In this article,
we have explained the concept, formation, types, and cyclone-prone area
in India, which will enhance the general knowledge of the readers.
What is Cyclone?
In meteorology, the term cyclone can be defined as the rapid inward
circulation of air masses about a low-pressure centre which is circling
counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the
southern.
Regional names of cyclone

1. Typhoons – China Sea
2. Tropical Cyclones- Indian Ocean
3. Hurricanes-Caribbean Sea
4. Tornadoes-USA
5. Wily Willies- Northern Australia
6. Baguio- Philippines
7. Taifu- Japan
How does a cyclone form?

Cyclones are formed in the low-pressure area. The topography and the
intensity as well as frequency of cyclones that could strike a coast decide
the vulnerability of the place.
The temperature difference between the warm, rising and the cooler
environment led to the rise of air to become buoyant and then moves to
upward. Then the high-pressure area fills the air in the low-pressure
area. This cycle continues as warm air rises and a low-pressure area filled
with cool air. They build up over a period of time. The warm, moist air
rises and cools the water in the air and forms clouds. The whole system
of clouds and wind spins and grows, fed by the ocean’s heat and water
evaporating from the ocean surface.

There are six factors responsible for the formation of the cyclone nature:
(1) Sufficient warm temperature at sea surface
(2) atmospheric instability
(3) impact area of Coriolis force so that low pressure can be developed
(4) high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere
(5) a pre-existing low-level focus or disturbance
(6) low vertical wind shear.
Types of Cyclone
1. Tropical Cyclone: It occurs over tropical ocean regions. it is two
types- Hurricanes and typhoons. Hurricanes are found in the Atlantic and
Northeast Pacific, whereas typhoons are found in the Northwest Pacific.
On the basis of intensity and wind speed, this cyclone is classified into
five categories- 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5. Category 5 has a wind speed of 155 mph
or above.
2. Polar Cyclone: It occurs over Polar Regions of Greenland, Siberia and
Antarctica. It is strong during the winter season.
3. Mesocyclone: It is a vortex of air within a convective storm. It is the
air that rises and rotates around a vertical axis, usually in the same
direction as low-pressure systems in a given hemisphere. These types of
cyclones are accompanied by the rotating air within the thunderstorm.
Cyclone Prone area in India

India is highly vulnerable to natural hazards like earthquakes, floods,
drought, cyclones and landslides. According to the meteorological
department, there are 13 coastal states and Union Territories in India are
Cyclone prone region. Four states like West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh,
Odisha, Tamil Nadu-and one UT Puducherry on the east coast and Gujarat
on the west coast are more vulnerable.
Cyclone Warning System in India

The India Meteorological Department is the nodal agency in India is
responsible for meteorological observations, weather forecasting and
seismology. A cyclone in the Bay of Bengal is predicted by the Area
Cyclone Warning Centres (ACWC) and in the Arabian Sea is predicted by
the Cyclone Warning Centre (CWC). Both ACWC and CWC sent their

report to the coordinating centre, i.e., National Cyclone Warning Centre
(NCWC).
Tsunami : Causes, characteristics, Signs and the

most destructive Tsunamis in the World
The term ‘tsunami’ originates from Japanese and literally means harbour wave.
At times it is interchangeably used with the term ‘Tidal wave’ which is considered
as an error by purists. It was an unknown term till a period of time. But when we
name natural disaster, it is one of the most dangerous one. Here, we will discuss
about what Tsunami is, its causes, characteristics of tsunami
wave, signs preceding it, most common occurring areas and also the most
destructive Tsunamis in the World.
A tsunami is a series of ocean waves that send surges of water on to land. In the
open sea, tsunami waves are very small and almost unnoticeable. But as they
near shallower waters their energy increases and they gain height of over 100
feet (30.5metres). They cause large scale destruction on the shores.
Tsunamis are different from tidal waves or storm surges. The latter is caused by
rise in sea levels, hurricanes and combined with tidal forces.
Causes
 Underwater earthquakes.
 Underwater landslides
 Underwater volcanic eruptions
 Nuclear device detonations under the sea
 Glacier carvings
 Meteorite impacts
When the ocean floor is disturbed by an underwater earthquake, a substantial

amount of water above this area is displaced. The displacement then keeps
moving away from the center point in all directions as waves.
Characteristics of a tsunami wave

 The wavelength of the tsunami wave is very long, often hundreds of
kilometres long (a regular wave has a wavelength of about 30-40 metres).

 Earthquake tremors travel at 970 km /min while tsunami waves travel 800-
900 km/hour in open waters. Its speed also depends on the depth of the
water.
 The height of the wave is less in the deep water but as it hits the shallower
beaches its height can rise up to 100ft
 The waves have two parts- the crest and the trough. The trough usually
reaches the shore first followed by the crest approximately 5 minutes later
 It is not an isolated wave, but is a series of waves
 Typical wave period of a tsunami is about 12 minutes
 A large tsunami
 Signs preceding a tsunami

 Tsunami warning centres around the globe are on constant alert
monitoring underwater earthquakes strong enough to produce massive
waves. Their goal is to alert vulnerable coasts, to give enough time for
residents to get to higher ground. Seismologists can accurately predict
when a tsunami will arrive at a given seacoast.
 The tsunami wave consists of a crest and a trough. When the trough
reaches the shore, there is a drawback or dramatic receding of the
shoreline exposing the normally submerged areas of the beach. The
drawback can be hundreds of metres. The receding of the shoreline
causes curiosity, while it is a warning. The greater the withdrawal, the
more severe the tsunami waves will be.
When the crest of the wave reaches the shore first the first sign is a high wave
directly hitting the shore.
Since tsunami is not a single wave but a series of them, the duration of the
flooding and strong currents can be seen for hours. The seas drawback and the
massive waves hit the shores nearly every 12 minutes. The force of the wave
carries it at least a mile inland destroying any structure in its path. When it draws
back the debris in carried in to the sea.
Most common Tsunami occurring areas in the World

As the main cause of tsunami is underwater earthquakes and associated
phenomenon, they occur more frequently at underwater fault lines such as the
Pacific Ring of Fire. This is a geologically active area where tectonic shifts cause
earthquakes and volcanoes. The Pacific Tsunami Warning system is head
quartered in Honolulu, Hawaii and has 26 member states since 1965. Japan is

one of the countries most affected. All countries bordering the Pacific Ocean are
always on tsunami alert.
Another area where tectonic plates come together is in the Indian Ocean where
the Australia plate contacts the Eurasia plate. The Tsunami Early warning system
was set in place in November 2005 after the disastrous tsunami of
2004originated here leading to the loss of 280000 lives.
In the Atlantic Ocean the occurrence of tsunamis is rarer but the islands of
volcanic origin, the Canaries have the potential to trigger tsunamis. Active
volcanoes lead to loss of islands, shifting of land and displacement of water.
Earthquakes originating here will lead to tsunamis affecting the eastern coast of
the Americas.
In the Mediterranean, tsunamis occur due to earthquakes caused by the African
plate drifting northwards underneath the Eurasian plate, mostly affecting Greece
and southern Italy.
Assessing the Tsunami's Effects on

Migration
In recent memory, no natural disaster can compare to the tsunami of
December 26, 2004, which killed over 270,000 people in 11 countries
in Asia and Africa. The hardest hit were Indonesia, specifically the
Banda Aceh province in northern Sumatra, and Sri Lanka.
The world's immediate attention has been focused on the relief effort
and the disaster's impact on internal displacement. However,
policymakers will need to think about the tsunami's wider and longer-
term implications for international migration. Already, the tsunami is
affecting international migration trends, and, as a result, the migration
policies of a number of countries have already shifted.
This article briefly explores how the disaster is affecting diaspora

groups and their contribution to development, the vulnerability of
migrant workers, the return of irregular migrants, the resettlement of
victims, the trafficking of children, and the future effects of internal
displacement on international migration patterns.

 Diasporas and Development
 Migrant Workers — the Nameless and Forgotten
Victims
 Enforced Return of Irregular Migrants
 Resettlement of Victims
 Trafficking
 Internal Displacement, Environmental Degradation,
and International Migration
Diasporas and Development

 Not all the effects of the tsunami are necessarily negative.
Indeed, the tsunami disaster has highlighted the ways in which
migrants can be a resource during times of emergency.
 Migrants in the diaspora, although dispersed from their
homelands, remain in some way part of their community of
origin. Internationally, the diaspora links home and host
societies, providing a network through which resources can flow.
Financial capital, including remittances, is one of the key
resources which flow through such networks.
 The rapid mobilization of diaspora groups in the wake of the
tsunami disaster indicates the valuable contribution migrants
can make in emergency situations. Asian migrants — from India,
Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and Thailand — who live around the world
were quick to organize different kinds of assistance and relief
actions to aid their home countries.
Migrant Workers — the Nameless and Forgotten Victims

In some countries, the tsunami victims included migrant workers, in
many cases undocumented. But, in terms of rescue and relief efforts,
as well as media coverage, they received less attention than foreign
tourists and the nationals of the affected countries.
The most high-profile migrants affected by the disaster were the

thousands of laborers from Myanmar that had been living in the now
totally destroyed resort area of Phang Nga in Thailand, working
mainly in the construction, tourism, and fishing sectors.
According to the Law Society of Thailand, more than 100,000
Myanmar migrants work in southern Thailand, but only a total of
5,139 workers are actually registered. It is difficult to accurately
estimate the numbers of displaced, dead, and missing. Currently,
7,000 Myanmar migrant workers and their families are registered
with the Thai authorities to receive help following the tsunami, but it
is thought that many more are in need of help.
These migrants were vulnerable even before the disaster, enduring

poor living and working conditions. As Thailand and Myanmar have
no agreements regulating the recruitment of labor migrants, migrants
are vulnerable to exploitation and have to rely on private "brokers" to
find jobs. They enter the Thai labor market at its lowest levels.
Enforced Return of Irregular Migrants

Elsewhere, irregular migrants overseas who are citizens of the most
affected countries have also been affected, as measures to combat
irregular migration in Asia and, in particular, enforced return policies,
have changed.
UNHCR recommended on January 12, 2005, that all countries

suspend, initially for a period of three months, all involuntary returns
to affected areas in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, India, and Somalia. Those
subject to involuntary returns include asylum seekers whose
applications have been rejected and migrants who have illegally
entered a country.
Resettlement of Victims
A number of traditional immigration countries have adjusted their
immigration and visa policies to make it easier for victims of the
tsunami to be accepted as permanent immigrants.
For example, Canada announced it would expedite immigration

paperwork from victims who have relatives in Canada if their
applications were already in the system. There are approximately
433,000 persons who were born in the main affected areas (India, Sri
Lanka, Thailand, and Indonesia) living in Canada, and far more
Canadian-born who retain family links with the region.
Trafficking
The tsunami has left thousands of children orphaned or separated
from their families. In Aceh alone, over 35,000 children have lost one
or both parents. UNICEF has warned that these child survivors will
face major risks from malnutrition, diseases, and human traffickers.
In addition, there are many men and women without employment or
family support, placing them in a highly exploitable economic
position.
Internal Displacement, Environmental Degradation, and International

Migration
The tsunami's long-term effects on the future mobility of the affected
population are unknown, though there are indications that migration
occurs following a catastrophic event.
An ECLAC study on the socio-economic impact of Hurricane Mitch in

1998 noted that migration in search of work was a common
occurrence, with 17 percent of households in Nicaragua reporting the
movement of one or more members following the disaster. Inadequate
data on internal and international migration trends following natural
disasters has prevented any in-depth analysis, but a number of
observations on possible "push" and "pull" factors can be made.
The overall impact on the economies of the region is ex
Conclusion
This article has sketched a few of the most immediate effects of the
tsunami disaster on international migration and suggested that the
disaster is likely to have a longer-term impact on internal and
international migration in Asia.
The effects are likely to be wide-ranging and both positive and

negative. More detailed research and monitoring is required to
understand better how this massive disaster is likely to influence the
movement of people in Asia in the future.

Impact of flash floods, taking effective
long-term measures(2018)
This year’s monsoon season has brought flash flood hazards, including heavy
flooding and landslides, to many parts of the country. Not only in Myanmar but
also its neighbouring countries have been enduring these devastative natural
disasters, such as flood damage, wind hazards, storms and earthquakes due to
severe climate change.
The main monsoon season in Myanmar runs from June to October, and the
country usually encounters flash floods, strong winds, and heavy rains since the
beginning of the monsoon season. Normally, floods occur in Myanmar as water
overflows from the monsoon months of June to October, but the country suffers its
monsoon flooding most in July and August. This can occur in a multitude of ways.
Rain water flows into the Ayeyawady, the Chindwin, the Sittaung and the Thanlwin
rivers as well as into many of its tributaries, which can lead to overflowing of the
waterways. Storms can also cause unexpected flooding sometimes. Heavy
rainfalls, accompanied by a storm surge, can cause flash flooding in many towns
and villages located near the rivers.
A flash flood occurs when water overflows on or inundates land that is normally
dry. Rivers can overflow their banks to cause flooding, and sea waters can be
pushed towards land by massive winds, which then causes flooding. Rainfalls
over an extended period can cause major rivers to overflow their banks. Rivers
can overflow their banks, causing flooding during heavy rains, severe storms and
dam breaks. Huge amounts of water flowing in rivers are due to incessant heavy
rains and melting of snow, resulting in severe flooding. Flash flood normally
happens during the monsoon season. Around this time, potholes can overflow
fast, breaking and damaging the river banks.
Flash flooding
Generally, most flash flooding can be caused by a number of things due to slow-
moving thunderstorms or a multiple of thunderstorms moving over the same area.
Flash floods often carry away some trees along the river, and these floods can
destroy buildings, roads, bridges, etc.
Coastal flooding can result from heavy rains due to cyclones or tropical storms,
causing sea water to flow towards inland. Moreover, tsunamis are caused by an
underwater earthquake and a volcanic eruption, and these can carry away
sampans and motor boats into the sea. Flooding in urban areas can be caused by
flash floods, coastal or river floods, but there is also a specific flood type that is
called urban flooding.

Urban floods are entirely manmade with poorly maintained drains, plastic bags
and trash shrinking free passage for water to flow. Climate change is also a factor
in contributing to accumulation of water on roads after a heavy downpour. Coastal
flooding can result from a variety of different causes, including storm surges
created by hurricanes and tropical cyclones, rising sea levels due to climate
change and tsunamis. Man-made floods can be caused by unsystematic
cultivation method, poor urban infrastructure, deforestation and growing urban
development.
Causes of landslides
A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris or earth down a

slope. Landslides are a type of ‘mass wasting,’ which denotes any down-slope
movement of soil and rock under the direct influence of gravity.
Almost every landslide has multiple causes. Slope movement occurs when forces
acting down-slope exceed the strength of the earth materials that compose the
slope. Causes include factors that increase the effects of downward-slope forces
and factors that contribute to low or reduced strength. Landslides can be initiated
in slopes already on the verge of movement by rainfall, snowmelt, changes in
water level, stream erosion, changes in ground water, earthquakes, volcanic
activity, disturbances of human activities, or any combination of these factors.
Earthquake movements and other factors can also induce landslides underwater.
These landslides are called submarine landslides. Submarine landslides
sometimes cause tsunamis that damage coastal areas. Landslides can also be
caused on account of heavy rains and instabilities in slopes. Slope movement
occurs with forces acting downwards-slope. There are also other factors that
cause underwater landslides.
Effects of flash flooding
Flash flooding can have devastating consequences and can have effects on the
economy, environment and its people. During floods, especially flash flooding,
houses, offices, hospitals, transportation, roads, bridges, water tanks are
destroyed. People become homeless. Additionally, the government deploys
firemen, police and other emergency apparatuses to the affected areas. It usually
takes years for affected communities to be rebuilt and resettle in order to be back
to normalcy. The environment also suffers when floods occur. Moreover,
chemicals and other hazardous substances end up in water and eventually
contaminate the water bodies that floods end up in. In addition, flooding can
destroy the natural balance of the ecosystem.
Coping with the aftermaths of flooding

Many people and animals have perished in flash floods and others have been
made homeless. Thus, they have to take shelters at the temporary relief centers,
schools, halls and monasteries. Flooding brings a lot of diseases and infections
including fever, pneumonia and dysentery.
The consequences of events triggered by a flash flooding usually overwhelms

local response capacity and seriously affects the social and economic
development of the country. As for the authorities concerned, concerted efforts
are being made to provide necessary assistance to these flood victims nationwide.
The collaboration between governments, NGOs, CSOs and donors plays a pivotal
role to fulfill their requirements and to return these regions to a better than normal
condition.
What Is a Tsunami?
Imagine a giant wall of water growing out of the ocean, big enough to wipe out entire coastal
towns and capable of killing hundreds of thousands of people caught in its path. This is the
power created by a tsunami, which is a series of waves caused by an earthquake, underwater
volcanic eruption, landslide or other abrupt disturbance. Tsunamis are capable of creating
massive devastation when they hit land. In this lesson, you will learn how tsunamis are created
and the effects they have on people and the environment.
The word tsunami comes from the Japanese language. The prefix 'tsu' means 'harbor' and the
suffix 'nami' means 'wave.' Therefore, the word literally means 'harbor wave.' In March of 2011,
Japan was hit by a powerful tsunami that was triggered by a 9.0 magnitude earthquake. The
tsunami killed more than 15,000 people and caused billions of dollars of damage, including
damage to several nuclear reactors.
What Causes a Tsunami and How Do They

Form?
Tsunamis, like the one that hit Japan, can be caused by any action that creates an abrupt
disturbance underwater. This can include a volcanic eruption or landslide, and even a meteorite
or nuclear explosion, although these last two examples are rare. The most common cause of a
tsunami is an earthquake, which is a sudden shifting of the earth's crust, which releases
energy. If an earthquake happens underwater, the seafloor lifts and then drops back down,
causing the overlying water to be displaced and triggering waves of water.
A tsunami wave that begins in the vast ocean has a very small wave height. For this reason,
tsunamis in open ocean waters may go unnoticed. In fact, a fisherman out on the ocean may
only experience a small swell as a tsunami wave passes below. Even though tsunamis are not
big in height while out at sea, they can be very wide, spanning more than 1,000 football fields
across.
They also travel very quickly in deep ocean waters, reaching speeds as fast as a jet plane. As
the tsunami approaches the coastline and shallow water, it slows in speed but builds in height.
When the tsunami comes ashore, it brings with it a tremendous amount of energy and waves
that can reach heights of over 100 feet.

Tsunamis: the effects
Introduction
The effects of a tsunami on a coastline can range from unnoticeable to devastating. The effects
of a tsunami depend on the characteristics of the seismic event that generated the tsunami, the
distance from its point of origin, its size (magnitude) and, at last, the configuration of the
bathymetry (that is the depth of water in oceans) along the coast that the tsunami is
approaching.
Small tsunamis, non-destructive and undetectable without specialized equipment, happen almost
every day as a result of minor earthquakes and other events. They are very often too far away
from land or they are too small to have any effect when they hit the shore. When a small tsunami
comes to the shoreline it is often seen as a strong and fast-moving tide.
Tsunamis have long periods and can overcome obstacles such as gulfs, bays and islands. These
tsunamis make landfall usually in the form of suddenly decreasing and then rapidly increasing
water levels (not unlike a tidal bore) a combination of several large waves or bore-type waves.
Generally tsunamis arrive, not as giant breaking waves, but as a forceful rapid increase in water
levels that results in violent flooding.
However, when tsunami waves become extremely large in height, they savagely attack
coastlines, causing devastating property damage and loss of life. A small wave only 30
centimetres high in the deep ocean may grow into a monster wave 30m high as it sweeps over
the shore. The effects can be further amplified where a bay, harbour, or lagoon funnels the
waves as they move inland. Large tsunamis have been known to rise to over 100 feet!
1. Destruction
2. Death
3. Disease
4. Environmental impacts
5. Cost
6. Psychological effects
Destruction
The amount of energy and water contained in a huge tsunami can cause
extreme destruction when it strikes land.
The initial wave of a huge tsunami is extremely tall; however, most damage
is not sustained by this wave. Most of the damage is caused by the huge
mass of water behind the initial wave front, as the height of the sea keeps
rising fast and floods powerfully into the coastal area. It is the power behind
the waves, the endless rushing water that causes devastation and loss of

