Physical

Science
Eportfolio

Name: Oleta, CristineJoy

Section: Accenture
 Table of contents
Formation Polarity of
of Elements Elements
Elements are identified Polar molecules must
by the number of contain polar bonds due
protons in the nuclei of to a difference in
their atoms. electronegativity between
the bonded atoms.
Chemical Atom
Changes
An atom is the smallest
A chemical change is a
unit of ordinary matter
change of materials into
another, new materials with
that forms a chemical
different properties and element. Every solid,
one or more than one new liquid, gas, and plasma
substances are formed. is composed of neutral
or ionized atoms.
Intermolecular Forces of
Attraction (IMFA)
Intermolecular attractions
or IMFA are attractions
between one molecule and
a neighbouring molecule.
Light
Light or visible light is
electromagnetic radiation
within the portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum
that can be perceived by
the human eye.
Formation Of
Elements
 Formation Of
Elements
Elements are identified by the number of protons in the
nuclei of their atoms. For example, an atom having six
protons in its nucleus is carbon, and one having 26 protons is
iron. There are over 80 naturally occurring elements, with
uranium (92 protons) being the heaviest (heavier nuclei have
been produced in reactors). Nuclei also contain certain
neutrons, usually in numbers greater than the number of
protons. The number of neutrons in the atoms of a given
element varies.
 Heavy elements can be formed from light
ones by nuclear fusion reactions; these are
nuclear reactions in which atomic nuclei
merge together. The simplest reactions
involve hydrogen, whose nucleus consists
only of a single proton, but other fusion
reactions, involving mergers of heavier
nuclei, are also possible. When the universe
formed in an initial state of very high
temperature and density, the big bang, the
first elements to exist were the simplest,
primarily hydrogen and helium (two protons).
But we, and Earth, and all other objects
including elements other than hydrogen and
helium, are made of heavier elements, so a
major question for scientists is how these
heavier elements were created.
During most of their lives,
stars fuse hydrogen into
helium in their cores, but the
fusion process rarely stops at
this point; most of the helium
in the universe was made
during the initial big bang.
When the star’s core runs out
of hydrogen, the star begins to
die out. The processes that
occur during this period form
the heavier elements.

The dying star expands into a red giant
star. A typical red giant at the sun’s
location would extend to roughly Earth’s
orbit. The star now begins to manufacture
carbon atoms by fusing three helium
atoms. Occasionally a fourth helium atom
combines to produce oxygen. Stars of
about the sun’s mass stop with this
helium burning stage and collapse into
white dwarfs about the size of Earth,
expelling their outer layers in the process.
Only the more massive stars play a
significant role in manufacturing heavy
elements.
Massive stars become much hotter internally than
stars like the sun, and additional reactions occur
after all the hydrogen in the core has been
converted to helium. At this point, massive stars
begin a series of nuclear burning, or reaction,
stages: carbon burning, neon burning, oxygen
burning, and silicon burning. In the carbon burning
stage, carbon undergoes fusion reactions to
produce oxygen, neon, sodium, and magnesium.
During the neon burning stage, neon fuses into
oxygen and magnesium. During the oxygen
burning stage, oxygen forms silicon and other
elements that lie between magnesium and sulfur in
the periodic table. These elements, during the
silicon burning stage, then produce elements near
iron on the periodic table.
 Lesson
The low-mass elements, hydrogen and helium, were produced in the
hot, dense conditions of the birth of the universe itself. The birth, life,
and death of a star is described in terms of nuclear reactions. The
chemical elements that make up the matter we observe throughout
the universe were created in these reactions.For astronomers
everything heavier than Hydrogen and Helium is a “metal”, yes, even
oxygen is a “metal”. Big Bang created mostly Hydrogen, some Helium
and less than 1% of Lithium.Most stars you can see produce Helium
by fusing Hydrogen (the process involves some other elements as
catalyzers but it’s not important right now).When the star grows old
and poor in Hydrogen, the production of Helium slows down, that
leads to star compressing a bit, which increases the pressure and
allows it to start fusing Helium into heavier elements. This process
can repeat all the way to Iron, at which point no fusion can occur
spontaneously, because fusing Iron costs energy instead of
producing it.
Polarity Of
Elements
 Polarity Of
Elements
In chemistry, polarity is a separation of electric
charge leading to a molecule or its chemical groups
having an electric dipole moment, with a negatively
charged end and a positively charged end A polar
molecule with two or more polar bonds must have a
geometry which is asymmetric in at least one
direction, so that the bond dipoles do not cancel
each other. A water molecule, a commonly used
example of polarity. Two charges are present with a
negative charge in the middle (red shade), and a
positive charge at the ends (blue shade).
 Polarity Of Bonds
Not all atoms attract electrons with the same force. The amount of "pull" an
atom exerts on its electrons is called its electronegativity. Atoms with high
electronegativities – such as fluorine, oxygen, and nitrogen – exert a greater pull
on electrons than atoms with lower electronegativities such as alkali metals and
alkaline earth metals. In a bond, this leads to unequal sharing of electrons
between the atoms, as electrons will be drawn closer to the atom with the higher
electronegativity. Because electrons have a negative charge, the unequal
sharing of electrons within a bond leads to the formation of an electric dipole: a
separation of positive and negative electric charge. Because the amount of
charge separated in such dipoles is usually smaller than a fundamental
charge.In a molecule of hydrogen fluoride (HF), the more electronegative atom
(fluorine) is shown in yellow. Because the electrons spend more time by the
fluorine atom in the H−F bond, the red represents partially negatively charged
regions, while blue represents partially positively charged regions.
 Polar Molecules
A polar molecule has a net dipole as a result of the opposing
charges (i.e. having partial positive and partial negative charges)
from polar bonds arranged asymmetrically. Water (H2O) is an
example of a polar molecule since it has a slight positive charge on
one side and a slight negative charge on the other. Other examples
include sugars (like sucrose), which have many polar oxygen–
hydrogen (−OH) groups and are overall highly polar. If the bond
dipole moments of the molecule do not cancel, the molecule is polar.
For example, the water molecule (H2O) contains two polar O−H
bonds in a bent (nonlinear) geometry. The bond dipole moments do
not cancel, so that the molecule forms a molecular dipole with its
negative pole at the oxygen and its positive pole midway between
the two hydrogen atoms. In the figure each bond joins the central O
atom with a negative charge (red) to an H atom with a positive
charge (blue).
The water molecule is made up of oxygen and hydrogen, with
respective electronegativities of 3.44 and 2.20. The
electronegativity difference polarizes each H–O bond, shifting
its electrons towards the oxygen (illustrated by red arrows).
These effects add as vectors to make the overall molecule polar.

The ammonia molecule, NH3, is polar as a result of its

molecular geometry. The red represents partially
negatively charged regions. Ammonia, NH3, is a
molecule whose three N−H bonds have only a slight
polarity (toward the more electronegative nitrogen
atom). The molecule has two lone electrons in an orbital
that points towards the fourth apex of an
approximately regular tetrahedron, as predicted by the
(VSEPR theory). This orbital is not participating in
covalent bonding; it is electron-rich, which results in a
powerful dipole across the whole ammonia molecule.
 Nonpolar Molecules
A molecule