life. When the giant breaking waves of a tsunami batter the shoreline, they
can destroy everything in their path.
Destruction is caused by two mechanisms: the smashing force of a wall of
water traveling at high speed, and the destructive power of a large volume
of water draining off the land and carrying all with it, even if the wave did
not look large.
Objects and buildings are destroyed by the sheer weight of the water, often
reduced to skeletal foundations and exposed bedrock. Large objects such as
ships and boulders can be carried several miles inland before the tsunami
subsides.
Tsunami waves destroy boats, buildings, bridges, cars, trees, telephone lines,
power lines - and just about anything else in their way. Once the tsunami
waves have knocked down infrastructure on the shore they may continue
to travel for several miles inland, sweeping away more trees, buildings, cars
and other man made equipment. Small islands hit by a tsunami are left
unrecognizable.
Especially along a high seismic area, known as the Ring of Fire, tsunamis may have
dramatic consequences as they hit less developed countries.
The buildings infrastructure in these poorer nations are not well built and cannot
withstand the impact of the tsunami. Whole areas and towns are a picture of
destruction as the tsunami leaves at trail devastation and misery behind it.
Death
One of the biggest and worst effects of a tsunami is the cost to human life
because unfortunately escaping a tsunami is nearly impossible. Hundreds and
thousands of people are killed by tsunamis. Since 1850 alone, tsunamis have been
responsible for the loss of more than 430,000 lives. There is very
little warning before a tsunamis hits land. As the water rushes toward land, it
leaves very little time to map an escape plan.
People living in coastal regions, towns and villages have no time to escape. The
violent force of the tsunami results in instant death, most commonly by drowning.
Buildings collapsing, electrocution, and explosions from gas, damaged tanks and
floating debris are another cause of death. The tsunami of December 2004 that
struck South East Asia and East Africa killed over 31,000 people in Sri Lanka only,
leaving 23,000 injured.
Disease
Tsunami waves and the receding water are very destructive to structures in
the run-up zone. The areas close to the coast are flooded with sea water,
damaging the infrastructure such as sewage and fresh water supplies for drinking.
Flooding and contamination of drinking water can cause disease to spread in the
tsunami hit areas. Illnesses such as malaria arise when water is stagnant and
contaminated. Under these conditions it is difficult for people to stay healthy and
for diseases to be treated, so infections and illnesses can spread very quickly,
causing more death.
Environmental impacts
Tsunamis not only destroy human life, but have a devastating effect on insects,
animals, plants, and natural resources. A tsunami changes the landscape. It
uproots trees and plants and destroys animal habitats such as nesting sites for
birds. Land animals are killed by drowning and sea animals are killed by pollution if
dangerous chemicals are washed away into the sea, thus poisoning the marine
life.
The impact of a tsunami on the environment relates not only to the landscape and
animal life, but also to the man-made aspects of the environment. Solid waste and
disaster debris are the most critical environmental problem faced by a tsunami-hit
country.
Recycling and disposal of this waste in an environmentally sensitive manner
where possible (crushing concrete, bricks, etc. to produce aggregate for rebuilding
and road reconstruction) are critical.
Combined with the issue of waste is that of hazardous materials and toxic
substances that can be inadvertently mixed up with ordinary debris. These
include asbestos, oil fuel, and other industrial raw materials and chemicals.
Rapid clean-up of affected areas can result in inappropriate disposal
methods, including air burning and open dumping, leading to secondary
impacts on the environment.
Contamination of soil and water is the second key environmental impact of
a tsunami. Salination of water bodies such as rivers, wells, inland lakes, and
groundwater aquifers can occur in most cases. This also affects the soil
fertility of agricultural lands, due to salination and debris contamination,
which will affect yields in the medium and long term. Sewage, septic tanks
and toilets are damaged contaminating the water supply.
Last but not least, there may be radiation resulting from damage to nuclear
plants, as it happened in Japan in March 2011. Since radiation exists for a
long time, it has the capacity to inflict damage upon anything exposed to it.
Radiation is most dangerous to animals and humans causing destruction as
molecules loose their electrons. The damage caused by radiation to the
DNA structure determines birth defects, cancers even death.
Cost
Massive costs hit communities and nations when a tsunami happens.
Victims and survivors of the tsunami need immediate help from rescue
teams.
Governments around the world may help with the cost of bringing aid to
devastated areas. National institutions, the United Nations, other
international organizations, community groups and NGOs , and a variety of
other entities come together to provide different kinds of aid and services.
There might also be appeals and donations from people who have seen
pictures of the area in the media.
Reconstruction and clean up after a tsunami is a huge cost problem.
Infrastructure must be replaced, unsafe buildings demolished and rubbish
cleared. Loss of income in the local economy and future losses from the
destruction of infrastructure will be a problem for some time to come.
The total financial cost of the tsunami could be millions or even billions of
dollars of damage to coastal structures and habitats. It is difficult to put an
exact figure on the monetary cost but the cost may represent an important
share of a nation's GDP.
Psychological effects
Victims of tsunami events often suffer psychological problems which can
last for days, years or an entire lifetime. Survivors of the Sri Lankan tsunami
of December 2004 were found to have PTSD (post traumatic stress
disorder) when examined by the World Health Organization (WHO): 14% to
39% of these were children, 40% of adolescents and 20% of mothers of
these adolescents were found to have PTSD 4 months after the tsunami.
These people were suffering from grief and depression as their homes,
businesses and loved ones were taken from them. Many still had PTSD.
Periliya Village counts 2,000 dead and 400 families became homeless.
These people were found to still have psychological problems 2 years after
the tsunami.

What is a Tropical Cyclone, how is it
formed and its effects?(2018)
Tropical cyclones are intense circular storms that originate over the warm
tropical oceans with more than 119 kilometres per hour speed and heavy
rains. Mainly, the greatest damage to life and property caused not from
the wind but from other secondary events including storm surges,
flooding, landslides and tornadoes.
Tropical cyclones are among the foremost destructive weather

phenomena and also known as typhoons or hurricanes.
On the way of origination, tropical cyclones are known by

different names in the world.
- In the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern North Pacific Ocean, it is known
as Hurricanes.
- In the western Pacific Ocean, it is known as Typhoons.
- In the South Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, it is known as Tropical
cyclones.
Tropical cyclones are characterised by low atmospheric pressure, high

winds and heavy rain. In extreme condition, the winds may exceed 240
km per hour and gusts may surpass 320 km per hour. These strong
winds may cause torrential rains and devastating phenomena known as
the storm surge. Basically, it is an elevation of the sea surface that can
reach 6 metres above normal levels. In tropical and subtropical areas of
the world, such cyclones with a combination of high winds and water
cause a serious hazard for coastal areas.
Depending upon the maximum sustained wind, tropical cyclones

will be designated as follows:
- When the maximum sustained speed is less than 63 km/h it is known as
a tropical depression.
- When the maximum sustained speed is more than 63 km/h then it is

known as a tropical storm. It is then also given a name.

Depending upon the basin, when the utmost sustained speed exceeds
116 km/h it is known as Hurricane, typhoon, severe tropical cyclone,
severe storm or tropical cyclone.
In fact, the strength of the hurricane also varies from Category 1to 5
according to the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale in use in the
Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, the North Atlantic Ocean and therefore
the eastern and central North Pacific Ocean.
- Category 1: Mentioned the Hurricane with the utmost sustained wind

speeds of 119-153 km/h.




speeds exceeding 249 km/h.
Impact of Tropical Cyclone

As discussed above the impact of a tropical cyclone and the expected
damage not only depend upon wind speed but also on other factors
including moving speed, duration of strong wind and accumulated rainfall
during and after landfall, sudden change of moving direction and
intensity, the structure like size and intensity of the tropical cyclone and
also on the human response to tropical cyclone disasters.
In several ways directly or indirectly tropical cyclones affect health:
- It Increases the cases of drowning and other physical trauma.
- It also increases the danger of water and vector-borne infectious

diseases.
- Increases psychological state effects that also related to emergency

situations.

- Disrupt health systems, facilities and services. It also left communities
without access to health care once they are needed most.
- Damages basic infrastructure including food and water supplies and safe
shelter.
It is also said that the impact of tropical cyclone also depends upon the
number of individuals living in low-lying coastal areas within the storm's
direct path, the built environment like the design of the building and also
on the sufficient time for warning and evacuation.
The risk of drowning and water or vector-borne diseases increases when

tropical cyclones cause floods and sea surges. Flood water may contain
sewage and chemicals, hide sharp objects that are made from metals or
glass and electrical lines or host dangerous snakes or reptiles that may
result into injuries, electrocution, bites and can also cause diseases.
According to WHO, around 726 million people were affected due to
storms worldwide between 1998-2017.
How tropical cyclone works?

Tropical cyclones winds swirl around a central region of low atmospheric
pressure. The wind is caused due to the low-pressure core and by the
rotation of Earth, which further deflects the path of the wind via a
phenomenon known as the Coriolis force. In the Northern Hemisphere,
tropical cyclone rotates in a counter-clockwise or cyclonic direction and in
the Southern Hemisphere, it rotates in clockwise or anticyclonic direction.
Tropical cyclone wind field may be divided into three regions:

1. Ring-shaped outer region and an inner radius of about 30 to 50 km. In
this region, the speed of the wind increases uniformly toward the centre.
2. At the second region that is the eyewall, wind speed attains their
maximum value which is typically 15 to 30 Km from the centre of the
storm.
3. Further, the eyewall, in turn, surrounds the interior region known as

the eye where the speed of the wind decreases rapidly and the air often
calm.
How is Tropical Cyclone formed?

The tropical cyclone is formed when a transfer of water vapour and heat
from the warm ocean to the overlying air occurred primarily by

evaporation from the surface of the sea. As we know that warm, moist air
rises, it expands and cools, quickly and become saturated and released
latent heat due to the condensation of water vapour. By this process, the
column of air in the core of the developing disturbance is warmed and
moistened. The temperature difference is formed between the warm,
rising air and the cooler environment that causes air to become buoyant
and enhance its upward movement.
If the surface of the sea is too cool then there will not be enough heat
available and the rate of evaporation will be low to provide fuel to the
tropical cyclone. Even the supply of energy will also be cut off due to
warm surface water layer is not enough deep.
It happens because the tropical system modifies the underlying ocean.

The sea surface becomes cool due to the falling of the rain from the deep
convective clouds and the strong winds in the centre if the storm will
further create turbulence. If this resulting mixing brings cool water from
the below the surface layer to the surface, the fuel supply for the tropical
system will be removed.
Let us tell you that the vertical motion of the warm air is not enough to
initiate the formation of a tropical cyclone. Therefore, if the warm, moist
air flows into a pre-existing atmosphere disturbance then only
development will occur.
The rising air warms the core of the disturbance by releasing both latent
heat and direct heat transfer from the surface of the sea and the
atmospheric pressure in the centre of the disturbance becomes lower. As
a result, the pressure decreases and causes the surface winds to
increase, which in turn increases the vapour and heat transfer and
contributes further to the rising of the air. The core becomes warm and
the increased surface winds thus fortify or reinforce each other in a
positive feedback mechanism.
So now you may have understood about the tropical cyclone, types,
formation and its impact.

Unit-3
ground motion
Ground motion is the movement of the earth's surface from earthquakes or
explosions. Ground motion is produced by waves that are generated by
sudden slip on a fault or sudden pressure at the explosive source and travel
through the earth and along its surface.
Earthquake
Earthquake, any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the
passage of seismic waves through Earth’s rocks. Seismic waves are
produced when some form of energy stored in Earth’s crust is
suddenly released, usually when masses of rock straining against
one another suddenly fracture and “slip.” Earthquakes occur most
often along geologic faults, narrow zones where rock masses move
in relation to one another. The major fault lines of the world are
located at the fringes of the huge tectonic plates that make up
Earth’s crust. (See the table of major earthquakes.)
Little was understood about earthquakes until the emergence of
seismology at the beginning of the 20th century. Seismology, which
involves the scientific study of all aspects of earthquakes, has
yielded answers to such long-standing questions as why and how
earthquakes occur.
About 50,000 earthquakes large enough to be noticed without the
aid of instruments occur annually over the entire Earth. Of these,
approximately 100 are of sufficient size to produce substantial
damage if their centres are near areas of habitation. Very great
earthquakes occur on average about once per year. Over the
centuries they have been responsible for millions of deaths and an
incalculable amount of damage to property.

The Nature Of Earthquakes
Causes of earthquakes
Earth’s major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with the

margins of tectonic plates. This has long been apparent from early
catalogs of felt earthquakes and is even more readily discernible in
modern seismicity maps, which show instrumentally determined
epicentres. The most important earthquake belt is the Circum-
Pacific Belt, which affects many populated coastal regions around
the Pacific Ocean—for example, those of New Zealand, New
Guinea, Japan, the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the western coasts
of North and South America. It is estimated that 80 percent of the
energy presently released in earthquakes comes from those
whose epicentres are in this belt. The seismic activity is by no means
uniform throughout the belt, and there are a number of branches at
various points. Because at many places the Circum-Pacific Belt is
associated with volcanic activity, it has been popularly dubbed the
“Pacific Ring of Fire.”
A second belt, known as the Alpide Belt, passes through the
Mediterranean region eastward through Asia and joins the Circum-
Pacific Belt in the East Indies. The energy released in earthquakes
from this belt is about 15 percent of the world total. There also are
striking connected belts of seismic activity, mainly along oceanic
ridges—including those in the Arctic Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and
the western Indian Ocean—and along the rift valleys of East Africa.
This global seismicity distribution is best understood in terms of
its plate tectonic setting.

1. Natural forces
2. Tectonics
3. Volcanism
4. Artificial induction
5. Reservoir induction
6. Seismology and nuclear explosions
Natural forces
Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of energy within

some limited region of the rocks of the Earth. The energy can be
released by elastic strain, gravity, chemical reactions, or even the
motion of massive bodies. Of all these the release of elastic strain is
the most important cause, because this form of energy is the only
kind that can be stored in sufficient quantity in the Earth to produce
major disturbances. Earthquakes associated with this type of energy
release are called tectonic earthquakes.
Tectonics
Tectonic earthquakes are explained by the so-called elastic rebound

theory, formulated by the American geologist Harry Fielding
Reid after the San Andreas Fault ruptured in 1906, generating the
great San Francisco earthquake. According to the theory, a tectonic
earthquake occurs when strains in rock masses have accumulated to
a point where the resulting stresses exceed the strength of the rocks,
and sudden fracturing results. The fractures propagate rapidly
through the rock, usually tending in the same direction and
sometimes extending many kilometres along a local zone of
weakness. In 1906, for instance, the San Andreas Fault slipped
along a plane 430 km (270 miles) long. Along this line the ground
was displaced horizontally as much as 6 metres (20 feet).

Volcanism
A separate type of earthquake is associated with volcanic activity

and is called a volcanic earthquake. Yet it is likely that even in such
cases the disturbance is the result of a sudden slip of rock
masses adjacent to the volcano and the consequent release of elastic
strain energy. The stored energy, however, may in part be of
hydrodynamic origin due to heat provided by magma moving in
reservoirs beneath the volcano or to the release of gas under
pressure.
Artificial induction
Earthquakes are sometimes caused by human activities, including

the injection of fluids into deep wells, the detonation of large
underground nuclear explosions, the excavation of mines, and the
filling of large reservoirs. In the case of deep mining, the removal of
rock produces changes in the strain around the tunnels. Slip on
adjacent, preexisting faults or outward shattering of rock into the
new cavities may occur. In fluid injection, the slip is thought to be
induced by premature release of elastic strain, as in the case of
tectonic earthquakes, after fault surfaces are lubricated by
the liquid. Large underground nuclear explosions have been known
to produce slip on already strained faults in the vicinity of the test
devices.
Reservoir induction
Of the various earthquake-causing activities cited above, the filling

of large reservoirs is among the most important. More than 20
significant cases have been documented in which
local seismicity has increased following the impounding of water
behind high dams. Often, causality cannot be substantiated, because
no data exists to allow comparison of earthquake occurrence before
and after the reservoir was filled. Reservoir-induction effects are

most marked for reservoirs exceeding 100 metres (330 feet) in
depth and 1 cubic km (0.24 cubic mile) in volume. Three sites where
such connections have very probably occurred are the Hoover
Dam in the United States, the Aswan High Dam in Egypt, and
the Kariba Dam on the border between Zimbabwe and Zambia. The
most generally accepted explanation for earthquake occurrence in
such cases assumes that rocks near the reservoir are already
strained from regional tectonic forces to a point where nearby faults
are almost ready to slip. Water in the reservoir adds a pressure
perturbation that triggers the fault rupture. The pressure effect is
perhaps enhanced by the fact that the rocks along the fault have
lower strength because of increased water-pore pressure. These
factors notwithstanding, the filling of most large reservoirs has not
produced earthquakes large enough to be a hazard.
The specific seismic source mechanisms associated with

reservoir induction have been established in a few cases. For the
main shock at the Koyna Dam and Reservoir in India (1967), the
evidence favours strike-slip faulting motion. At both the Kremasta
Dam in Greece (1965) and the Kariba Dam in Zimbabwe-Zambia
(1961), the generating mechanism was dip-slip on normal faults. By
contrast, thrust mechanisms have been determined for sources of
earthquakes at the lake behind Nurek Dam in Tajikistan. More than
1,800 earthquakes occurred during the first nine years after water
was impounded in this 317-metre-deep reservoir in 1972, a rate
amounting to four times the average number of shocks in
the region prior to filling.
Seismology and nuclear explosions
In 1958 representatives from several countries, including the United

States and the Soviet Union, met to discuss the technical basis for
a nuclear test-ban treaty. Among the matters considered was the
feasibility of developing effective means with which to detect
underground nuclear explosions and to distinguish them seismically
from earthquakes. After that conference, much special research was
directed to seismology, leading to major advances in seismic signal
detection and analysis.
Recent seismological work on treaty verification has involved using

high-resolution seismographs in a worldwide network, estimating
the yield of explosions, studying wave attenuation in the Earth,
determining wave amplitude and frequency spectra discriminants,
and applying seismic arrays. The findings of such research have
shown that underground nuclear explosions, compared with natural
earthquakes, usually generate seismic waves through the body of the
Earth that are of much larger amplitude than the surface waves.
This telltale difference along with other types of seismic evidence
suggest that an international monitoring network of 270
seismographic stations could detect and locate all seismic events
over the globe of magnitude 4 and above (corresponding to an
explosive yield of about 100 tons of TNT).
Effects of earthquakes
Earthquakes have varied effects, including changes in geologic

features, damage to man-made structures, and impact on human
and animal life. Most of these effects occur on solid ground, but,
since most earthquake foci are actually located under
the ocean bottom, severe effects are often observed along the
margins of oceans.

Surface phenomena
Earthquakes often cause dramatic geomorphological changes,

including ground movements—either vertical or horizontal—along
geologic fault traces; rising, dropping, and tilting of the ground
surface; changes in the flow of groundwater; liquefaction of sandy
ground; landslides; and mudflows. The investigation of topographic
changes is aided by geodetic measurements, which are made
systematically in a number of countries seriously affected by
earthquakes.
Earthquakes can do significant damage to

buildings, bridges, pipelines, railways, embankments, and other
structures. The type and extent of damage inflicted are related to the
strength of the ground motions and to the behaviour of
the foundation soils. In the most intensely damaged region, called
the meizoseismal area, the effects of a severe earthquake are usually
complicated and depend on the topography and the nature of the
surface materials. They are often more severe on soft alluvium and
unconsolidated sediments than on hard rock. At distances of more
than 100 km (60 miles) from the source, the main damage is caused
by seismic waves traveling along the surface. In mines there is
frequently little damage below depths of a few hundred metres even
though the ground surface immediately above is considerably
affected.
Earthquakes are frequently associated with reports of distinctive

sounds and lights. The sounds are generally low-pitched and have
been likened to the noise of an underground train passing through a
station. The occurrence of such sounds is consistent with the
passage of high-frequency seismic waves through the ground.
Occasionally, luminous flashes, streamers, and bright balls have
been reported in the night sky during earthquakes. These lights have
been attributed to electric induction in the air along the earthquake
source.

Tsunamis
Following certain earthquakes, very long-wavelength water waves in

oceans or seas sweep inshore. More properly called seismic sea
waves or tsunamis (tsunami is a Japanese word for “harbour
wave”), they are commonly referred to as tidal waves, although the
attractions of the Moon and Sun play no role in their formation.
They sometimes come ashore to great heights—tens of metres above
mean tide level—and may be extremely destructive.
tsunami

After being generated by an undersea earthquake or landslide, a tsunami may
propagate unnoticed over vast reaches of open ocean before cresting in shallow
water and inundating a coastline.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
The usual immediate cause of a tsunami is sudden displacement in a

seabed sufficient to cause the sudden raising or lowering of a large
body of water. This deformation may be the fault source of an
earthquake, or it may be a submarine landslide arising from an
earthquake. Large volcanic eruptions along shorelines, such as those
of Thera (c. 1580 BCE) and Krakatoa (1883 CE), have also produced
notable tsunamis. The most destructive tsunami ever recorded
occurred on December 26, 2004, after an earthquake displaced the
seabed off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. More than 200,000
people were killed by a series of waves that flooded coasts from
Indonesia to Sri Lanka and even washed ashore on the Horn of
Africa.
Seiches
Seiches are rhythmic motions of water in nearly landlocked bays or

lakes that are sometimes induced by earthquakes and tsunamis.
Oscillations of this sort may last for hours or even for a day or two.
The great Lisbon earthquake of 1755 caused the waters

of canals and lakes in regions as far away as Scotland and Sweden to
go into observable oscillations. Seiche surges in lakes in Texas, in
the southwestern United States, commenced between 30 and 40
minutes after the 1964 Alaska earthquake, produced by seismic
surface waves passing through the area.
A related effect is the result of seismic waves from an earthquake

passing through the seawater following their refraction through the
seafloor. The speed of these waves is about 1.5 km (0.9 mile) per
second, the speed of sound in water. If such waves meet a ship with

sufficient intensity, they give the impression that the ship has struck
a submerged object. This phenomenon is called a seaquake.
Intensity and magnitude of earthquakes
Intensity scales
The violence of seismic shaking varies considerably over a single

affected area. Because the entire range of observed effects is not
capable of simple quantitative definition, the strength of the shaking
is commonly estimated by reference to intensity scales that describe
the effects in qualitative terms. Intensity scales date from the late
19th and early 20th centuries, before seismographs capable of
accurate measurement of ground motion were developed. Since that
time, the divisions in these scales have been associated with
measurable accelerations of the local ground shaking. Intensity
depends, however, in a complicated way not only on ground
accelerations but also on the periods and other features of seismic
waves, the distance of the measuring point from the source, and the
local geologic structure. Furthermore, earthquake intensity, or
strength, is distinct from earthquake magnitude, which is a measure
of the amplitude, or size, of seismic waves as specified by
a seismograph reading. See below Earthquake magnitude.
Earthquake magnitude
Earthquake magnitude is a measure of the “size,” or amplitude, of

the seismic waves generated by an earthquake source and recorded
by seismographs. (The types and nature of these waves are
described in the section Seismic waves.) Because the size of
earthquakes varies enormously, it is necessary for purposes of
comparison to compress the range of wave amplitudes measured on
seismograms by means of a mathematical device. In 1935 the
American seismologist Charles F. Richter set up a
magnitude scale of earthquakes as the logarithm to base 10 of the
maximum seismic wave amplitude (in thousandths of a millimetre)
recorded on a standard seismograph (the Wood-Anderson torsion
pendulum seismograph) at a distance of 100 km (60 miles) from the
earthquake epicentre. Reduction of amplitudes observed at various
distances to the amplitudes expected at the standard distance of 100
km is made on the basis
of empirical tables. Richter magnitudes ML are computed on the
assumption that the ratio of the maximum wave amplitudes at two
given distances is the same for all earthquakes and is independent of
azimuth.
Richter first applied his magnitude scale to shallow-focus

earthquakes recorded within 600 km of the epicentre in the
southern California region. Later, additional empirical tables were
set up, whereby observations made at distant stations and on
seismographs other than the standard type could be used. Empirical
tables were extended to cover earthquakes of all significant focal
depths and to enable independent magnitude estimates to be made
from body- and surface-wave observations. A current form of
the Richter scale is shown in the table.
Richter scale of earthquake magnitude
magnitude earthquakes per

category effects
level year
less than 1.0 to generally not felt by people, though recorded on local
micro more than 100,000
2.9 instruments
3.0–3.9 minor felt by many people; no damage 12,000–100,000
4.0–4.9 light felt by all; minor breakage of objects 2,000–12,000

Richter scale of earthquake magnitude
magnitude earthquakes per

category effects
level year
moderat
5.0–5.9 some damage to weak structures 200–2,000
e
6.0–6.9 strong moderate damage in populated areas 20–200
7.0–7.9 major serious damage over large areas; loss of life 3–20
8.0 and higher great severe destruction and loss of life over large areas fewer than 3
At the present time a number of different magnitude scales are used

by scientists and engineers as a measure of the relative size of an
earthquake. The P-wave magnitude (Mb), for one, is defined in terms
of the amplitude of the P wave recorded on a standard seismograph.
Similarly, the surface-wave magnitude (Ms) is defined in terms of
the logarithm of the maximum amplitude of ground motion for
surface waves with a wave period of 20 seconds.
As defined, an earthquake magnitude scale has no lower or upper

limit. Sensitive seismographs can record earthquakes with
magnitudes of negative value and have recorded magnitudes up to
about 9.0. (The 1906 San Francisco earthquake, for example, had a
Richter magnitude of 8.25.)
A scientific weakness is that there is no direct mechanical basis for

magnitude as defined above. Rather, it is an
empirical parameter analogous to stellar magnitude assessed by
astronomers. In modern practice a more soundly based mechanical
measure of earthquake size is used—namely, the seismic moment
(M0). Such a parameter is related to the angular leverage of the
forces that produce the slip on the causative fault. It can be

calculated both from recorded seismic waves and from field
measurements of the size of the fault rupture. Consequently, seismic
moment provides a more uniform scale of earthquake size based on
classical mechanics. This measure allows a more scientific
magnitude to be used called moment magnitude (Mw). It is
proportional to the logarithm of the seismic moment; values do not
differ greatly from Ms values for moderate earthquakes. Given the
above definitions, the great Alaska earthquake of 1964, with a
Richter magnitude (ML) of 8.3, also had the values Ms = 8.4, M0 =
820 × 1027 dyne centimetres, and Mw = 9.2.
Earthquake Hazards
The type of hazard depends on the strength of seismic activity, along with
such factors as local topographic and built features, subsurface geology
and groundwater. A large earthquake will always be followed by a
sequence of aftershocks.
Ground Shaking
If an earthquake generates a large enough shaking intensity, structures like
buildings, bridges and dams can be severley damaged, and cliffs and
sloping ground destabilised. Perched or stacked objects may fall and injure
or bury anyone close by. In the largest earthquakes whole districts can be
devastated by the multiple consequences of ground shaking.
Groundshaking will vary over an area due to such factors as topography,
bedrock type, and the location and orientation of the fault rupture. These all
affect the way the seismic waves travel through the ground.
Tsunami
Tsunamis are long wavelength oceanic waves generated by the sudden

displacement of seawater by a shallow earthquake, volcanic eruption or
submarine landslide.

A number of waves may be produced and they can travel long distances at
high speeds to flood far-off shores. The height of a tsunami varies and may
be affected by the sea floor depth and shape, and other factors. New
Zealand is susceptible to tsunamis originating from distance sources
around the Pacific Ring of Fire as well as from very close to our coastline.
Near source tsunamis will allow for very little warning.
Large earthquakes may generate tsunami waves in enclosed water bodies

such as lakes. In New Zealand there are large lakes that could be affected,
for example Lakes Wakatipu and Wanaka that are near to the Alpine Fault.
Landslides and Rockfalls
Groundshaking due to earthquakes destabilises cliffs and steep slopes,

causing landslides and rockfalls as a significant side-effect. Heavy rain and
unconsolidated or fractured rock are exacerbating factors.
Subsidence and Lateral Spreading
Subsidence, or lowering of the ground surface, often occurs during

earthquakes.
This may be due to downward vertical displacement on one side of a fault,

and can sometimes affect a huge area of land. Coastal areas can become
permanently flooded as a result.
Subsidence can also occur as ground shaking causes loose sediments to

“settle’ and to lose their load bearing strength (see liquefaction, below) or to
slump down sloping ground (see Landslides and Rockfalls).
Lateral spreading occurs where sloping ground starts to move downhill,

causing cracks to open up, that are often seen along hill crests and river
banks.
Liquefaction
Liquefaction occurs when waterlogged sediments are agitated by seismic

shaking. This separates the grains from each other, reducing their load

bearing capacity. Buildings and other structures can sink down into the
ground or tilt over, whilst underground pipes and tanks may rise up to the
surface.
When the vibrations stop the sediments settle down again, squeezing
groundwater out of fissures and holes in the ground to cause flooding. The
aftermath of liquefaction can leave large areas covered in a deep layer of
mud.

Flooding - Flooding is a secondary effect that may occur due to rupture
of human made dams and levees, due to tsunami, and as a result of
ground subsidence after an earthquake.
Fire - Fire is a secondary effect of earthquakes. Because power lines may be

knocked down and because natural gas lines may rupture due to an earthquake,
fires are often started closely following an earthquake. The problem is
compounded if water lines are also broken during the earthquake since there will
not be a supply of water to extinguish the fires once they have started. In the 1906
earthquake in San Francisco more than 90% of the damage to buildings was caused
by fire.
Earthquake Risk
 Many seismologists have said that "earthquakes don't kill people, buildings
do". This is because most deaths from earthquakes are caused by buildings
or other human construction falling down during an earthquake.
 Earthquakes located in isolated areas far from human population rarely

cause any deaths.
 Thus, earthquake hazard risk depends on
1. Population density
2. Construction standards (building codes)
3. Emergency preparedness

Volcanoes Landform
Volcanoes Landform Definition
A volcano is a landform created during an event where lava comes out
from the Earth’s crust. While volcanoes erupting, molten lava pushes the
ground upwards until it goes out of the volcanoes vent. Continuous
eruption leaves layers of lava and makes the volcano higher or wider.
A volcano has 3 main characteristics

1. Cone shaped mountain
2. Formed by rock or ash thrown from the inside of the earth
3. At times, opening or depression at top
Examples of famous Active Volcanoes:

1. Mount Etna in Italy
2. Mount Stromboli in Italy
3. Mount Yasur in Vanuatu
4. Mount Ambrym in Vanuatu
5. Mount Tinakula in Solomon Islands
6. Mount Erta Ale in Ethiopia
What is a Volcano Landform?

There are volcanoes all over the world. They are above sea level and
below the oceans. What a volcano actually is a hole in the Earth’s crust
that lava and other Earth debris come out of a lot of the time or even
hundreds of years apart. A lot of volcanoes are in a form of a mountain or
a hill that have a crater from past eruptions. Many times, before an
eruption, there is activity in the Earth’s surface that make the ground shake
or even the crater in the volcano grow. Scientists are getting better at
predicting eruptions. This can save many lives.

Volcanoes can be devastating. It can destroy land in many different ways.
One example is the submarine caldera called Kuwae. A huge island was
once connected that is now two. A huge eruption happened collapsing the
land in the middle underwater. The collapse associated with caldera
formation may have been as much as 1,100 meters. Around 32–39 cubic
km of magma was erupted, making the Kuwae eruption one of the largest
in the past 10,000 years.
Types of Volcanoes and How are Volcanoes Formed

There are a few different types of volcanoes landforms in the world.
Volcanoes are classified by scientist by their shapes. There are actually 5
different types of volcanoes but we will only focus on the 3 main types.
The three types are composite volcanoes, shield volcanoes, or cinder cone
volcanoes.
The cinder cones are small volcanoes with steep sides. Even though they
are small, these are the ones you probably hear about. They are very
explosive and made of ash and rock. Most of the cinder cones are small
and less than 500 meters high. A famous cinder cone is Sunset Crater
Volcano in Arizona.
A shield is a low and broad volcano that usually has a very wide crater (a
dent in the Earth’s surface). It is formed from thin layers of lava after
consistent low-grade eruptions. The largest volcano in the world is a shield
volcano. It is located in Hawaii.
Composite volcanoes are the tallest type of volcano. They look very
impressive but do usually have quiet and slow lava flows. They sometimes
have small eruptions that cause ash and rock to go flying. One of the most
famous volcanoes in the world is a composite volcano. It is Mount Fuji in
Japan.
Table of Contents
 Extrusive Volcanic Landforms
o Conical Vent and Fissure Vent
o Mid-Ocean Ridges
o Composite Type Volcanic Landforms
o Shield Type Volcanic Landforms
o Fissure Type Flood Basalt Landforms (Lava Plateaus)
o Crater
o Caldera
o Cinder cone
o Lava Dome
o Pseudo volcanic features
 Intrusive Volcanic Landforms
o Batholiths
o Laccoliths
o Lapolith
o Phacolith
o Sills
o Dykes
 Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive and intrusive
landforms based on whether magma cools within the crust or above
the crust.
 Rocks formed by the cooling of magma within the crust are
called Plutonic rocks.
 Rocks formed by the cooling of lava above the surface are
called Igneous rocks.
 In general, the term ‘Igneous rocks’ is used to refer to all rocks of
volcanic origin.
 Extrusive landforms are formed from material thrown out to the

surface during volcanic activity.
 The materials thrown out include lava flows, pyroclastic debris,
volcanic bombs, ash, dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds,
sulphur compounds and minor amounts of chlorine,
hydrogen and argon.

Conical Vent and Fissure Vent
Fissure vent
 A fissure vent (volcanic fissure) is a narrow, linear volcanic

vent through which lava erupts, usually without any explosive
activity.
 The vent is often a few meters wide and may be many kilometres
long.
 Fissure vents are common in basaltic volcanism (shield type
volcanoes).
Conical vent
 A conical vent is a narrow cylindrical vent through which magma

flows out violently.
 Conical vents are common in andesitic volcanism (composite or
stratovolcano).
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Table of Contents

o Conical Vent and Fissure Vent
o Mid-Ocean Ridges
o Composite Type Volcanic Landforms
o Shield Type Volcanic Landforms
o Fissure Type Flood Basalt Landforms (Lava Plateaus)
o Crater
o Caldera
o Cinder cone
o Lava Dome
o Pseudo volcanic features
 Intrusive Volcanic Landforms
o Batholiths
o Laccoliths
o Lapolith
o Phacolith
o Sills
o Dykes
 Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive and intrusive

landforms based on whether magma cools within the crust or above
the crust.
 Rocks formed by the cooling of magma within the crust are
called Plutonic rocks.
 Rocks formed by the cooling of lava above the surface are
called Igneous rocks.
 In general, the term ‘Igneous rocks’ is used to refer to all rocks of
volcanic origin.

Extrusive and Intrusive volcanic landforms
Extrusive Volcanic Landforms
 Extrusive landforms are formed from material thrown out to the

surface during volcanic activity.
 The materials thrown out include lava flows, pyroclastic debris,
volcanic bombs, ash, dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds,
sulphur compounds and minor amounts of chlorine,
hydrogen and argon.

Conical Vent and Fissure Vent
Fissure vent
 A fissure vent (volcanic fissure) is a narrow, linear volcanic

vent through which lava erupts, usually without any explosive
activity.
 The vent is often a few meters wide and may be many kilometres
long.
 Fissure vents are common in basaltic volcanism (shield type
volcanoes).
Conical vent
 A conical vent is a narrow cylindrical vent through which magma

flows out violently.
 Conical vents are common in andesitic volcanism (composite or
stratovolcano).
Mid-Ocean Ridges
 The system of mid-ocean ridges stretches for more than 70,000 km

across all the ocean basins.
 The central portion of the mid-ocean ridges experiences frequent
eruptions.
 The lava is basaltic (less silica and hence less viscous) and causes
the spreading of the seafloor.

Composite Type Volcanic Landforms
 They are conical or central type volcanic landforms.

 Along with andesitic lava, large quantities of pyroclastic material and
ashes find their way to the surface.
 Andesitic lava along with pyroclastic material accumulates in the
vicinity of the vent openings leading to the formation of layers, and this
makes the mounts appear as a composite volcano or a
stratovolcano (divided into layers).
 The highest and most common volcanoes have composite cones.
 Mount Stromboli (the Lighthouse of the Mediterranean), Mount
Vesuvius, Mount Fuji are examples.
Fissure Type Flood Basalt Landforms (Lava Plateaus)
 Sometimes, a very thin magma escapes through cracks and fissures in

the earth’s surface and flows after intervals for a long time, spreading
over a vast area, finally producing a layered, undulating (wave-like),
flat surface.
 Example: Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, Snake Basin, Icelandic
Shield, Canadian Shield.
https://www.pmfias.com/volcanic-landforms-extrusive-intrusive-composite-shield-
fissure-type-volcano/
Intrusive Volcanic Landforms
 Intrusive landforms are formed when magma cools within the crust.
Batholiths
 These are large granitic rock bodies formed due to solidification of

hot magma inside the earth.

 They appear on the surface only after the denudation processes
remove the overlying materials.
 Batholiths form the core of huge mountains and may be exposed
on the surface after erosion.
Laccoliths
 These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies connected by a pipe-

like conduit from below.
 These are intrusive counterparts of an exposed domelike batholith.
 The Karnataka plateau is spotted with dome hills of granite rocks.
Most of these, now exfoliated, are examples of laccoliths or batholiths.
Lapolith
 As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may
tend to move in a horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak plane. It
may get rested in different forms.
 In case it develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is
called Lapolith.
Phacolith
 A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the base of

synclines or the top of the anticline in folded igneous strata.
 Such wavy materials have a definite conduit to source beneath in the
form of magma chambers (subsequently developed as batholiths).
These are called the Phacoliths.
Sills
 The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called
sill. The thinner ones are called sheets.

Dykes
 When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures
developed in the land, it solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground.
 It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like structure.
Such structures are called dykes.
 These are the most commonly found intrusive forms in the western
Maharashtra area.
 These are considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the
development of the Deccan traps.
volcanic eruptions
Definition and characteristics
Volcanic eruptions happen when lava and gas are discharged from a volcanic vent.
The most common consequences of this are population movements as large
numbers of people are often forced to flee the moving lava flow. Volcanic eruptions
often cause temporary food shortages and volcanic ash landslides called Lahar.
The most dangerous type of volcanic eruption is referred to as a 'glowing

avalanche'. This is when freshly erupted magma forms hot pyroclastic flow which
have temperatures of up to 1,200 degrees. The pyroclastic flow is formed from rock
fragments following a volcanic explosion , the flow surges down the flanks of the
volcano at speeds of up to several hundred kilometres per hour, to distances often
up to 10km and occasionally as far as 40 km from the original disaster site.
Types of eruptions
Multiple types of eruptions can occur at each of New Zealand’s volcanoes -
the eruption type can vary minute to minute. The style of eruption depends
on a number of factors, including the magma chemistry and content,
temperature, viscosity (how runny the magma is), volume and how much

water and gas is in it, the presence of groundwater, and the plumbing of the
volcano. For information on volcanic hazards which can be produced by
our volcanoes, click here.
Hydrothermal eruption
An eruption driven by the heat in a hydrothermal systems. Hydrothermal
eruptions pulverise surrounding rocks and can produce ash, but do not
include magma. These are typically very small eruptions
Phreatic eruption
An eruption driven by the heat from magma interacting with water. The
water can be from groundwater, hydrothermal systems, surface runoff, a
lake or the sea. Phreatic eruptions pulverise surrounding rocks and can
produce ash, but do not include new magma.
Phreatomagmatic eruption
An eruption resulting from the interaction of new magma or lava with water
and can be very explosive. The water can be from groundwater,
hydrothermal systems, surface runoff, a lake or the sea.
Lava
Lava is molten rock erupted at the ground surface. When molten rock is
beneath the ground, it is called magma.
 Lava flows are the effusive (non-explosive) outpourings of lava, and

usually flow slower than walking pace. Lava flow types include a’a,
blocky and pahoehoe.
 Lava fountains are a fountain of runny lava fragments from a vent or
line of vents (a fissure). They can form spatter piles, and if the
fragments accumulate fast enough, they can form lava flows.
 Lava domes are mounds that form when viscous lava is erupted
slowly and piles up over the vent, rather than moving away as a lava
flow. They are generally caused by viscous, thick, sticky lava that has
lost most of its gas. They can range in volume from a few cubic metres
to cubic kilometres.
Strombolian and Hawaiian eruptions
These are the least violent types of explosive eruptions. Hawaiian eruptions

have fire fountains and lava flows, whereas Strombolian eruptions have
explosions causing a shower of lava fragments.
Vulcanian eruptions
Vulcanian eruptions are small to moderate explosive eruptions, lasting
seconds to minutes. Ash columns can be up to 20 km in height, and lava
blocks and bombs may be ejected from the vent.
Subplinian and Plinian eruptions

Eruptions with a high rate of magma discharge, sustained for minutes to
hours. They form a tall, convective eruption column of a mixture of gas and
rock particles, and can cause wide dispersion of ash. Subplinian eruption
columns are up to 20 km high, and are relatively unsteady, whereas Plinian
eruptions have 20 to 35 km tall columns which may collapse to form
pyroclastic density currents (PDC’s). Very rare Ultraplinian eruptions are
even larger and have a higher magma discharge rate than Plinian
eruptions.
Satellite-based earthquake early warning system tested against

Chilean great quakes
Researchers testing a satellite-based earthquake early warning system
developed for the U.S. West Coast found that the system performed well in
a "replay" of three large earthquakes that occurred in Chile between 2010
and 2015. Their results, reported in the journal Seismological Research
Letters, suggest that such a system could provide early warnings of ground
shaking and tsunamis for Chile's coastal communities in the future.

The early warning module, called G-FAST, uses ground motion data
measured by Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) to estimate the
magnitude and epicenter for large earthquakes--those magnitude 8 and
greater. These great quakes often take place at subducting tectonic plate
boundaries, where one plate thrusts beneath another plate, as is the case
off the coast of Chile and the U.S. Pacific Northwest.
Using data collected by Chile's more than 150 GNSS stations, Brendan
Crowell of the University of Washington and his colleagues tested G-
FAST's performance against three large megathrust earthquakes in the
country: the 2010 magnitude 8.8 Maule, the 2014 magnitude 8.2 Iquique,
and the 2015 magnitude 8.3 Illapel earthquakes.
G-FAST was able to provide magnitude estimates between 40 to 60
seconds after the origin time of all three quakes, providing magnitude
estimates that were within 0.3 units of the known magnitudes. The system
also provided estimates of the epicenter and fault slip for each earthquake
that agreed with the actual measurements, and were available 60 to 90
seconds after each earthquake's origin time. "We were surprised at how
fast G-FAST was able to converge to the correct answers and how
accurately we were able to characterize all three earthquakes," said
Crowell.
Most earthquake early warning systems measure properties of seismic
waves to quickly characterize an earthquake. These systems often cannot
collect enough information to determine how a large earthquake will grow
and as a result may underestimate the earthquake magnitude--a problem
that can be avoided with satellite-based systems such as G-FAST.
It's difficult to test these types of early warning systems, Crowell noted,
because magnitude 8+ earthquakes are relatively rare. "We decided to look
at the Chilean earthquakes because they included several greater than
magnitude 8 earthquakes, recorded with an excellent and consistent GNSS
network. In doing so, we would be able to better categorize the strengths
and weaknesses in G-FAST."
The Chilean tests will play a part in furthering developing G-FAST for use in
the U.S., where Crowell and colleagues have been working to include it in
the prototype earthquake early warning system called ShakeAlert, now
operating in California, Oregon and Washington. The Chilean earthquakes,
Crowell said, represent about half of magnitude 8 events in the recorded

catalog of earthquakes that are used to test G-FAST and other geodetic
algorithms for inclusion in ShakeAlert.
Ten magnitude 8 or greater earthquakes have occurred along the Chilean
coast in the past 100 years, including the 1960 magnitude 9.5 Valdivia
earthquake, which is the largest earthquake recorded by instruments. "The
hazard due to these large events is well recognized and understood," in
Chile, wrote Sergio Eduardo Barrientos of the Universidad de Chile, in a
second paper published this week in SRL. "Return periods for magnitude 8
and above events are of the order of 80 to 130 years for any given region in
Chile, but about a dozen years when the country is considered as a whole."
After the 2010 Maule earthquake, the country began installing a network of
digital broadband seismic and ground motion stations, Global Positioning
System stations, and GNSS stations to provide accurate information for
tsunami warnings and damage assessment. Since 2012, the Centro
Sismológico Nacional at the Universidad de Chile has operated more than
100 stations, and has recently begun to operate almost 300 strong-motion
accelerometers that measure ground shaking.
In a third paper published in SRL, Felipe Leyton of the Universidad de Chile
and colleagues analyze data collected from 163 of these strong-motion
stations to learn more about the local site conditions of underlying rock and
soil in these areas. Site conditions can modify the shaking of large
earthquakes and control the damage to buildings and other infrastructure
caused by the shaking. The new study "gives us a unique opportunity to
improve our knowledge of the behavior of soil deposits during earthquakes,
especially in urbanized areas," write Leyton and colleagues, who say the
data could be used to help improve building designs and codes.
RISK MITIGATION AND AWARENESS

Of the 250,000 people who die every year because of natural disasters 95% live in
countries that are on the road to development. It is necessary to reduce this
number by transferring knowledge and by raising awareness. The recovery
process after major earthquakes, tsunamis, storms, floods or other disasters
offers the unique chance for settlements to turn their disaster vulnerability into

disaster resilience. Therefore risk reduction and mitigation measures should be
integral part of the recovery. Raising of public awareness towards potential
dangers should be fostered.
Recovery provides the physical opportunity as well as a collective mindset to

introduce changes in structural and non-structural risk reduction elements, and
these need to be coordinated in an integrated manner. The obstacles to the
introduction of safety measures are: the additional costs, the need to train
designers and builders in new ways of building, the need to educate the public
concerning their own behavior, the development of enhanced safety legislation,
such as building by-laws and land-use planning controls. Risk reduction also needs
to be mainstreamed into the central flow of government policies and planning.
Disaster recovery may provide the catalyst for such changes.
6.2 Mitigation and Awareness Issues

Core issues for risk mitigation and awareness are: ƒ
 The integration of disaster risk reduction into sustainable policies and the
planning of recovery ƒ Development and strengthening of institutions, legal
mechanisms and capacities to build resilience to hazards throughout the
recovery process ƒ
 The systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the
implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery
programs ƒ
 Building risk reduction into the reconstruction of new buildings and
infrastructure ƒ
 Community responsibility in all aspects of the recovery in order to build
capacity for risk reduction and disaster mitigation
After the disaster there should be the following priorities in terms of disaster risk
reduction and mitigation:

 ƒ Raise public awareness of the risks posed by earthquakes, floods tsunamis
and other disasters and introduce the possible measures to manage these
risks. ƒ
 Help communities identify practical measures to reduce their risks of
natural disasters ƒ
 Train NGOs presently working in earthquake, flood, and tsunami prone
areas on preparedness and mitigation ƒ
 Train engineers, local builders, social and community leaders in earthquake

preparedness and mitigation ƒ Provide training on village and settlement
level for housing beneficiaries
community responsibility is crucial for the engagements in recovery, even more so

in all efforts related to risk reduction and disaster mitigation. If the community is
actively involved in the planning of risk reduction and disaster mitigation measures
it will directly lead to a reduced number of dead and injured people and there will
be less damage in social structures and material assets in a potential new disaster.
The entire community will become able to cope with disasters in a quick and
effective way. Every human and material resource will be most effectively
mobilized in cases of emergency. Clear procedures will ensure close cooperation
between the community, local and international NGOs and government institutions
on all levels.
6.3 Work with the Communities
Detailed risk reduction and disaster mitigation measures to be taken based on the
Community Action Planning concept,
6.3.1 Community Based Risk Assessment (CBRA) of the Local

Situation
 The CBRA starts with the assessment of hazards, their type, nature,
frequency and magnitude. It follows the assessment of vulnerability ƒ

 The community members determine the factors of risk affecting their
community, as well as the causes of these factors ƒ
 During the vulnerability assessment it must take the differences within the
community regarding sex, age, socialand material- status into account ƒ
 Finally the community must assess its capacities. This is the process of
analyzing and defining what local people can do in an emergency situation
in order to mitigate the effects of hazards as well as to ensure their
sustainable livelihood. Here the community can learn from the experiences
of local people and the analysis of available resources
6.3.2 Aspects of a Hazard, Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment
Material aspects: ƒ
Situation of assets of the population, poor housing and infrastructure etc.
Provide training on village and settlement level for housing beneficiaries ƒ
Food security ƒ
Availability of basic services, i.e. education, health care, water supply and
sanitation, etc
Social and institutional aspects: ƒ
Poor relationships between community members ƒ
Discrimination against community members in terms of race, gender, social

position, religion, ideological system, etc ƒ
Lack of local organizations and institutions or poor organizational capacity
Aspects of motivation: ƒ

The community is passive or pessimistic about its future ƒ
Lack of solidarity, cooperation and unity
6.3.3 Preparation of a Disaster Preparedness Plan
Facilitate the community to establish a Disaster Response Committee (DRC). This

body, which must be equally composed of women and men, must be assisted to
create a disaster preparedness plan. The plan should fulfill the following tasks:
 ƒ Identify safe shelters in the settlement ƒ

 Identify the evacuation routes leading to safe shelters ƒ
 Identify emergency communication systems (who and where to call) ƒ
 Establish emergency communication and information dissemination
networks among the DRC members ƒ
 Establish communication networks between and among communities ƒ
 Store food and drinking water ƒ
 Mobilize emergency rescue equipment ƒ
 Mobilize volunteer teams for emergency rescues and assign responsibilities ƒ
 Notify community of evacuation plans (especially those who will need to be
evacuated) ƒ Organize disaster preparedness exercises (rescue, evacuation,
etc.)
 Prepare for disasters with a welldesigned logistical emergency plan and
prearranged modes of transportation ƒ
 Set-up/re-check early warning systems (radio, megaphone, public address
systems etc.) ƒ
 Ensure current water supply sources are protected, i.e. from contamination
6.3.4 Orientation for population how to react before, during and

after a disaster
Facilitators should inform the community members what personal measures they
can take in order to reduce their risk before a disaster and in order to protect them
during and in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. As an example, in the case of
earthquake risk, the following instructions should be provided:
1. Measures before an earthquake incidence:

 Know the safe place in each room. ƒ
 Know the danger spots: near windows, mirrors, hanging objects, unsecured
furniture and shelves holding heavy objects. ƒ
 Know local safe places outdoors. ƒ
 Identify exits and alternative exits – possible ways to evacuate the house and
work place during an emergency. Ensure that these exits are never blocked. ƒ
 Know the location of the on/off switches/valves for electricity and water and
learn how to operate them ƒ
 Learn first aid. ƒ
 Keep large, heavy objects and breakables on lower shelves to prevent
serious injuries caused by falling objects. ƒ
 Store all flammable or hazardous liquids outside the house, in their proper
containers and away form structures. ƒ
 Hang heavy items such as pictures, mirrors, etc. away from beds, couches
and anywhere people sit. ƒ
 Brace overhead light fixtures to prevent them from falling during an
earthquake.
 Close shutters or draw curtains as protection from flying glass ƒ
 Ensure that a stock of food, drinking water, first-aid material, essential
medicine, a flashlight with extra batteries and a radio with extra batteries is
in the house
2. Measures during an earthquake incidence:
 If possible, get outside and move to an open space. Keep safe distance from
trees, signs, buildings, electrical wires and poles ƒ
 Do not use elevators, use only stairs ƒ
 Beware of objects falling down in the street ƒ
 If you cannot get out: position yourself under a sturdy table or cot so that
you are not hurt by falling objects; protect your head with a pillow or soft
protective material; open the door; turn off cookers, electric supplies, gas
cylinder etc.; move away from windows, doors tall cabinets and heavy
objects that could fall
3. Measures after an earthquake incidence:
 Check yourself for any injuries ƒ

 Protect yourself from broken objects by wearing long pants, long-sleeved
shirts, sturdy shoes and gloves ƒ
 Check others for injuries. Give first aid and cover the seriously injured with
blankets to prevent shock ƒ
 Check the building for damages. You may have to leave the building if it is
seriously damaged or prone to collapse in an aftershock ƒ
 If there is fire, try to extinguish it, call fire service – if possible, and leave
the house immediately ƒ
 Clean up spilled medicine, gasoline or other flammable liquids immediately.
Leave the area if you smell gas or fumes ƒ
 Be prepared for aftershocks. Plan where you will take cover when they occur
6.4 Training of facilitators
In order to work with the communities local facilitators need to be trained in

conducting awareness raising campaigns on disaster preparedness and mitigation.
The training of trainers should be based on a written guideline and have the
following objectives: ƒ
Enhance the knowledge and capacity of the trainers and facilitators on disaster
preparedness and mitigation issues ƒ
Guide them to deliver/facilitate training and awareness raising sessions ƒ
Guide them to facilitate the development of a Community Action Plan (CAP) for
villagers who are specifically at risk of earthquakes
6.5 Training of the communities
The facilitators should learn to apply the following principles: ƒ
 Encourage the participation of everybody, especially women, and respect the

points of view of all participants

 Emphasize important points ƒ
 Put the participants in a situation of success ƒ
 Make comprehension easier by using simple words and visual supports ƒ
 Stimulate interest by giving concrete examples that are relevant to the
situation of the village and by varying the activities ƒ
 Ensure the understanding of the participants and do not hesitate to repeat and
reformulate when needed ƒ
 It is extremely important women participate in the process, since they may
be able to identify risks that men would not necessarily consider. They are
often the ones who take care of vulnerable people (children, the elderly,
disabled people, etc.). If required the facilitators should hold separate
training sessions for men and women and later synthesize the results into a
common vision
Facilitators should be taught how to conduct a workshop to raise awareness, reduce

risks and teach mitigation measures.
Landslide
Landslide, also called landslip, the movement downslope of a mass
of rock, debris, earth, or soil (soil being a mixture of earth and debris).
Landslides occur when gravitational and other types of shear
stresses within a slope exceed the shear strength (resistance to
shearing) of the materials that form the slope. Shear stresses can be
built up within a slope by a number of processes. These include
oversteepening of the base of the slope, such as by natural erosion or
excavation, and loading of the slope, such as by an inflow of water, a
rise in the groundwater table, or the accumulation of debris on the
slope’s surface. Short-term stresses, such as those imposed
by earthquakes and rainstorms, can likewise contribute to the
activation of landslides. Landslides can also be activated by processes
that weaken the shear strength of a slope’s material. Shear strength is
dependent mainly on two factors: frictional strength, which is the
resistance to movement between the slope material’s
interacting constituent particles, and cohesive strength, which is the
bonding between the particles. Coarse particles such as sand grains
have high frictional strength but low cohesive strength, whereas the
opposite is true for clays, which are composed of fine particles.
Another factor that affects the shear strength of a slope-forming
material is the spatial disposition of its constituent particles, referred
to as the sediment fabric. Some materials with a loose, open sediment
fabric will weaken if they are mechanically disturbed or flooded
with water. An increase in water content, resulting from either natural
causes or human activity, typically weakens sandy materials through
the reduction of interparticle friction and weakens clays through the
dissolution of interparticle cements, the hydration of clay minerals,
and the elimination of interparticle (capillary) tension.
Types Of Landslides
Landslides are generally classified by type of movement (slides, flows,

spreads, topples, or falls) and type of material (rock, debris, or earth).
Sometimes more than one type of movement occurs within a single
landslide, and, because the temporal and spatial relationships of these
movements are often complex, their analysis often requires detailed
interpretation of both landforms and geological sections, or cores.
Rockslides and other types of slides involve the displacement of

material along one or more discrete shearing surfaces. The sliding can
extend downward and outward along a broadly planar surface
(a translational slide), or it can be rotational along a concave-upward

set of shear surfaces (a slump). A translational slide typically takes
place along structural features, such as a bedding plane or the
interface between resistant bedrock and weaker overlying material. If
the overlying material moves as a single, little-deformed mass, it is
called a block slide. A translational slide is sometimes called a mud
slide when it occurs along gently sloping, discrete shear planes in fine-
grained rocks (such as fissured clays) and the displaced mass is
fluidized by an increase in pore water pressure. In a rotational slide
the axis of rotation is roughly parallel to the contours of the slope. The
movement near the head of the slide is largely downward, exposing a
steep head scarp, and movement within the displaced mass takes
place along internal slip planes, each tending to tilt backward. Over
time, upslope ponding of water by such back-tilted blocks can enlarge
the area of instability, so that a stable condition is reached only when
the slope is reduced to a very low gradient.
A type of landslide in which the distribution of particle velocities

resembles that of a viscous fluid is called a flow. The most important
fluidizing agent is water, but trapped air is sometimes involved.
Contact between the flowing mass and the underlying material can be
distinct, or the contact can be one of diffuse shear. The difference
between slides and flows is gradational, with variations in fluid
content, mobility, and type of movement, and composite slide
movement and flow movement are common.
A spread is the complex lateral movement of relatively coherent earth

materials resting on a weaker substrate that is subject
to liquefaction or plastic flow. Coherent blocks of material subside into
the weaker substrate, and the slow downslope movement frequently
extends long distances as a result of the retrogressive extension from
the zone of origin, such as an eroding riverbank or coastline. Spreads

occur as the result of liquefaction caused by water saturation
or earthquake shock in such substrates as loess, a weakly cemented
wind-lain silt.
Rotation of a mass of rock, debris, or earth outward from a steep slope

face is called toppling. This type of movement can subsequently cause
the mass to fall or slide.
Earth materials can become detached from a steep slope without

significant shearing, fall freely under gravity, and land on a surface
from which they bounce and fall farther. Falls of large volume can trap
enough air to facilitate the very rapid flow of rock or debris,
forming rock avalanches and debris avalanches, respectively.
Entrapped snow and ice may also help mobilize such flows, but the
unqualified term avalanche is generally used to refer only to an
avalanche of snow. (See avalanche.) Triggered by earthquake shock or
torrential rain in mountainous relief with steep gradients, a huge
volume of avalanching rock or debris (of up to millions of metric tons)
can reach a velocity of more than 50 metres (160 feet) per second and
leave a long trail of destruction.
Landslide Mitigation And Prevention
Landslides pose a recurrent hazard to human life and livelihood in

most parts of the world, especially in some regions that have
experienced rapid population and economic growth. Hazards
are mitigated mainly through precautionary means—for instance, by
restricting or even removing populations from areas with a history of
landslides, by restricting certain types of land use where slope
stability is in question, and by installing early warning systems based
on the monitoring of ground conditions such as strain in rocks and
soils, slope displacement, and groundwater levels. There are also
various direct methods of preventing landslides; these include
modifying slope geometry, using chemical agents to reinforce slope
material, installing structures such as piles and retaining walls,
grouting rock joints and fissures, diverting debris pathways, and
rerouting surface and underwater drainage. Such direct methods are
constrained by cost, landslide magnitude and frequency, and the size
of human settlements at risk.
Definition of 'Mitigation'
Definition: Mitigation means reducing risk of loss from the occurrence of any
undesirable event. This is an important element for any insurance business so as to
avoid unnecessary losses.
Description: In general, mitigation means to minimize degree of any loss or harm.

In insurance contracts, various clauses and conditions are specified so as to ensure
minimum losses to the insurer. The actuaries are entrusted with the responsibility of
underwriting the insurance policy. They employ a variety of quantitative techniques
in order to assess the risk associated with the insured and decide the appropriate

premiums commensurate with the risk. The primary objective of the exercise is to
mitigate the risk ingrained with the insured.
General Assembly Considers Draft

Resolutions Aimed at Strengthening
Coordination of United Nations
Humanitarian, Emergency Assistance
Texts on Enhancing International Efforts
For Chernobyl Disaster Study, Assistance to Palestinian People Also Introduced
Recognizing the multitude of humanitarian crises that had occurred

worldwide this year and the emergency responses they had sparked,
the General Assembly considered a number of resolutions today,
including one aimed at strengthening the coordination of United
Nations assistance.
The representative of Sweden introduced the resolution on

strengthening of the coordination of emergency humanitarian
assistance of the United Nations, which would have the 193-Member
body call upon the relevant organizations of the United Nations system
and other humanitarian actors to continue efforts improving the

humanitarian response to natural and man-made disasters and to
complex emergencies.
She pointed out that the text also included a new element on the
component of response when addressing needs protection. The draft,
as well, emphasized the protection of personnel to ensure the
wounded and sick received treatment as soon as possible. Speaking for
India and her country, she stressed that prevention was better than
treatment, especially in light of recent events such as the Haiyan
typhoon. More should be done to minimize the gap between relief and
long-term development, a sentiment echoed by many delegates.
The representative of China underscored that partnerships and

technological innovation could also increase the speed and
effectiveness of such emergency responses. Indeed, delegates called
for enhanced capacity-building and knowledge transfer which aimed at
expanding resilience and emergency response. Several urged that the
international community increase financial and technological
knowledge and share best practices with developing countries to boost
their capacity in disaster preparedness and resilience.
Also considered was a text on safety and security of humanitarian

personnel and protection of United Nations personnel, through which

the Assembly would call on Member States to ensure the safe and
unhindered access of those workers, so that they would be able to
perform the task of assisting affected civilian populations.
The representative of Lithuania, speaking for the European Union,

introduced the text, noting that for the first time, medical staff and
facilities had been included in the categories of humanitarian
personnel. She also recalled the tenth anniversary of the Baghdad
bombing in which twenty humanitarian personnel lost their lives.
Delegations recognized the invaluable support provided by

humanitarian actors, as well as the need to protect their safety and
security. However, the representative of the Russian Federation
stressed that the international community needed to respect the
principles of sovereignty and territorial integrity of States when
providing such assistance. Individual States’ use of humanitarian crises
to advance political goals was of great concern.
Also introduced by the representative of Lithuania was a resolution on

assistance to the Palestinian people, which, among others, urged all
actors of the international community to provide economic and social
assistance, and open their markets to exports of Palestinian products.

The Permanent Observer of the State of Palestine, however,
underscored that although the Palestinian national plan for reform and
development had made gains with significant international assistance,
those achievements had been threatened by Israeli practices which
continued to obstruct access to land and economic development
opportunities.
“The hurdle of goodwill is politicization,” responded the Israeli

representative, pointing out that there was a lack of focus on his
country’s worldwide humanitarian activities. Urging the international
community to resist overlooking his country’s efforts, he also asked the
Palestinian authorities to promote an education of peace.
During the debate, which featured over 18 speakers, the Assembly also
heard the introduction by Ukraine’s representative of the draft
resolution on the strengthening of international cooperation and
coordination of efforts to study, mitigate and minimize the
consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. The representative of Fiji,
speaking for the “Group of 77” developing countries and China,
introduced the draft resolution on international cooperation on
humanitarian assistance in the field of natural disasters, from relief to
development.

Also speaking were representatives of Brunei Darussalam (on behalf of
the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN)), Belarus, Syria,
Mexico, Malaysia, Switzerland, Thailand, Pakistan and Australia.
A representative of the European Union Delegation also spoke.
The representatives of Syria and Israel spoke in exercise of the right of

reply.
The General Assembly will continue its consideration of the agenda

items at 10 a.m. Friday, 13 December.
Background
The General Assembly met today to consider its agenda item on

strengthening of the coordination of humanitarian and disaster relief
assistance of the United Nations, including special economic assistance,
a report of the Secretary-General on safety and security of

humanitarian personnel and protection of United Nations personnel
(document A/68/489), and a related draft resolution (document
A/68/L.24).
Also under consideration would be the Secretary-General’s reports on

assistance of the United Nations (document A/68/84), the Central
Emergency Response Fund (document A/68/87), and on international
cooperation on humanitarian assistance in the field of natural disasters,
from relief to development (document A/68/89), as well as their
corresponding draft resolutions (document A/68/L.25 and document
A/68/L.27, respectively).
In addition, it would consider a report of the Secretary-General on

assistance to the Palestinian people (document A/68/76), a related
draft resolution (document A/68/L.22), special economic assistance to
individual countries or regions, a report of the Secretary-General on
strengthening of international cooperation and coordination of efforts
to study, mitigate and minimize the consequences of the Chernobyl
disaster (document A/68/498),and that report’s related draft resolution
(document A/68/L.21).

A report of the Secretary-General on assistance to survivors of the 1994
genocide in Rwanda, particularly orphans, widows and victims of sexual
violence (document A/68/497) would also be addressed.
Introduction of Draft Texts
The representative of Ukraine introduced the draft resolution on

optimizing the international effort to study, mitigate and minimize the
consequences of the Chernobyl disaster (document A/68/L.21). The
international community had learned important lessons from dealing
with the human consequences of the Chernobyl nuclear accident. The
immense course of information had included reports by the Secretary-
General, with the most recent, released last month, becoming an
integral part of the draft resolution. As it transformed into a multi-
dimensional issue, Chernobyl would be globally relevant as a vivid
example of international team work. However, a new approach would
be needed for future drafts of the resolution, including a more focused
vision of cooperation after 2016, he said.
The representative of Lithuania, speaking on behalf the European

Union, introduced the draft resolution on assistance to the Palestinian
people (document A/68/L.22). Underscoring the importance of the
work of the United Nations and its agencies in that work, the draft text

also urged all actors of the international community to provide
economic and social assistance, and open their markets to exports of
Palestinian products on the most favourable terms. Further,
humanitarian access to the Palestinian people was of utmost
importance.
She then introduced the draft resolution on safety and security of

humanitarian personnel and protection of United Nations personnel
(document A/68/L.24). Recalling the tenth anniversary of the Baghdad
bombing in which twenty humanitarian personnel lost their lives, as
well as the more recent attacks and casualties, she called on the
Assembly to further enhance the safety and security of such workers.
Among other issues, the text also acknowledged the cooperation with
host Governments which had the primary responsibility for the safety
and security of humanitarians, as well as for an increased acceptance
by the local population. As well, the draft addressed different
categories of humanitarian personnel, including, for the first time,
medical staff and facilities.
The representative of Sweden introduced a draft resolution on

assistance of the United Nations (document A/68/L.25). Included in the
text was a new element on the component of response when
addressing needs protection. The draft also emphasized the protection
of personnel to ensure the wounded and sick received treatment as

soon as possible. In addition, capacity-building was important, as was
broadening the donor base. The draft text also recognized the
Secretary-General’s initiative to hold a World Humanitarian Summit in
Istanbul in 2016.
Delivering a statement on behalf of her country and India, she said the
report had provided a solid overview of both disasters caused by
natural hazards and those triggered by complex emergencies.
Challenges remained, including the need to broaden partnerships and
access populations affected by crises. In view of events such as the
Haiyan typhoon, prevention was better than treatment and more
should be done to minimize the gap between relief and long-term
development.
Coordination made delivery of assistance more effective, she said,

noting the value of the United Nations efforts in that regard. The
number of people around the globe in need of humanitarian assistance
was still on the rise and challenges still remained. However, she said,
she was confident that collectively the world would be able to tackle
those challenges through enhanced cooperation and by helping the
United Nations become even more efficient in its actions.

The representative of Fiji, speaking for the Group of 77 developing
countries and China, introduced the draft resolution on international
cooperation on humanitarian assistance in the field of natural disasters,
from relief to development (document A/68/L.27). While the text
reaffirmed the importance of international cooperation in dealing with
natural disasters, it also recognized that the affected State had the
primary responsibility in organizing and implementing humanitarian
assistance within its territory. As well, it recognized the clear
relationship between emergency response, rehabilitation and
development. Given that the Hyogo Framework for Action was coming
to an end in 2015, the draft called upon relevant humanitarian and
development players to accelerate its full implementation.
The text also contained new elements based on the recommendations

of the Secretary-General’s report, he pointed out, noting that a new
paragraph addressed the issue of disaster risk management by
encouraging all stakeholders to improve the identification, mapping
and analysis of risks and vulnerabilities. Further, the resolution
highlighted the importance of sharing expertise and tools to ensure
that effective disaster management plans were in line with national
priorities. In addition, the text strongly encouraged that disaster risk
reduction and building resilience to disasters be incorporated in the
post 2015 development agenda.
Statements

CLAUS SØRENSON, Delegation of the European Union, said the
international humanitarian system was under enormous pressure.
Sustained efforts to increase efficiencies and improve adaption to new
challenges were necessary. He called for continued implementation of
the Inter-Agency Standing CommitteeTransformative Agenda, focusing
on the key aspects of strong humanitarian leadership and strengthened
coordination and accountability. In the field, strong humanitarian
country teams led by experienced resident/humanitarian coordinators
were needed to provide vision and guidance. In addition to making the
current system work better, it was important to adapt it to a changing
world. He expressed hope that the World Humanitarian Summit in
2016, hosted by Turkey, would help make the humanitarian system
more inclusive and accountable.
He said that the European Union would continue to support making

resilience a shared goal of humanitarian and development assistance.
Addressing the factors behind a crisis was crucial to curbing chronic
situations of vulnerability. The strengthening of disaster resilience
through disaster risk reduction, including preparedness, was the
primary responsibility of national Governments, supported by
international development and humanitarian partners. The United
Nations and Governments needed to ensure that early recovery work
after natural disasters started soon after a disaster occurred. Turning
to humanitarian needs resulting from deadly conflict, he said Syria was
the most dramatic humanitarian situation facing the world today.
Access to populations in need, from Syria to Mali, was fundamental. He
urged all parties to a conflict to grant rapid and unimpeded access to
people and re-emphasized that any arbitrary denial of access to
affected populations constituted a violation of international
humanitarian law.
DATO PADUKA ABDUL GHAFAR ISMAIL (Brunei Darussalam), speaking

for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), reported that
one of the most significant developments, since the ratification of the
Association’s Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency
Response, had been the establishment of the ASEAN Coordinating
Centre for Humanitarian Assistance on Disaster Management . The
Centre played an important role in enhancing regional cooperation in
disaster management and ensuring ASEAN’s collective response to
disasters in the region. Most recently, the Centre had played a crucial
role in monitoring and providing information on the movement of
Typhoon Haiyan.
Disaster risk reduction, he said, was an essential part of sustainable

development, as it assured the preservation of development
achievements. He emphasized the need to incorporate such efforts
into the post-2015 United Nations development agenda. That could
bring meaningful benefits to all levels of society, including youth,
women and persons with disabilities. He also underlined the
importance of ensuring coherence between the discussions on disaster

risk reduction within the post-2015 Hyogo framework, sustainable
development goals, and the post-2015 development agenda.
VALENTIN RYBAKOV ( Belarus) said that, since 1991, his country’s

expenditures on activities to overcome the impact of the Chernobyl
accident had tallied nearly $20 billion. Despite the significant progress
in rehabilitating the affected areas, much work remained, and that
disaster would be an issue over the long-term. The contribution of the
international community, including the United Nations system, was
much appreciated. The General Assembly’s proclamation of the
Decade of Recovery and Sustainable Development of the Affected
Regions (2006-2016) and the United Nations Action Plan had
demonstrated that solidarity. He emphasized that the thirtieth
anniversary of Chernobyl would coincide with the completion of the
Chernobyl Action Plan. Therefore, by 2016, the international
community had to determine the character of subsequent international
cooperation. His country, he said, wanted to explore a new conceptual
framework and had initiated the hosting of a special event in 2014.
RIYAD MANSOUR, Permanent Observer for the State of Palestine, said

despite support from the international community, the continued
Israeli occupation of Palestinian territory and the violation of
international law and the United Nations Charter undermined those
efforts. Illegal Israeli policies and practices were part of a systematic
colonial policy. Even as the Palestinian national plan for reform and

development had made gains with significant international assistance,
those achievements had been threatened by Israeli practices that
obstructed access to land and economic development opportunities,
including the blockade of the Gaza Strip. Deepening poverty and food
insecurity had resulted in serious socioeconomic consequences.
While international assistance to the Palestinian people was absolutely

necessary to stem the deterioration of economic and social life in the
Occupied Palestinian Territory, he stressed that reductions in assistance
would directly and detrimentally affect the living conditions of the
Palestinian people. The assistance would remain insufficient as long as
violations by Israel persisted, he said, emphasizing that the only remedy
was to put an end to Israeli occupation and its colonial settlement, and
enable Palestinian people to exercise their inalienable rights.
LIU JIEYI ( China), recalling the many recent humanitarian crises due to
natural disaster, armed conflict and protracted crises, coupled with the
effects of the financial and food crisis, underscored that developing
countries had insufficient resources to address such challenges. The
United Nations and the international community should strengthen
coordination and support of humanitarian relief and improve aid
effectiveness. However, in order to be effective, such assistance should
follow the principles of respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity
of recipient countries and avoid politicization. As well, partnerships
and technological innovation could increase the speed and

effectiveness of emergency responses, he noted, calling on the
international community to increase financial and technological
knowledge and share best practices with developing countries to boost
their capacity in disaster preparedness and resilience, among others.
DMITRY MAKSIMYCHEV ( Russian Federation) expressed concern over

the use of humanitarian crises by individual States or the international
community to advance political goals. When addressing humanitarian
issues in a conflict situation, neutrality should be maintained.
Welcoming the Secretary-General’s decision to convene the World
Humanitarian Summit in 2016, he said that only if sovereignty and
territorial integrity of States were maintained, would the Summit be
successful. He also recognized the leading role of Governments in
initiating humanitarian assistance and the role of the international
community to support such efforts. He called for increased
cooperation between the United Nations and Governments in building
the humanitarian capacity at national and local levels towards
increasing early warning response systems. In conclusion, he welcomed
the draft text on Chernobyl applauding the efforts undertaken by the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the World Bank and
the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
DAVID ROET ( Israel) recalled the many recent tragedies and disasters
that occurred in the Central African Republic, South Sudan and Syria,
among others. He noted that, because of the obligation by Jewish law

to make the world a better place, Israel had always been at the
forefront to respond when tragedy struck, including the earthquakes in
Haiti, Senegal and India, and typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines, to
name a few. Strongly believing in the importance of innovation and
technology, he also underscored the water purification system installed
by Israel in the Philippines, under the overall belief that communities
could heal through capacity-building and the delivery of vital
infrastructure.
“The hurdle of goodwill is politicization,” he said, noting one delegation,

which chose to focus on political accusation against Israel rather than
on its many humanitarian efforts. His country had a genuine interest in
the well-being of its neighbours, which was demonstrated through
goods and infrastructure materials delivered by Israel into the Gaza
Strip. Those efforts had been repaid with bombing and attacks, as well
as a recently discovered tunnel built by Hamas. The tons of cement
used to build the tunnel could have been used to build schools and
hospitals. Turning to the peace talks with the Palestinians, he said that
his country was committed to them, cognizant that both sides needed
to make painful concessions. Urging the international community to
resist overlooking Israel’s humanitarian efforts, he also asked the
Palestinian authorities to promote an education of peace.
BASHAR JA’AFARI ( Syria) said the crisis ravaging his country was due to
flagrant attacks originating from outside its borders. Those armed

groups were targeting humanitarian actors and aid, and destroying the
means of subsistence for Syrians. Such groups could not play that role
without support from some Member States, some of whom had
proposed draft resolutions that made the Syrian Government an
enemy. The Takfiri armed group financed by the Gulf States was
beheading civilians in Homs and other areas, causing hundreds of
deaths over the last week, he said, pointing to The
Independent newspaper article from 8 December that reported Saudi
Arabia was financing operations of mass killings.
Humanitarian assistance delivery had been prevented by those armed

groups, he continued, leading to health threats, including a polio
outbreak. Syria had been demonized in global public opinion, yet his
Government had tried to carry out its responsibilities to its citizens,
including providing humanitarian assistance to them and working with
the United Nations and non-governmental organizations. The Syrian
Government had accepted the opening of three United Nations offices
as well as the provision of humanitarian assistance with Libya, Jordan
and Iraq. However, terrorist groups had been preventing aid delivered
by land. He asked that States fuelling religious-based problems be held
responsible. The humanitarian crisis would not be solved by criticizing
the Syrian Government, but in ending the support of armed terrorist
groups.

BRUNO FIGUEROA FISCHER ( Mexico) said it was essential to continue
discussions on assistance. The World Humanitarian Summit would be
an opportunity to critically evaluate the system based on inclusive and
transparent negotiations. Best practices and lesson learned should be
shared. For its part, his region had taken part in intensive interregional
cooperation. The humanitarian system must contribute to
development at regional, national and local levels. Mexico had, among
other things, worked on prevention and preparation efforts, including
partnering with the private sector and the science community. Social
and economic root causes should be examined pertaining to
humanitarian disasters. Crises and emergency situations worldwide
called for collaborative solutions.
RAJA REZA BIN RAJA ZAIB SHAH ( Malaysia) said that, with uncertainties
caused by climate change, environmental degradation, population
growth and rapid unplanned urbanization, disasters around the world
would be expected to increase. No country was immune from the
impact of such global environmental changes. Building resilience over
the long-term through development programming was the
responsibility of individual Governments. His country encouraged all
Member States to work closely with the private sector, national
institutions, academicians and the non-governmental sector.
Malaysia’s involvement in humanitarian and disaster relief assistance
was based on a three-pronged approach, namely, Government-to-
Government, partnerships with non-governmental organizations and
people-to-people participation.

PAUL SEGER ( Switzerland) said his country was gravely concerned at
the number of people affected by humanitarian crises. Risk reduction
management, protection and access were key issues to be examined.
With disasters, prevention paid off. Political leadership and
cooperation with those States affected were essential for prevention
efforts. Humanitarian assistance and development must go hand in
hand to make a lasting impact. The post-2015 development agenda
was an opportunity to recognize and align the areas of assistance and
development. As well, access to populations affected by armed
conflicts must be unhindered and parties to the conflict must guarantee
that access. He expressed concern about the lives of humanitarian
personnel and institutions, and said that the coming World
Humanitarian Summit in Istanbul should bring all actors together.
CHAYAPAN BAMRUNGPHONG (Thailand), associating his delegation

with the Group of 77 and China, and ASEAN, said that given his
country’s location in the most disaster-prone region of the world,
Thailand attached great importance to the prevention of and
preparedness for disasters. Individual Governments were primarily
responsible for disaster response. However, the capacity of each State
varied considerably. Therefore, appropriate, adequate, timely and
well-coordinated regional and international humanitarian response was
essential. He emphasized that equitable, predictable and flexible
funding for humanitarian assistance could help ensure timely and cost-
effective humanitarian delivery. However, the significant decrease in
humanitarian funding over the past two years was of great concern.
Effective and efficient coordination between humanitarian and military
actors in natural disaster preparedness and response should remain a
priority.
MASOOD KHAN ( Pakistan) said while human losses had remained

higher in developing countries, industrialized countries had suffered
more in terms of economic losses, including Pakistan. The Philippines
had suffered greatly from the Bopha and the Haiyan typhoon, leaving
many dead and countless economic damages. Assistance had been
provided to the Government, but the challenges were enormous and
ongoing. Natural disasters were among the major obstacles to
development, he said, underlining the need to make advance
preparations and to better understand the effects of climate change.
His country had experienced natural disasters. However, the mammoth
task of recovery would have been impossible without international
assistance. Some lessons learned from that experience included the
need to establish trust among donors, actors and States affected by
disasters. In additional, safety and security must be ensured. In that
regard, he appreciated innovative efforts, including the new
assessment tools that had been developed by the Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs.
PHILIPPA KING ( Australia), underscoring that the number of people

affected by disasters was growing, said her country would stand by the

Philippines as it dealt with the aftermath of typhoon Haiyan. With
more than half the people of the Central African Republic in need of
humanitarian assistance, she welcomed efforts to address those needs
as well. Given that last year, 4 million Syrians had needed assistance,
and today more than 9 million needed humanitarian help, she said the
recent Security Council presidential statement on the situation was a
step forward in helping those people get the assistance they needed.
Access must always be granted. Vulnerable populations, including
persons with disabilities, must also be included in plans for
humanitarian assistance. Disaster risk reduction was key to economic
resilience. She said she hoped partnerships with all actors would be
central to the World Humanitarian Summit in order to better meet the
needs for future crises.
Right of Reply
In exercise of the right of reply, a representative of Syria said, in

response to Israel’s statement, that Israel was an occupying Power.
The United Nations had adopted dozens of resolutions every year
condemning those practices. Israel’s representative should educate
himself about the crimes his country had committed. Further, Israel
had provided no assistance to Syrians except to armed terrorist groups
operating in the Syrian Golan. Israel should end its occupation of Arab
lands before claiming to be shocked over some current situations and
crises in the world.

Responding to his counterpart, a representative of Israel said the Syrian
delegation must face basic truths, including that the Syrian Government
was directly responsible for the deaths of more than 100,000 Syrians,
had used chemical weapons against Syrians and had ordered the
killings, torture and rapes of their own citizens.
Syria’s representative said Israel had shed “crocodile tears” regarding

the Syrian people by pretending it was concerned over the current crisis
in Syria. The Syrian Golan had been occupied by Israel since 1967. She
said her country had the right to liberate the Golan, reminding the
Israel delegate that there was international determination to put an
end to tensions in the region and to the occupations.
* *** *
For information media • not an official record
International Decade for Natural Disaster

Reduction
The United Nations General Assembly designated the 1990s as
the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).[1]
Its basic objective was to decrease the loss of life, property destruction and
social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters, such
as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcanic
eruptions, droughts, locust infestations, and other disasters of natural origin.

An International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, beginning on 1
January 1990, was launched by the United Nations, following the adoption of
Resolution 44/236 (22 December 1989). The decade was intended to reduce,
through concerted international action, especially in developing countries,
loss of life, property damage and social and economic disruption caused by
natural disasters. To support the activities of the decade, a Secretariat was
established at the United Nations Office in Geneva, in close association with
UNDRO.
International Decade for Natural Disaster

Reduction:
Working against Time
Tsuneo Katayama
Professor and Director
International Center for Disaster-Mitigation Engineering, Institute of
Industrial Science
University of Tokyo
Tokyo, Japan
A Presentation Made at the United Nations University

on 13 October 1993,
Tokyo, Japan
IDNDR: Its Inception

"I believe there is great need, and much support can be found, to
establish an International Decade of Hazard Reduction. This special
initiative would see all nations joining forces to reduce the conse-
quences of natural hazards," said Frank Press in his keynote address
during the Opening Ceremony of the Eighth World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering in San Francisco in July 1984. Frank Press
at that time, and until very recently, was the President of the U.S.
National Academy of Sciences.
Frank Press was one of the two laureates of the 1993 Japan Prize for
his contributions in Safety Engineering and Disaster Mitigation. He
is a geologist by profession and known as one of the pioneering
scientists in modern seismology.
Although the International Association for Earthquake Engineering

(IAEE) enthusiastically endorsed the idea and recommended
prompt action for implementation, I then was only one of the
interested observers. I never expected that I would personally be so
strongly involved with this "wonderful but moneyless" project.
The United Nations has designated the 1990s as the International

Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) to reduce loss of
life, property damage, and social and economic disruption caused by
natural disasters, especially in developing countries. The resolution
for the IDNDR was adopted in 1987. The United Nations officially
proclaimed the inauguration of the IDNDR on 1 January 1990.
Almost four years have passed since then. But effective actions
taken to materialize its goals are few. There have been scores of
large and small conferences and symposia which carried IDNDR in
their names, and dozens of international academic organizations
have published brochures stating their dreams to actively cooperate
in the Decade project if some international funding becomes
available.
Dr. Press' proposal gained the attention of academic institutions and

associations worldwide. Some earthquake engineers felt responsible
to do something because the original proposal was made at their
professional meeting.
In Japan, it was also individual researchers in earthquake
engineering who first showed interest in the proposal. In 1986, two
years after the proposal by Dr. Press, a committee was formed under
the auspices of the Science Council of Japan. This committee met
many times to search for ways to realize the proposal. But the task
seemed to be too big for us. Realization of the proposal seemed to be
the problem of politicians, diplomats, and decision-makers in
government.
To increase awareness about the Decade concept, we published

articles in various professional journals, and invited Frank Press to
Japan so that more people would become familiar with the Decade
idea through his own words. In one of the speeches he delivered in
Japan, Dr. Press stressed the importance of Japanese participation.
He said, "Such a Decade is an endeavor in which Japan is uniquely
qualified to participate ... you now have a special opportunity to give
your knowledge to the great benefit of others."
The adoption of the UN resolution in 1987 was unexpected or at

least too early for most of us. When the World Conference on Earth-
quake Engineering was held in Japan in the summer of 1988, it was
already known that IDNDR was going to start in 1990. Many people
were aware that something had to be done. But nobody knew what
that "something" was.
Natural Disasters: More than a Technological Problem

-The floods in the Mississippi River Valley in the United States of July
and August 1993 caused huge property damage, perhaps exceeding a
billion dollars, although casualties were small compared to similar
catastrophes in less developed countries.
-On 12 July 1993, a major earthquake shook northern Japan,

triggering devastating tsunamis. The hardest hit was a small northern
island, where tsunamis and fires killed about 200 people.

-In August 1993, Japan experienced a landslip disaster in Kyushu, and
widespread floods in Tokyo. Tokyo floods demonstrated that natural
disasters can very easily paralyze a highly urbanized city.
The moral underlying these and other familiar stories is that even
developed countries are not immune to natural disasters. In the last
20 years, the United Nations reports that natural disasters have
claimed almost three million lives and have adversely affected more
than 800 million people world-wide.
Considerable progress has been made in managing natural disaster

risk in developed countries over the past four or five decades. But risk
at the global level is still great. There are suggestions that global risk
of natural hazards is in fact increasing, due to changing socio-
economic patterns around the world, massive increase in
urbanization, and changing priorities of governments to address the
needs of their citizens. In many developing countries, disaster,
environmental degradation and poverty form a closely-knit vicious
cycle.
Losses due to natural disasters cannot be nullified, but they may be

mitigated by integrating new and existing knowledge, and by
managing risk through various structural and nonstructural
strategies. Undoubtedly, international cooperation is needed to meet
the challenge of this ever present and complex problem.
There are a great number of difficulties being encountered in

realizing the good cause of the IDNDR. The greatest illusion or
misapprehension about the IDNDR is that funding should be
automatically available simply because it is a UN-endorsed project.
We must face up to the reality that the name of the United Nations is
not an Aladdin's lamp. Secondly, there is a need to point out that
researchers and scientists in relevant professions all over the world
have too naive an understanding on disasters.

The Manjil earthquake of 1990 in Iran killed more than 30,000 people,
destroyed nearly 200,000 houses and buildings, and caused 500,000
people to become homeless. At three o'clock in the morning of 30
September 1993, I left Tehran Airport without knowing that a tragic
earthquake had just occurred in India. I had been attending a three-
day international conference in Iran. At the conference, there were
discussions on new findings in earth sciences, non-elastic dynamic
responses of structures, soil-structure interaction, fuzzy reasoning,
neural networks and expert systems applied to earthquake
engineering problems. The speakers and audience were all serious
and sincere. But while scientists and engineers get together and
discuss the most advanced findings in their relevant fields, disasters
prevail in many developing countries.
Why were so many people killed by a relatively small earthquake in

India? Most professionals know the answer. Structures collapse or
suffer unacceptable damage because they are poorly engineered,
poorly constructed, or they do not incorporate earthquake resistant
knowledge that is known. The problem of poor buildings is, however,
preventable.
At the same time, we know that disaster mitigation is not a simple

technological or scientific problem, but it involves policy, money and
manpower. Indeed, it comprises a formidable task. The matters which
I have recently been personally involved with are small in the grand
framework of the IDNDR, but as I have personally handled them, I
have learned a number of hard lessons which I would like to share.
IDNDR Activities in Japan and Abroad
Public activities are, of course, important; however, conferences and
brochures alone can never attain the goals of IDNDR. I have been
thinking about the problem for nearly ten years now, initially as one
of the earthquake engineers who heard the original proposal of the
idea in 1984, then as Secretary General of the International

Association for Earthquake Engineering (IAEE), and more recently as
Director of the International Center for Disaster-Mitigation
Engineering (INCEDE) located at the University of Tokyo, Japan,
which was established as Japan's contribution to IDNDR.
At the Institute of Industrial Science of the University of Tokyo, an

Institute with about 100 faculty members in a wide spectrum of
engineering fields, we started to think how we could possibly
contribute to IDNDR within the framework of university researchers
once it became known that the UN had adopted the resolution in
1987. As a result of our efforts, we drafted a proposal, supported by
researchers in other universities and research institutions, to form an
international centre for natural disaster sciences in our Institute.
INCEDE was established in April 1991, approved by the Ministry of
Education, with myself as its first Director.
In 1988, I was appointed Secretary General of the IAEE. Although

IAEE is highly visible through its World Conferences, it is an
unaffiliated organization with a small staff, no dues, and no large
sources of incomes. At the time of the World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering held in Japan in 1988, we already knew that
the UN had adopted the resolution to designate the 1990's as
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. Many of the
Directors and National Delegates of IAEE were enthusiastic. And why
not? After all, their idea had materialized as a UN programme. They
resolved again that the earliest implementation should be made, and
IAEE formed a small IDNDR committee.
As a newly appointed Secretary General, I did not know what to do. I

knew I had to do something, but what? The creation of the Committee
turned out to be superficial. There was not even a chance for the
Committee members to get together until October 1991, when I
organized a small workshop in Tokyo.

The meeting turned out to be an occasion of harsh self-examination
for IAEE. One of the recommendations of the meeting read: "IAEE
should make any structural changes that will facilitate its ability to
promote the earthquake engineering program for the Decade." It was
also recommended that IAEE should prepare a working paper on its
role in the Decade, and that discussions should be scheduled during
the World Conference to be held in Madrid in July 1992. A working
paper had been prepared in time and a special session was held in
Madrid. It was the consensus of the participants that progress
towards achieving the earthquake disaster mitigation objectives of
IDNDR is far too slow. Unless drastic changes are made in the
organization of international and national programmes, it was clear
that the objectives of the Decade would not be met.
The possibility for IAEE to have a significant impact in the IDNDR

programme seemed to be remote unless a special project is estab-
lished with the capacity of gathering work force and funds. There
clearly is a lack of leadership at international level. Based on the
recommendations made by the special session, the IAEE decided to
form the World Seismic Safety Initiative (WSSI) as its new
undertaking in support of IDNDR.
WSSI is intended to provide an organizational framework capable of

raising funds and to undertake projects to fulfill the IAEE's
responsibility to meet the goals of IDNDR. WSSI is planned to work as
a corporation overseen by the IAEE Executive Committee. It will
operate through working groups specifically formed for each project.
WSSI is a noble undertaking. But, however noble it may be, an idea

remains an idea unless it is implemented. Following the decision made
in Madrid, the WSSI Interim Organizing Committee was formed with
myself as one of the co-chairmen. I thought this was the last
opportunity for IAEE to contribute something definite to the IDNDR.
However small it might be, WSSI should take actions. We knew that
disasters respect our actions, not our words.
We attended the Scientific and Technical Committee of the IDNDR
held in New Delhi in February 1993, and explained what we are
planning to do. By doing so, we made ourselves more visible and
committed. All exits were closed at our own initiative so that we can
no longer turn back.
Immediately following the meeting in New Delhi, we held a small

workshop in Bangkok on 'Seismic Risk Management for the Countries
of the Asia Pacific Region.' We invited such countries as Pakistan,
Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and Brunei, which
had not been well represented in any of the earthquake engineering
meetings before. We fully supported the participants from developing
countries. It was not easy to raise even the small funds required for
this meeting. But the Bangkok workshop was a great success, with 30
people attending from 20 countries. More than half of these attended
the meeting with their own funding. The workshop turned out to be a
breakthrough for the WSSI.
Participants reported on the state-of-the-art in earthquake

engineering in their countries. They also commented on how the
available knowledge was used or not used in developing earthquake
disaster mitigation strategies in their home countries. The
participants were sincere and discussions were lively. We found that a
number of countries are waiting to be addressed to do something,
although their names are rarely heard in the international
earthquake engineering community.
Efforts to Raise Public Awareness
Conscientious engineers are feeling that something should be done.
But because many are so left out from the main stream of the world
earthquake engineering community, they do not know who to ask for
intellectual or monetary assistance. We found that one of the greatest
issues they are facing is that people in decision-making positions do

not understand the importance of problems associated with natural
disasters.
Uncertainty, ignorance and indeterminacy are always involved when

we deal with natural disaster risk. But ignorance is probably the most
difficult among these, especially ignorance within the ranks of
decision-makers. There has to be acceptance of risk before it can be
assessed. Education or knowledge transfer at the international level is
essential. We found that WSSI should help to raise public and
government awareness of earthquake risk in the participating
countries. Towards this objective, we recognized the importance of
holding High Level Meetings, attended by government officials,
business leaders, people from social and cultural institutions, as well
as the mass media. As a result of the Bangkok meeting, three such
High Level Meetings were held in late 1993 in Malaysia, Singapore
and Nepal.
WSSI cosponsored the 'International Workshop on Seismotechtonics

and Seismic Hazards in South East Asia' held in Hanoi, Vietnam, in
January 1994-the first such meeting in Vietnam. WSSI also co-hosted a
course on 'Earthquake Resistant Non-Engineered Buildings' in
Hyderabad, India in March 1994. We will organize, in partnership
with the Emergency Management Agency of Australia, a workshop for
the South Pacific island countries.
There have been several offshoots of the Bangkok meeting, which we

had least expected. One university in Singapore recently obtained a
research grant for a project on 'Sumatran Earthquake Effects on
Singapore Buildings.' And to our great surprise, the Ministry of
Development of Brunei has initiated to implement its national
seismograph network. In these countries, there had not been any
interest in earthquake problems before the Bangkok workshop.
In 1992, I accepted the chairmanship of the Task Force on Natural

Disaster Reduction of the Pacific Science Association, a regional non-
profit scientific organization established in 1920. In that same year,
PSA formed four Task Forces to enhance the activities of the
Association.
In June 1993, the WSSI Interim Organizing Committee co-organized a

workshop on 'Towards Natural Disaster Reduction' in Okinawa,
together with the United Nations University and the Task Force on
Natural Disaster Reduction of the Pacific Science Association. The
workshop was strongly supported by the United Nations University. It
was attended by about 30 participants from more than a dozen of
Pacific-rim countries and international agencies. There were
engineers, natural and social scientists, geographers, economists, and
organization experts. The workshop was a success in bringing
together persons of various professions and in letting them under-
stand the commonalities and differences among their views on
natural disasters.
After about one year's activities as the Interim Organizing Committee,

the official Board of WSSI Directors was formed in September 1993.
To the first Board of Directors held in Tokyo on 7 September 1993,
seven Directors-out of the total of 11-attended from Japan, the U.S.,
the Philippines and Germany-all on their funding. I believe that WSSI
is finally taking off. It is making definite steps forward towards the
goals of IDNDR.
Lessons from Experience
During the past few years, I have learned a lot. The biggest lesson I
have learnt is that there are people-in fact, many people all over the
world-who deeply believe in the good causes of IDNDR and are
waiting to be addressed for their active participation. The
"moneyless" situation of WSSI has not changed, but I am not too
discouraged. Natural disaster mitigation requires long-term
commitment. It involves moral and ethical issues. It is important to
consider the well-being of future generations.
When I was attending the international conference in Tehran, I was
repeatedly asked, "What is the best way to mitigate earthquake
disasters?" "How can we best raise people's awareness to earthquake
problems?" These are difficult questions. Solutions will never come to
realize in a year or two. There is no magic as far as natural disaster
mitigation is concerned. I tried to explain how Japan itself has come
through difficult years to achieve the level we have today.
In 1891, about 100 years ago, we had one of the worst earthquake
disasters in the history of Japan. It destroyed more than 140,000
houses and killed more than 7,000 people. The earthquake occurred
during the period in which Japan was importing western technology.
We realized then that, unless we consider earthquake effects in our
construction technology, there would not be a safe tomorrow for us.
But within 30 years from the Nobi earthquake, we had another

devastating earthquake, this time very badly affecting Tokyo and
Yokohama. More than 140,000 people were killed. We learned hard
lessons from the earthquake. We decided to use large earthquake
design forces because, at that time, we did not know much about
earthquakes nor how to build structures to resist them. We began to
take into account the effects of surrounding soils for such structures
as retaining walls and reservoirs. And we stopped using bricks as
structural elements.
Until 1950, however, there had been seven earthquakes which killed
more than 1,000 people, that is about every four or five years.
Statistics clearly show, however, life loss due to earthquakes has
become very small after 1950. I am not prepared to say that this is
completely due to advancements in science and technology. We have
to admit that a really big earthquake has not since hit densely
populated, urbanized areas.
However, we now know-at least better than most of the peoples in the
other parts of the world-that analysis, design, and construction alone

are not enough to mitigate earthquake disasters. Many Japanese
realize that maintenance, repair and strengthening of structures
during the ordinary times are important. We now understand the
importance of such non-structural measures as damage assessment,
preparedness, education, and training. It took us over 100 years of
experience to learn these well.
It is true that indigenous problems are inherent in disaster mitigation.

It is also true that large and small countries often have different kinds
of problems. Most advanced technologies may not be useful
everywhere. But the most effective way of reducing earthquake
disasters is through better construction practices, and most of the
knowledge necessary to improve building practices already exists.
It is important to identify areas and practices, where the time tested

successful experience of one country can be applied in another
country with similar conditions. Exchange of information, experience
and practices evolved in developed countries would be useful in
developing countries, when they go through similar economic and
infrastructural development phases already experienced elsewhere.
Natural disasters cannot be prevented but in many cases it is possible

to identify the vulnerable hazardous areas and to estimate the
possible damage. Programmes can be undertaken to identify the
possible locations, to decrease the amount of damage and to respond
promptly in the aftermath of a disaster.
Maintaining the flow of information, and making it easily accessible

by any interested party is extremely important. Integration of differ-
ent disaster-mitigation strategies is important. Especially, structural
and non-structural strategies should be more tightly woven together.
Making a building stronger is not a single measure nor the most cost
effective measure to reduce earthquake disaster.

IDNDR: Dream or Reality?
We do not know yet whether we are facing a dream or a reality. The
successes of INCEDE and WSSI depend to a large degree on the
positive responses of outside agencies, engineers and scientists of all
professions.
Groups of people who are really devoted-"devoted to take actions"

-are needed. I would like to ask all people to take actions-however
small they may be-to achieve the goals of IDNDR. What is most needed
is team spirit: team spirit among all nations; team spirit among
engineers and scientists of different professions; and team spirit
among all kinds of people working for disaster mitigation. Natural
disaster mitigation on the global scale is a formidable task. The
challenge to us now is to find the right mix of actions that will manage
the natural disaster risk as an integrated strategy. Let me quote again
from the original proposal made by Frank Press in 1984:
"What better way to start the new millennium than a world better
organized to reduce suffering from natural disasters. I believe that the
involvement of dedicated scientists and engineers ... is the key to
achieving these essential global goals."
https://archive.unu.edu/unupress/lecture8.html
India: National policy on disaster management

2009
This policy aims at:
(i) Promoting a culture of prevention, preparedness and
resilience at all levels through knowledge, innovation and
education;

(ii) Encouraging mitigation measures based on technology,
traditional wisdom and environmental sustainability;
(iii) Mainstreaming disaster management into the
developmental planning process;
(iv) Establishing institutional and technolegal frameworks to
create an enabling regulatory environment and a compliance
regime;
(v) Ensuring efficient mechanism for identification,
assessment and monitoring of disaster risks;
(vi) Developing contemporary forecasting and early warning
systems backed by responsive and fail-safe communication
with information technology support;
(vii) Ensuring efficient response and relief with a caring
approach towards the needs of the vulnerable sections of the
society;
(viii) Undertaking reconstruction as an opportunity to build
disaster resilient structures and habitat for ensuring safer
living; and
(ix) Promoting a productive and proactive partnership with
the media for disaster management.
Policy arena[edit]
Chennai damage after 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake
There have been growing calls for greater clarity

about the components of DRR and about indicators of
progress toward resilience — a challenge that the
international community took up at the UN's World
Conference on Disaster Reduction (WCDR) in Kobe,
Japan, in 2005, only days after the 2004 Indian Ocean
earthquake. The WCDR began the process of pushing
international agencies and national governments
beyond the vague rhetoric of most policy statements
and toward setting clear targets and commitments for
DRR.
Hyogo Framework for Action[edit]
The first step in this process was the formal approval
at the WCDR of the Hyogo Framework for Action
(2005–2015) (HFA). This was the first internationally
accepted framework for DRR. It set out an ordered
sequence of objectives (outcome – strategic goals –
priorities), with five priorities for action attempting to
'capture' the main areas of DRR intervention. The UN's

biennial Global Platform for Disaster Risk
Reduction provided an opportunity for the UN and its
member states to review progress against the Hyogo
Framework. It held its first session 5–7 June 2007
in Geneva, Switzerland, where UNISDR is based. The
subsequent Global Platforms were held in June 2009,
May 2011 and May 2013, all in Geneva.
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Sendai Framework for
Disaster Risk Reduction[edit]
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
(2015–2030) is an international document that was
adopted by the United Nations member states
between 14 and 18 March 2015 at the World
Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction held in Sendai,
Japan, and endorsed by the UN General Assembly in
June 2015.[14][15][16] It is the successor agreement to
the Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015), which
had been the most encompassing international accord
to date on disaster risk reduction.
The Sendai document emerged from three years' of
talks,[17] assisted by the United Nations International
Strategy for Disaster Reduction, during which UN
member states, NGOs, and other stakeholders made

calls for an improved version of the existing Hyogo
Framework, with a set of common standards, a
comprehensive framework with achievable targets,
and a legally-based instrument for disaster risk
reduction. Member states also emphasized the need to
tackle disaster risk reduction and climate change
adaption when setting the Sustainable Development
Goals, particularly in light of an insufficient focus on
risk reduction and resilience in the
original Millennium Development Goals.
The Sendai Framework sets four specific priorities for
action:[18]
1.Understanding disaster risk;
2.Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage
disaster risk;
3.Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience;
4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective
response, and to "Building Back Better" in

recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
To support the assessment of global progress in
achieving the outcome and goal of the Sendai
Framework, seven global targets have been agreed:[18]
1.Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by
2030, aiming to lower average per 100,000 global

mortality between 2020-2030 compared to 2005-
2015;
2.Substantially reduce the number of affected
people globally by 2030, aiming to lower the
average global figure per 100,000 between 2020-
2030 compared to 2005-2015;
3.Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to
global gross domestic product by 2030;
4.Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical
infrastructure and disruption of basic services,
among them health and educational facilities,
including through developing their resilience by
2030;
5.Substantially increase the number of countries
with national and local disaster risk reduction
strategies by 2020;
6.Substantially enhance international cooperation
to developing countries through adequate and
sustainable support to complement their national
actions for implementation of the framework by
2030;
7.Substantially increase the availability of and
access to multi-hazard early warning systems and
disaster risk information and assessments to the
people by 2030.
Other international initiatives[edit]
UN initiatives have helped to refine and promote the
concept at international level, stimulated initially by
the UN's designation of the 1990s as the International
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. In 1999, UN
member states approved the International Strategy for
Disaster Risk Reduction, which reflected a shift from
the traditional emphasis on disaster response to
disaster reduction, by seeking to promote a "culture of
prevention".
Regional initiatives[edit]
Africa[edit]
Several African Regional Economic Communities have
drafted gender-responsive DRR strategies. This
includes the Southern African Development
Community's Gender-Responsive Disaster Risk
Reduction Strategic Plan and Plan of Action 2020-30;
the Economic Commission of Central Africa States'
Gender-Responsive Disaster Risk Reduction Strategy
and Action Plan 2020-30; the Economic Commission of
West African States' Disaster Risk Reduction Gender
Strategy and Action Plan 2020-2030 and
the Intergovernmental Authority on Development's
Regional Strategy and Action Plan for Mainstreaming
Gender in Disaster Risk Management and Climate
Change Adaptation.

Bangladesh[edit]
Based on the Climate Risk Index,[19] Bangladesh is one
of the most disaster-prone countries in the world.
Bangladesh is highly vulnerable to different types of
disasters because of climatic variability, extreme
events, high population density, high incidence of
poverty and social inequity, poor institutional
capacity, inadequate financial resources, and poor
infrastructure.[20] Bangladesh commenced its disaster
preparedness following the cyclone of 1991 and has
now a comprehensive National Plan for Disaster
Management which provides mechanisms at both
national and sub-national levels.
Disaster Risk Financing and Insurance

(DRFI) Program
The financial losses caused by natural disasters continue to rise, and
developing countries experience the greatest impacts. Natural
disasters generate significant fiscal risk and create major budget
volatility. Even countries with robust disaster risk management
programs can still be highly exposed to the economic and fiscal
shocks caused by major disasters. The Disaster Risk Financing and
Insurance Program (DRFIP) helps countries ensure that their
populations are financially protected in the event of a disaster.
Through funding and expertise, DRFI supports countries to develop
and implement tailored financial protection strategies that increase
the ability of national and local governments, homeowners,

businesses, agricultural producers, and low income populations to
respond more quickly and resiliently to disasters.
What We Do
DRFIP is a leading partner of developing countries seeking to
develop and implement comprehensive financial protection
strategies. A joint initiative of the World Bank Group’s Finance,
Competitiveness, and Innovation Global Practice and the Global
Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR), DRFI was
established in 2010 to improve the financial resilience of
governments, businesses, and households against natural disasters.
The initiative supports governments to implement comprehensive
financial protection strategies, and brings together sovereign
disaster risk financing, agricultural insurance, property catastrophe
risk insurance, and scalable social protection programs. Often, it also
helps governments work with the private sector to facilitate public-
private partnerships.
How We Work
The DRFIP works through four main areas to help increase the
ability of national and local governments, homeowners, businesses,
agricultural producers, and low-income populations to respond
more quickly and resiliently to disasters:
1. Sovereign Disaster Risk Finance: Increases the financial response
capacity of national and subnational governments to meet post-disaster
funding needs without compromising fiscal balances and development
objectives.
2. Market Development: Strengthens governments’ ability to implement

policy measures for creating an enabling environment for private
market development that contributes to greater financial resilience
against disasters.

3. Analytics: Strengthens the capacity of governments to take informed
decisions on disaster risk finance, based on sound financial/actuarial
analysis
4. Knowledge Management & Global Partnerships: Supports

stakeholders with information that will lead to and inform actions in
support of building financial resilience.
9 financial problems after a natural

disaster—and what you can do about
them
If a natural disaster has hit your community, you know the damage
to your home and property also means big bills. To get back on
track, you need to rebuild your finances as well as your home or
business.
Hurricanes, floods, wildfires, and their resulting

financial problems
Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria, and the wildfires in California
may be months behind us, but we know people continue to deal with
the effects of these natural disasters and, for many consumers, there
are financial issues that are just now beginning to surface.
To understand what financial issues may occur months after a
disaster, we looked at what people told us after other natural
disasters including Hurricanes Sandy and Matthew. Troubles with
mortgages were most common, followed by debt collection, credit
cards, and other loans.

9 financial issues you might face after a natural
disaster
We heard some common themes from people who wrote to us after
experiencing a natural disaster.
1. Some people didn’t know that their accounts were going to

collection.
 Understanding the situation: If you had to leave your home

or if your utilities and services are not working, companies may
have a hard time reaching you. If a creditor or service provider
cannot reach you, they may send any debts you owe to a collection
agency. This can have a negative impact on your finances, and your
credit reports and scores.
 What to do: Set up a forwarding address, and update your
information with each of your financial institutions. This way, they
can contact you before problems begin.
2. Some people thought that when they contacted their lender or

servicer for a loan deferral or suspension, the payments would be
added to the end of the loan, and were surprised when the payments
became suddenly due.
 Understanding the situation: Lenders or loan servicers will

sometimes allow borrowers to defer payments for a few months,
and then expect the entire amount to be repaid immediately
afterward. Depending upon the type of loan you have, your lender or
loan servicer may be willing to temporarily reduce or suspend your
payments. This is called forbearance.
 What to do: If your lender or loan servicer offers you a
deferral, forbearance, a moratorium or a loan modification, carefully
study the terms of the offer. Once you have an agreement or
understanding, be sure to document everything that was
discussed. If you can’t pay your mortgage or are worried
about missing a mortgage payment, call your lender or loan servicer
right away. Ask if they are willing to work with you on a repayment
plan.
3. Some people had trouble understanding their financial company’s

disaster relief policies.
 Understanding the situation: Many companies have special

disaster relief policies. It’s important to know how these policies
work so you don’t miss out on disaster assistance, or misunderstand
how much money you owe and when.
 What to do: Ask the company for written copies of any special
disaster policies. Review them carefully to see how they apply in
your situation. A HUD-approved housing counselor may also be able
to help you, if you are dealing with an issue related to your home.
These counselors are specially trained to help you assess your
financial situation, evaluate options if you are having trouble paying
your mortgage loan, and make a plan to get you help with your
mortgage.
4. Some people had trouble paying contractors they had hired because
their insurance check was being held by their bank or mortgage
servicer.
 Understanding the situation: Many people hire contractors

soon after a disaster to quickly begin repairs on their home or
business. Some mortgage agreements require any insurance checks
to be made out to both you and the mortgage company or servicer.
This may affect your ability to cash insurance checks as that
company may need to approve it before you can cash the insurance
check. Typically, your mortgage company or servicer will agree to

release a portion of the settlement money before work begins so you
can hire a contractor.
 What to do: Before hiring a contractor to begin repairs, check
with your insurance company and your mortgage company or
servicer about how and when the insurance funds will be
distributed. You should also review our tips for hiring contractors to
fix or rebuild your home.
5. Some people found that they still owed money on their auto loans
even after their car was declared a total loss by their insurance
company.
 Understanding the situation: When your vehicle is damaged,

your insurance company assesses the value of your vehicle based on
age, model, and other factors. Damage to your vehicle does not
eliminate your responsibility to make your auto loan
payments. When the cost of repairs is more than the value of the car,
the insurance company may declare the vehicle a total loss.
If the amount you owe on your auto loan is more than the insurance
paid on your totaled car, you may owe the difference to the lender.
This situation is sometimes called "negative equity." Sometimes,
people have a type of vehicle insurance called Guaranteed Auto
Protection (GAP) insurance, which covers the difference between
the amount due on the auto loan and the amount paid by insurance.
 What to do: Clarify with your insurance company and your

auto loan lender what type of insurance policy you have as well as
what losses the insurance will cover and what you will still
owe. After the insurance process is completed, if you owe more on
the loan than the amount paid by insurance, you will owe that
amount. If the amount of your insurance coverage is more than what
you owe, then you will get paid the difference.

In working with your lender and insurance, things can get confusing.
Write down the names of the people you speak with and ask if there
is a case number associated with your account that you can refer
back to. Once you have come to agreement or understanding, be
sure to document everything that was discussed.
6. Some people impacted by natural disasters reported that their

accounts became overdrawn.
 Understanding the situation: After a disaster, electrical

blackouts and flooding can make it hard to send payments on time
or to stop automatic payments. This can lead to overdraft fees.
 What to do: Make it a priority to contact your bank or lenders
quickly if you need to stop automatic payments or if you will miss a
payment due to the disaster. Explain the situation that caused the
late payments and ask for a waiver of any late fees. Also, get in the
habit of making a monthly budget. That way, you’ll know what
charges to anticipate. Our spending tracker is a great way to see
where your money is going and track any trends in your spending.
7. Some consumers with debts with the Small Business Administration

were sent to collections.
 Understanding the situation: The Small Business

Administration (SBA) only makes loans for help after a disaster.
There may be grants available through the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA). Grants do not have to be repaid. If you
received a loan, it must be repaid or the accounts may be sent to
collections, and that could negatively affect your credit.
 What to do: Check your paperwork, and if you are still
unsure, contact the SBA or FEMA to see if you have received a loan

or a grant. If you are having troubles repaying the disaster loan,
contact the SBA to find out your options. If your loan was sent to a
debt collector and you are having trouble repaying it, you may also
want to try and to negotiate a settlement with the debt collector.
8. After a natural disaster it can be difficult to stay on top of mortgage

payments and other bills.
 Understanding the situation: As you struggle to pay for home

repairs and get back to work, you may begin to fall behind on house
payments, seek loans to repair hurricane-related damage, or
become unemployed. This can lead to ballooning credit card debt.
Missing mortgage payments can lead to foreclosure.
 What to do: Here are some steps you can take to help manage
debt.
o If you’re having trouble paying your mortgage, act
quickly. Contact your mortgage servicer and a HUD-approved
housing counselor to explain your situation and ask for help.
o Review your income and savings and determine how
much money you have available to pay bills and creditors.
o If you can’t make a payment, contact your credit card
company before it balloons into a problem.
o Check with FEMA about programs you may be eligible for
following a disaster. If you are in a presidentially-declared disaster
area, you may qualify for disaster assistance .
o Keep written records and other documentation of
conversations with customer service representatives.

9. People affected by natural disasters can sometimes become targets
for fraud.
 Understanding the situation: Fraud is common after

disasters. Scammers will offer to get you a loan modification or do
home repairs for an upfront payment. Sometimes, a scammer will
even pose as someone from your insurance agency, your bank, or as
a government employee.
 What to do: Learn to recognize the signs of a scam. If you need
a loan modification on your mortgage, contact your mortgage lender
or servicer directly rather than going through a third party. You can
also check with your state licensing agency to confirm the business
is legitimate. If you suspect a scam, contact your local authorities.
Volcanicity is a process which involves the intrusion of magma in the

Earth's crust or the extrusion of such molten material on Earth's surface. This
process gives rise to volcanic eruptions.
Vulcanicity: forms and characteristics of volcanoes
Ninety five per cent of active volcanoes occur close to the major
tectonic plate margins, the rest occur in intraplate locations and are
often associated with hotspot activity. Despite their apparent
similarity, volcanoes differ in cause, structure and effect.
The nature of the three main types of magma

Rhyolitic: Rhyolitic magma is viscous (‘sticky’). High viscosity is
related to high silica content (65 to 75 per cent). Silica originates
from the destruction and melting of plates. Rhyolitic magma traps
gas and coagulates up in the vent of the volcano. Pressure builds up
over time until it is suddenly released in a catastrophic eruption.
Lavas have relatively low temperatures of between 650 and 900°C,
flow slowly and can damage property. Large explosive eruptions can
be highly dangerous.
Andesitic: Andesitic magma has intermediate viscosity, with

intermediate silica content (55 to 65 per cent). Lavas have
temperatures between 800 and 1000°C. Eruptions can be very
destructive, especially when the volcano has been dormant and
hasn’t erupted recently.
Basaltic: Basaltic magma has a low-silica content (45 to 55 per

cent) and is relatively fluid because of its low viscosity (low gas
content). Eruptions are effusive (non-explosive) and regular. Lavas
have temperatures between 1000 and 1200°C and can flow quickly
over long distances
Volcanic hazards
There are a range of volcanic hazards, which include the following:
 nuées ardentes/pyroclastic flows

 lava flows
 mudflows/lahars
 pyroclastic and ash fallout
 gases/acid rain
 tephra

The most dangerous and explosive eruptions are associated with
destructive plate margins and the formation of composite volcanoes.
Magma that builds these volcanoes is viscous, rich in silica with high
gas content.
Large angular fragments (volcanic blocks) and aerodynamic

volcanic bombs ejected during explosive eruptions are known
as pyroclasts. These volcanic rocks can crush people, buildings and
cars when they fall close to the volcano.
Clouds of tephra and volcanic ash ejected from the volcano can rise

up and form an eruption column up to 45km into the atmosphere. It
can then be transported on the wind over long distances. Tephra
and ash falls will cover all surfaces including buildings, roads and
farms over thousands of kilometres and cause major disruption to
everyday life. The weight of ash falls can collapse buildings through
roof loading; this is a fairly rare occurrence and tends to happen
when over ten centimetres of ash accumulates.
If the eruption column collapses a dangerous fluid-like pyroclastic

flow composed of hot rocks, ash and volcanic gases can travel down
the flanks of the volcano. Pyroclastic flows are the most destructive
and deadly volcanic hazards. They can move at hurricane-force
speeds of up to 200 metres per second with temperatures up to
1000°C often incinerating everything in their path.
Lahars are dangerous mudflows and they represent the second

greatest threat to humans after pyroclastic flows. When water from
rivers, snow-capped volcanoes or crater lakes mixes with rock
fragments and volcanic ash, it combines to form fast-flowing
mudflows or lahars that rush down the slopes of a volcano.
Spatial distribution of volcanic hazards

The frequency of volcanic eruptions depends largely on their
location.
 Composite volcanoes, located on destructive plate margins,

tend to erupt infrequently due to the viscous nature of rhyolitic
or andesitic magma. Plates descend deep into the mantle and
melt due to the surrounding heat and friction from the
subduction process. The less dense magma, rich in silica
formed here, rises to the surface to create composite volcanoes
with a gaseous, explosive nature. The accumulating layers of
lava – ash – lava – ash … gives these volcanoes their name
(‘composed’ of many layers).
 Shield volcanoes, located on constructive plate margins or
hotspots, tend to erupt frequently due to the fluid nature of
basaltic magma. Over a hotspot, hot and runny basaltic magma
rises and breaks through at the surface. The lava travels long
distances before it cools forming low, wide volcanoes (like a
‘shield’ lying on the ground).
Predicting Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanologists attempt to forecast volcanic eruptions, but this has
proven to be nearly as difficult as predicting an earthquake. Many
pieces of evidence can mean that a volcano is about to erupt, but the
time and magnitude of the eruption are difficult to pin down. This
evidence includes the history of previous volcanic activity,
earthquakes, slope deformation, and gas emissions.
History of Volcanic Activity

A volcano’s history, how long since its last eruption and the time
span between its previous eruptions, is a good first step to
predicting eruptions. If the volcano is considered active, it is
currently erupting or shows signs of erupting soon.
A dormant volcano means there is no current activity, but it has
erupted recently. Finally, an extinct volcano means their is no
activity and will probably not erupt again. Active and dormant
volcanoes are heavily monitored, especially in populated areas.
Earthquakes
Moving magma shakes the ground, so the number and size
of earthquakes increases before an eruption. A volcano that is
about to erupt may produce a sequence of earthquakes. Scientists
use seismographs that record the length and strength of each
earthquake to try to determine if an eruption is imminent. Magma
and gas can push the volcano’s slope upward. Most ground
deformation is subtle and can only be detected by tiltmeters, which
are instruments that measure the angle of the slope of a volcano. But
ground swelling may sometimes create huge changes in the shape of
a volcano. Mount St. Helens grew a bulge on its north side before its

1980 eruption. Ground swelling may also increase rockfalls and
landslides.
Gas Emissions
Gases may be able to escape a volcano before magma reaches the
surface. Scientists measure gas emissions in vents on or around the
volcano. Gases, such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2),
hydrochloric acid (HCl), and even water vapor (H2O) can be
measured at the site or, in some cases, from a distance using
satellites. The amounts of gases and their ratios are calculated to
help predict eruptions.
Remote Monitoring
Some gases can be monitored using satellite technology. Satellites
also monitor temperature readings and deformation. As technology
improves, scientists are better able to detect changes in a volcano
accurately and safely.Since volcanologists are usually uncertain
about an eruption, officials may not know whether to require an
evacuation. If people are evacuated and the eruption doesn’t
happen, the people will be displeased and less likely to evacuate the
next time there is a threat of an eruption. The costs of disrupting
business are great. However, scientists continue to work to improve
the accuracy of their predictions.
Classify of volcanoes on the basis of their

intensity of eruption
1.Active volcanoes: These volcanoes are presently in a state
of continous eruption.

A volcano is a rupture in the earth's surface that allows hot
material from the interior, including steam and lava, to
escape. A volcano is classified as active if it is currently
erupting or is expected to erupt in the near future.
Approximately 500 volcanoes on Earth are classified as
active, not including volcanoes that are submerged under
the oceans. Between 50 and 70 active volcanoes erupt
every year. Kilauea, one of the five volcanoes that make up
the Big Island of Hawaii, has been erupting continuously
since 1983. Volcanoes that are not active are classified as
either as dormant (may become active) or extinct.
Example: Mt. Mauna Loa in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
2.Dormant volcanoes: These have erupted in the recent past,

and are likely to erupt again.

A dormant volcano is one that is not currently erupting but
has erupted within recordable history and is expected to
erupt again in the future. The line between active and
dormant volcanoes is sometimes blurred; some volcanoes
can remain dormant for thousands of years between
eruptions, so technically they are expected to erupt in the
future, but it could take many lifetimes before that happens.
Mauna Kea, another one of the five volcanoes on the Big
Island, last erupted 3,500 years ago but it is expected to
erupt again, although there is no prediction as to when that
event could take place. Dormant volcanoes are often the
most dangerous as people are complacent living within
their vicinity and are generally unprepared when an
eruption does come. This was the case with Mt. St. Helens in
1980.

Example: Mt. Killimanjaro in Africa.
3.Extinct volcanoes: These have not erupted in the recent

past, and are unlikely to erupt anymore,
Extinct volcanoes are considered dead and are not expected

to ever erupt again. Kohala, the oldest volcano on the Big
Island of Hawaii, has not erupted in 60,000 years and is not
expected to ever become active again. But this classification
is not an entirely definitive determination, because many
Hawaiian volcanoes have gone through a stage of
rejuvenation.
Example: Mt. Vesuvius in Italy.
Earthquake environmental effects/hazards

Earthquake environmental effects are the effects caused by
an earthquake, including surface faulting, tsunamis, soil
liquefactions, ground resonance, landslides and ground failure,

either directly linked to the earthquake source or provoked by the
ground shaking.[1] These are common features produced both in the
near and far fields, routinely recorded and surveyed in recent
events, very often remembered in historical accounts and preserved
in the stratigraphic record (paleoearthquakes). Both surface
deformation and faulting and shaking-related geological effects (e.g.,
soil liquefaction, landslides) not only leave permanent imprints in
the environment, but also dramatically affect human structures.
Moreover, underwater fault ruptures and seismically-triggered
landslides can generate tsunami waves.
EEE represent a significant source of hazard, especially (but not
exclusively) during large earthquakes. This was observed for
example during more or less catastrophic seismic events recently
occurred in very different parts of the world.
Earthquake environmental effects are divided into two main types:
1. Primary effects: which are the surface expression of the

seismogenic source (e.g., surface faulting), normally observed
for crustal earthquakes above a given magnitude threshold
(typically Mw=5.5–6.0);
2. Secondary effects: mostly this is the intensity of the ground

shaking (e.g., landslides, liquefaction, etc.).
The importance of a tool to measure earthquake Intensity was
already outlined early in the 1990s.[2] In 2007 the Environmental
Seismic Intensity scale (ESI scale) was released, a new seismic
intensity scale based only on the characteristics, size and areal
distribution of earthquake environmental effects.
A huge amount of data about associated with modern, historical and
paleoearthquakes worldwide, a infrastructure developed in the
framework of the INQUA TERPRO Commission on Paleoseismology
and Active Tectonics.

Earthquake Hazards
The type of hazard depends on the strength of seismic activity, along with
such factors as local topographic and built features, subsurface geology and
groundwater. A large earthquake will always be followed by a sequence of
aftershocks.
Ground Shaking
If an earthquake generates a large enough shaking intensity, structures like
buildings, bridges and dams can be severley damaged, and cliffs and sloping
ground destabilised. Perched or stacked objects may fall and injure or bury
anyone close by. In the largest earthquakes whole districts can be devastated
by the multiple consequences of ground shaking.
Groundshaking will vary over an area due to such factors as topography,
bedrock type, and the location and orientation of the fault rupture. These all
affect the way the seismic waves travel through the ground. For an
explanation of the exceptional high energy of the Christchurch earthquakes in
2011 have a look at this video.
Tsunami Tsunamis are long wavelength oceanic waves generated by the

sudden displacement of seawater by a shallow earthquake, volcanic eruption
or submarine landslide. What is it like to face a tsunami? Watch this video!
A number of waves may be produced and they can travel long distances at
high speeds to flood far-off shores. The height of a tsunami varies and may be
affected by the sea floor depth and shape, and other factors. New Zealand is
susceptible to tsunamis originating from distance sources around the Pacific
Ring of Fire as well as from very close to our coastline. Near source tsunamis
will allow for very little warning.
Large earthquakes may generate tsunami waves in enclosed water bodies

such as lakes. In New Zealand there are large lakes that could be affected, for
example Lakes Wakatipu and Wanaka that are near to the Alpine Fault.
Landslides and Rockfalls

Groundshaking due to earthquakes destabilises cliffs and steep slopes, causing
landslides and rockfalls as a significant side-effect. Heavy rain and
unconsolidated or fractured rock are exacerbating factors.
Check out this video about the Rockfall Impacts of the Christchurch Quake,
Subsidence and Lateral Spreading
Subsidence, or lowering of the ground surface, often occurs during

earthquakes.
This may be due to downward vertical displacement on one side of a fault, and
can sometimes affect a huge area of land. Coastal areas can become
permanently flooded as a result.
Subsidence can also occur as ground shaking causes loose sediments to

“settle’ and to lose their load bearing strength (see liquefaction, below) or to
slump down sloping ground (see Landslides and Rockfalls).
Lateral spreading occurs where sloping ground starts to move downhill,

causing cracks to open up, that are often seen along hill crests and river banks.
Liquefaction
Liquefaction occurs when waterlogged sediments are agitated by seismic

shaking. This separates the grains from each other, reducing their load
bearing capacity. Buildings and other structures can sink down into the
ground or tilt over, whilst underground pipes and tanks may rise up to the
surface.
When the vibrations stop the sediments settle down again, squeezing
groundwater out of fissures and holes in the ground to cause flooding. The
aftermath of liquefaction can leave large areas covered in a deep layer of mud.

The Impacts of Earthquakes
Some of the common impacts of earthquakes include

structural damage to buildings, fires, damage to bridges and
highways, initiation of slope failures, liquefaction, and
tsunami. The types of impacts depend to a large degree on
where the earthquake is located: whether it is
predominantly urban or rural, densely or sparsely
populated, highly developed or underdeveloped, and of
course on the ability of the infrastructure to withstand
shaking.
As we’ve seen from the example of the 1985 Mexico
earthquake, the geological foundations on which structures
are built can have a significant impact on earthquake
shaking. When an earthquake happens, the seismic waves
produced have a wide range of frequencies. The energy of
the higher frequency waves tends to be absorbed by solid
rock, while the lower frequency waves (with periods slower
than one second) pass through the solid rock without being
absorbed, but are eventually absorbed and amplified by soft
sediments. It is therefore very common to see much worse
earthquake damage in areas underlain by soft sediments
than in areas of solid rock. A good example of this is in the
Oakland area near San Francisco, where parts of a two-layer
highway built on soft sediments collapsed during the 1989
Loma Prieta earthquake (Figure 11.17).

Figure 11.17 A part of the Cypress Freeway in Oakland
California that collapsed during the 1989 Loma Prieta
earthquake. [from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/9/91/Cypress_collapsed.jpg]

Building damage is also greatest in areas of soft sediments,
and multi-storey buildings tend to be more seriously
damaged than smaller ones. Buildings can be designed to
withstand most earthquakes, and this practice is
increasingly applied in earthquake-prone regions. Turkey is
one such region, and even though Turkey had a relatively
strong building code in the 1990s, adherence to the code
was poor, as builders did whatever they could to save costs,
including using inappropriate materials in concrete and
reducing the amount of steel reinforcing. The result was that
there were over 17,000 deaths in the 1999 M7.6 Izmit
earthquake (Figure 11.18). After two devastating
earthquakes that year, Turkish authorities strengthened the
building code further, but the new code has been applied
only in a few regions, and enforcement of the code is still
weak, as revealed by the amount of damage from a M7.1
earthquake in eastern Turkey in 2011.
Figure 11.18 Buildings damaged by the 1999 earthquake in
the Izmit area, Turkey. [from U.S. Geological Survey at:
http://gallery.usgs.gov/sets/1999_Izmit,_Turkey_Earthquak
e/thumb/_/1]

Fires are commonly associated with earthquakes because
fuel pipelines rupture and electrical lines are damaged when
the ground shakes (Figure 11.19). Most of the damage in the
great 1906 San Francisco earthquake was caused by massive
fires in the downtown area of the city (Figure 11.20). Some
25,000 buildings were destroyed by those fires, which were
fuelled by broken gas pipes. Fighting the fires was difficult
because water mains had also ruptured. The risk of fires can
be reduced through P-wave early warning systems if utility
operators can reduce pipeline pressure and close electrical
circuits.

Figure 11.19 Some of the effects of the 2011 Tohoku
earthquake in the Sendai area of Japan. An oil refinery is on
fire, and a vast area has been flooded by a tsunami. [from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_T
%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami#/media/File:SH-
60B_helicopter_flies_over_Sendai.jpg]

Figure 11.20 Fires in San Francisco following the 1906
earthquake. [from:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Sa
n_francisco_fire_1906.jpg]

Earthquakes are important triggers for failures on slopes
that are already weak. An example is the Las Colinas slide in
the city of Santa Tecla, El Salvador, which was triggered by a
M7.6 offshore earthquake in January 2001 (Figure 11.21).

Figure 11.21 The Las Colinas debris flow at Santa Tecla (a
suburb of the capital San Salvador) triggered by the January
2001 El Salvador earthquake. This is just one of many
hundreds of slope failures that resulted from that
earthquake. Over 500 people died in the area affected by this
slide. [from: http://landslides.usgs.gov/learning/
images/foreign/ElSalvadorslide.jpg]
Ground shaking during an earthquake can be enough to

weaken rock and unconsolidated materials to the point of
failure, but in many cases the shaking also contributes to a
process known as liquefaction, in which an otherwise solid
body of sediment is transformed into a liquid mass that can
flow. When water-saturated sediments are shaken, the
grains become rearranged to the point where they are no
longer supporting one another. Instead, the water between
the grains is holding them apart and the material can flow.
Liquefaction can lead to the collapse of buildings and other
structures that might be otherwise undamaged. A good
example is the collapse of apartment buildings during the
1964 Niigata earthquake (M7.6) in Japan (Figure 11.22).
Liquefaction can also contribute to slope failures and to
fountains of sandy mud (sand volcanoes) in areas where
there is loose saturated sand beneath a layer of more
cohesive clay.

Figure 11.22 Collapsed apartment buildings in the Niigata
area of Japan. The material beneath the buildings was
liquefied to varying degrees by the 1964 earthquake.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_
Niigata_earthquake#/media/File:
Liquefaction_at_Niigata.JPG
Parts of the Fraser River delta are prone to liquefaction-

related damage because the region is characterized by a 2 m
to 3 m thick layer of fluvial silt and clay over top of at least
10 m of water-saturated fluvial sand (Figure 11.23). Under
these conditions, it can be expected that seismic shaking will
be amplified and, the sandy sediments will liquefy. This
could lead to subsidence and tilting of buildings, and to
failure and sliding of the silt and clay layer. Current building-
code regulations in the Fraser delta area require that
measures be taken to strengthen the ground underneath
multi-storey buildings prior to construction.
Figure 11.23 Recent unconsolidated sedimentary layers in

the Fraser River delta area (top) and the potential
consequences in the event of a damaging earthquake. [SE]
Exercises
Exercise 11.4 Creating Liquefaction and Discovering the
Harmonic Frequency
There are a few ways that you can demonstrate the process of
liquefaction for yourself. The simplest is to go to a sandy beach
(lake, ocean, or river) and find a place near the water’s edge where
the sand is wet. This is best done with your shoes off, so let’s hope
it’s not too cold! While standing in one place on a wet part of the
beach, start moving your feet up and down at a frequency of about
once per second. Within a few seconds the previously firm sand will
start to lose strength, and you’ll gradually sink in up to your ankles.
If you can’t get to a beach, or if the weather isn’t cooperating, put
some sand (sandbox sand will do) into a small container, saturate it
with water, and then pour the excess water off. You can shake it
gently to get the water to separate and then pour the excess water
away, and you may have to do that more than once. Place a small
rock on the surface of the sand; it should sit there for hours without
sinking in. Now, holding the container in one hand gently thump the
side or the bottom with your other hand, about twice a second. The
rock should gradually sink in as the sand around it becomes
liquefied.
As you were moving your feet up and down or thumping the pot, it’s
likely that you soon discovered the most effective rate for getting
the sand to liquefy; this would have been close to the natural
harmonic frequency for that body of material. Stepping up and down
as fast as you can (several times per second) on the wet beach
would not have been effective, nor would you have achieved much
by stepping once every several seconds. The body of sand vibrates
most readily in response to shaking that is close to its natural
harmonic frequency, and liquefaction is also most likely to occur at
that frequency.
Earthquakes that take place beneath the ocean have the

potential to generate tsunami.[footnote]Tsunami is the
Japanese word for harbour wave. It is the same in both
singular and plural.[/footnote] The most likely situation for
a significant tsunami is a large (M7 or greater) subduction-
related earthquake. As shown in Figure 11.24, during the
time between earthquakes the overriding plate becomes

distorted by elastic deformation; it is squeezed laterally
(Figure 11.24B) and pushed up.
When an earthquake happens (Figure 11.24C), the plate
rebounds and there is both uplift and subsidence on the sea
floor, in some cases by as much as several metres vertically
over an area of thousands of square kilometres. This vertical
motion is transmitted through the water column where it
generates a wave that then spreads across the ocean.

Figure 11.24 Elastic deformation and rebound of overriding
plate at a subduction setting (B). The release of the locked
zone during an earthquake (C) results in both uplift and
subsidence on the sea floor, and this is transmitted to the
water overhead, resulting in a tsunami. [SE]
Subduction earthquakes with magnitude less than 7 do not

typically generate significant tsunami because the amount of
vertical displacement of the sea floor is minimal. Sea-floor
transform earthquakes, even large ones (M7 to M8), don’t
typically generate tsunami either, because the motion is
mostly side to side, not vertical.
Tsunami waves travel at velocities of several hundred
kilometres per hour and easily make it to the far side of an
ocean in about the same time as a passenger jet. The
simulated one shown in Figure 11.25 is similar to that
created by the 1700 Cascadia earthquake off the coast of
British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon, which was
recorded in Japan nine hours later.
2 marks

Hailstorm
A hailstorm is an unusual weather phenomenon in which balls of

ice, called hail, fall from the sky. The ice balls are nothing more than
solid precipitation that will form under certain conditions.
Fast Facts about Hail

 Hail is formed at high altitudes within massive clouds when
supercooled water droplets adhere to each other and form layers of
ice.
 The average velocity of a falling hailstone is approximately 106
miles per hour (mph).
What causes a hailstorm to

occur?
Several conditions are required in the atmosphere in order for
hailstorms to occur. Highly developed Cumulonimbus clouds need to

be present. These are the massive anvil or mushroom shaped clouds
that are seen during thunderstorms which can reach heights up to
65,000 feet. There must also be strong currents of air ascending
through these clouds. These currents are commonly known
as updrafts. The updrafts contain ice particles, as a large number of
water droplets become solid ice at the low temperatures found at
high altitudes within the massive clouds. The last remaining
condition is that the clouds will need to contain high concentrations
of supercooled liquid water.
How does hail form?

A hailstone begins as a water droplet that is swept up by an updraft
inside of a thundercloud. Inside the cloud, there are a large number
of other supercooled water droplets already present. These
supercooled particles will adhere to the water droplet’s surface,
forming layers of ice around it. As the water droplet reaches higher
elevations within the cloud it comes into contact with more and
more supercooled particles. This is because it is at the highest parts
of the cloud, where the temperature is too low (at least 32 degrees
Fahrenheit) for water molecules to remain in either a liquid or
gaseous state. The hail embryo will grow larger and larger as it
reaches higher altitudes in the updraft.
The hailstone will reach a size and weight where gravity will begin
to act on it and pull it down. However, this is not necessarily the end
of its formation, as it could be pulled into another strong updraft
and remain in the upper part of the cloud. A stone the size of a golf
ball would need an updraft flowing at 60 miles per hour (mph) to
keep it elevated in the cloud. The size the hailstone reaches depends
on the amount of time it spends surrounded by supercooled water
droplets, but eventually gravity causes the stone to fall to the Earth.

During this process hailstones can become considerably large. In
2010, the largest hailstone found in the United States (Vivian, South
Dakota) was 8 inches in diameter, 18.5 inches in circumference, and
weighed approximately two pounds. As gravity takes over, they will
fall to Earth at approximately 106 miles per hour. The exact velocity
each stone falls at will vary depending on several conditions, such
as weight, air friction and collisions with other suspended objects.
Hail in Film and Culture

 In the opening scenes of “The Day after Tomorrow”, a storm
dropping massive hailstones causes immense amounts of damage
in New York City.
What is Tectonic Shift?

Tectonic shift is the movement of the plates that make up
Earth’s crust.
The Earth is made up of roughly a dozen major plates and several minor plates.
The Earth is in a constant state of change. Earth’s crust, called the lithosphere, consists
of 15 to 20 moving tectonic plates. The plates can be thought of like pieces of a cracked
shell that rest on the hot, molten rock of Earth’s mantle and fit snugly against one
another. The heat from radioactive processes within the planet’s interior causes the
plates to move, sometimes toward and sometimes away from each other. This
movement is called plate motion, or tectonic shift.

Our planet looks very different from the way it did 250 million years ago, when there
was only one continent, called Pangaea, and one ocean, called Panthalassa. As Earth’s
mantle heated and cooled over many millennia, the outer crust broke up and
commenced the plate motion that continues today.
The huge continent eventually broke apart, creating new and ever-changing land
masses and oceans. Have you ever noticed how the east coast of South America looks
like it would fit neatly into the west coast of Africa? That’s because it did, millions of
years before tectonic shift separated the two great continents.
Earth’s land masses move toward and away from each other at an average rate of
about 0.6 inch a year. That’s about the rate that human toenails grow! Some regions,
such as coastal California, move quite fast in geological terms — almost two inches a
year — relative to the more stable interior of the continental United States. At the
“seams” where tectonic plates come in contact, the crustal rocks may grind violently
against each other, causing earthquakes and volcano eruptions. The relatively fast
movement of the tectonic plates under California explains the frequent earthquakes that
occur there.
What are the major plate tectonic boundaries?

 Divergent: extensional; the plates move apart. Spreading
ridges, basin-range.
 Convergent: compressional; plates move toward each other.
Includes: Subduction zones and mountain building.
 Transform: shearing; plates slide past each other. Strike-slip motion.
Tides are caused by gravitational pull of the moon and the

sun. ... Tides are very long-period waves that move through the oceans in
response to the forces exerted by the moon and sun. Tides originate in the
oceans and progress toward the coastlines where they appear as the
regular rise and fall of the sea surface.
Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun. ... This
occurs as a result of inertia and centrifugal force, as the gravitational pull is
weaker here and the ocean bulges out as a result. The areas at 90-degree
angle to the moon at this time will experience low tides.
There is about a seven-day interval between springs and neaps.

 Spring tide: Sun and Moon on the same side (0°)
 Neap tide: Sun and Moon at 90°
 Spring tide: Sun and Moon at opposite sides (180°)
 Neap tide: Sun and Moon at 270°
 Spring tide: Sun and Moon at the same side (cycle restarts)
Why are tides important to humans?

Commercial and recreational fishermen use their knowledge of
the tides and tidal currents to help them improve their catches. Depending
on the species and water depth in a particular area, fish may concentrate
during ebb or flood tidal currents.
How do tides affect humans?

Flooding and Generators
Spring tides, or especially high tides can sometimes endanger buildings

and people near the shore, often flooding houses or wharfs. This is not a
common occurrence since most buildings are constructed beyond the
normal tidal range.

What is a swell?
A swell is a series of mechanical or surface gravity waves

generated by distant weather systems that propagate
thousands of miles across oceans and seas.
It's a succession of massive and crestless waves characterized by a narrow

range of long wavelengths.
Ocean swells are often generated in mid-latitude depressions regions

between 30 degrees and 60 degrees, especially in the North Atlantic and
North Pacific, but also in the South Pacific.
The majority of all high-energy swells produced on the planet peak during
winter in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere.
They can be visible arriving on the horizon in evenly spaced out, parallel
lines of waves.

The Formation of a Swell
Swells are not generated by local winds blowing, for example, near the
shore.
Instead, they're the result of the interaction of severe storms with a large
fetch of water that takes place in the open ocean, thousands of miles away
from landmasses.
A storm acts like a pebble dropped in a pond, sending out ripples of energy
in concentric circles.
The longer and harder the wind blows, the bigger the swell.
As a swell moves away from the storm, wave trains with a longer
wavelength will travel faster and overtake shorter wavelength swells.

Ripples - or capillary waves - will continue to grow until gravity does its part.
As waves propagate into shallow water, they start to slow down, the
wavelength is shortened, and the wave height rises.
In a gently sloping beach, waves will arrive mushy and crumbling, breaking
in water deeper than a depth of 1.3 multiplied by the wave height.
A steep slope or reef will form hollow, pitching waves in shallower waters.
A 10-foot wave should break in 13-foot of water, but a sudden depth

change, offshore winds, and a fast-moving groundswell can greatly reduce
the breaking depth before taking tide into consideration.
A swell often refers to groundswells, and not wind swells.
Groundswells and Windswells

A groundswell is a group of traveling waves that left the generating area
and propagated by itself for vast distances.
When they reach the shoreline, it has already accumulated a lot of energy
and period (in seconds) between consistent and powerful wave trains.
They're the perfect swell formula for surfers and surfing.
On the contrary, the wind swell - also called windsea - is a short-lived

swell generated by local winds.
These disorganized, short-period swells are common in the North Sea,

Baltic Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea, although that can be seen
anywhere in the world.
Swell Period, Height and Direction

The swell period is the amount of time it takes for two successive wave
crests to pass through a determined point.
Long-period swells harness energy, travel faster, and can easily cope with
local winds and currents, resulting in larger beach waves.
The first waves of a long-period swell are called forerunners and usually
move faster than the remaining carriages of the wave train.
The swell height corresponds to the average size of the highest one-third of
the waves in a given period.
It is measured from trough to peak. The seconds between one peak and
the next can be determined by ocean buoys to calculate swell height.
The harder the wind, the greater the distance it blows on the fetch, and the
longer the period, the bigger the wave, the longer the wavelength, and the
longer the period between crests will be observed.
A sustained and consistent 50-knot wind blowing for nearly three days over
a minimum distance of 1,600 miles (2,600 kilometers) could generate wave
heights of 50 feet (15 meters).
Swell direction is the direction from which it is traveling, and it is measured

in degrees or cardinal points.

Propagation, Dispersion, and Grouping
As waves propagate away from the source, they start grouping into lines of
swell and traveling and spreading in a circumferential dispersion.
And for every doubling of the propagation distance, the height reduces by
about one-third.
In terms of wavelength, the longer the distance between two crests, the
faster the waves will travel across the open ocean, meaning that faster
waves with longer wavelengths will progressively overtake the slower,
shorter wavelength swells.
Surfers refer to groups of waves that reach the shoreline as "sets."
Scientifically speaking, wave grouping is the result of different swells

traveling in the same direction and merging together.
When the peaks of two different wave trains coincide, a larger wave will
result.

However, when the peak of one wave-train coincides with the trough of
another, a canceling out effect occurs, resulting in the lulls at the beach.
Ripples vs. Waves vs. Swell
There's widespread and understandable confusion as to what the

difference between swell and waves is.
A swell is a group of waves that have gathered enough energy from the
wind to reach another stage of maturity that allows them to travel well
beyond the place of their origin.
It can pass through and under another one or even more than one swell
and absorb them in their path, resulting in more organized, well-spaced,
and well-defined swell lines.
A simple ripple (photo below) will not be able to travel thousands of miles
without strong winds blowing for a long period.
Unlike swells, waves do not ride on top of each other for a long period of
time.
From a technical and oceanographic perspective, the ocean observes:
1. Ripples: waves with a period between crests of up to a second;
2. Waves: undulations with a period between crests of between one and

ten seconds;
3. Swells: groups of waves with a period between crests of more than ten
seconds;

Micronesian and Polynesian ocean explorers were some of the first to spot
the difference between ripples, waves, and swells.
As experienced navigators, they learned to identify swells by its shape,

period, and rhythm or motion, in order to sail smoothly across calm seas
and avoid rogue waves.
These Pacific islanders were able to read the interference patterns of

swells that were driven by the prevailing northeast trade winds.
Swells tend to bend around the islands and spread out in the channels
between them.
The overlap of multiple swells from different directions produces a

distinctive interference pattern that can help to fix your location.

Tropical Storm Swells
Hurricane, cyclone or typhoon swells are groundswells generated by

depressions that often travel from east to west in sub-tropical latitudes
(between 10 degrees and 30 degrees).
As a result, when these storms occur, the ocean will host E swells, mostly.
Tropical storms only form when the temperature contrasts between air and
ocean are at their maximum.
These unpredictable, slow-moving seasonal swells produce a significant

amount of large waves.
Walter Munk and the Weber Brothers

Wilhelm Eduard Weber and his brother Ernst Heinrich Weber were the first
scientists to produce major advances in the experimental study of waves.
In a lab, they discovered that there is a tight connection between the

revolution of blobs of water in stationary orbits and the passage of a
surface wave.
They both have the same period, and the whole train of waves advances
by one wavelength in one period of the oscillation.
Physicists call this a traveling wave train. Common people can call it a
swell.
Walter Heinrich Munk, was one of the most famous physical

oceanographers of all time.
In the 1940s, he and Harald Sverdrup "invented" the science of

forecasting waves and surf heights.
Later, in 1963, he proved that swell decays very little after it travels a
distance from the edge of a storm equal to the storm's diameter.
The swell also decays by spreading sideways, not because of the

resistance of the air above it, but due to the fact that it is absorbed in the
boundaries of the ocean, i.e., in the surf zone.
A cinder cone is a steep conical hill of loose pyroclastic

fragments, such as volcanic clinkers, volcanic ash, or cinder that has been
built around a volcanic vent. The pyroclastic fragments are formed by
explosive eruptions or lava fountains from a single, typically cylindrical,
vent.

What are the characteristics of cinder cones?
Cinder cones are characterized by a circular cone of hardened lava, ash
and tephra around a single vent. The cone is formed when
volcanic material fragments and falls to the ground after being ejected into
the air from the vent. Fragmented ash and lava build a cone around the
vent as they cool and harden.
Talus
landform

deposit of rock fragments detached from cliffs or mountain slopes by weathering and piled
up at their bases. A talus is a common geologic feature in regions of high cliffs. The angle of
slope of a talus is rarely greater than 40°. The constant weathering to which a talus is
subjected, which breaks the rock fragments into finer pieces, and the impact of new
material being added from above give the base of the talus a tendency to creep and slide.
The term talus is often used to refer to the fragments themselves.
How is talus formed?

Talus caves are formed when very large rocks fall
from mountains or cliffs. The spaces between the rocks are
sometimes large enough to allow a person to enter.
Tectonic caves are formed by tectonic processes along faults
near the Earth's surface.
The formation of scree and talus deposits is the result of
physical and chemical weathering acting on a rock face, and
erosive processes transporting the material downslope.
River terraces (tectonic–climatic interaction)

Terraces can be formed in many ways and in several geologic and
environmental settings. By studying the size, shape, and age of terraces, one
can determine the geologic processes that formed them. When terraces have
the same age and/or shape over a region, it is often indicative that a large-
scale geologic or environmental mechanism is responsible. Tectonic
uplift and climate change are viewed as dominant mechanisms that can shape
the earth’s surface through erosion. River terraces can be influenced by one or
both of these forcing mechanisms and therefore can be used to study variation
in tectonics, climate, and erosion, and how these processes interact.
In geology, a terrace is a step-like landform. A terrace consists of a flat or

gently sloping geomorphic surface, called a tread, that is typically bounded on

one side by a steeper ascending slope, which is called a "riser" or "scarp". The
tread and the steeper descending slope (riser or scarp) together constitute the
terrace. Terraces can also consist of a tread bounded on all sides by a
descending riser or scarp. A narrow terrace is often called a bench.[1][2]
The sediments underlying the tread and riser of a terrace are also commonly,
but incorrectly, called terraces, leading to confusion.
River terrace formation

Long-lived river (fluvial) systems can produce a series of terrace surfaces over
the course of their geologic lifetime. When rivers flood, sediment deposits in
sheets across the floodplain and build up over time. Later, during a time of
river erosion, this sediment is cut into, or incised, by the river and flushed
downstream. The previous floodplain is therefore abandoned and becomes a
river terrace. A river terrace is composed of an abandoned surface, or tread,
and the incised surface, or riser.[2] If you can date the age of the terrace tread,
one can get an estimate of the age of abandonment of that surface, and the age
of incision. A simple calculation of h1/t1 can give the average rate of

incision(ri), where hi = height of river terrace from river and ti = age of surface.
[3]
It is important to note that these rates of incision assume a constant rate of
incision over the entire height and time.
lava
Definition: Volcanoes often contain molten rock or magma. When a
volcano erupts, this molten rock is erupted onto the Earth’s surface
and forms lava which is liquid. As the lava cools down, the lava
becomes solid rock.
How lava is formed?

Lava forms when magma erupts from a volcano. As
pressure is released gases, dissolved in the magma, bubble
out so the composition of lava changes. Most lava flows
are formed by the eruption of hot (around 1200oC)
basalt magma,
Types of Lava
There are several different types of volcanoes: steep
stratovolcanoes, wide shield volcanoes, and mounded lava domes.
The shape of a volcano actually depends on the types of lava that it’s
made up of. And so, there are several different types of lava.
The type of lava coming out of a volcano depends on its mineral

content. Some lava is very thin, and can flow out of a volcano in
great rivers that go for dozens of kilometers. Other lava is very thick,
and only flows for a short distance before cooling and hardening.
And some lava is so thick that it barely “flows” at all, and can plug up
the plumbing of a volcano.

The main types of lava have been given Hawaiian names, because of
the volcanic nature of the Hawaiian islands. You can find examples
of different kinds of lava flows on the island.
A’a
Pronounced “ah-ah”, this is a basaltic lava that doesn’t flow very
quickly. It looks like a slowly moving mass of hot jello, with cooler,
rough surface. Once it hardens, the sharp spiny surface of a’a lava is
extremely difficult to walk across. These types of lava erupt at
temperatures above 1000 to 1100 degrees C.
Pahoehoe
Pronounced “pa-ho-ho”, this type of lava is much thinner and less
viscous than a’a. It can flow down the slopes of a volcano in vast
rivers. The surface of the lava congeals into a thin crust that looks
very smooth. Pahoehoe lava can also form lava tubes, where the
rock hardens around a fast-moving liquid core. When that core
flows out of the tube, a long tunnel remains. Pahoehoe erupts at
temperatures of 1100 to 1200 C.
Pillow Lava
Pillow lava is typically found erupting from underwater volcano
vents. As soon as the lava contacts the water, it’s cooled down and
forms a hardened shell. As more lava issues from the vent, the shell
of lava cracks and more “pillows” come out of these cracks.

Disaster Management

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Disaster Management

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A disaster can be defined as an occurrence causing widespread

destruction and distress. Disaster management does not avert

The four phases of disaster: 1) mitigation; 2) preparedness; 3) response; and

The model helps frame issues related to disaster preparedness as well as

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Mitigation involves steps to reduce vulnerability to disaster impacts such as

Preparedness focuses on understanding how a disaster might impact the

Response addresses immediate threats presented by the disaster, including

 Triage efforts assess and deal with the most pressing emergency

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CAUSES RESPONSIBLE FOR NATURAL DISASTERS-

THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON NATURAL

It has been estimated that rapidly growing modernization is leading to ignorance

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Cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons - the same hazard with a different

Slow onset disasters

Droughts are relatively slow disasters. Climate change, environmental

How do slow-onset disasters affect migration, how is it different from rapid-

Do they both create forced movement?

Do they both create voluntary movement?

Do they both create internal movement?

Do they both create cross border movement?

What about permanent and temporary movement?

What are Geohazards?

1. Geo – from the word ‘geological’ meaning from the earth

A tsunami is a series of powerful ocean surges caused by a large volume of the

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Lahar is an Indonesian word that describes a volcanic mudflow. When moving, a

Hydrothermal systems are a by-product of volcanic activity. The residual

Landslides are common throughout New Zealand. Serious landslides in built-up

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1. Geo – from the word ‘geological’ meaning from the earth

What are the effects of geological hazards?

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Climatologists today are almost universally directing their efforts towards

What Climatology Is Not

 Meteorology is what the weather is doing now whereas climatology is what

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Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric

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• Hydrology of a region affected by

Climate and Weather

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Importance of meteorology and hydrology

• Estimation of water resources

• Study the processes such as precipitaion, runoff, evaporation and their

• preparation of cropping calendar

• determination of suitable cropping system

• irrigation designing • construction of dam, culverts, reservoirs • designing soil

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Basic Hydrological Cycle Components

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Seismic activity is defined as the types, frequency and size of

An example of seismic activity is how often earthquakes occur in the San

The seismic activity of an earthquake is recorded on a seismograph.

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Changes in Coastal Zones

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WHAT ARE THE PROCESSES OF COASTAL

WHAT FACTORS AFFECT THE RATE OF

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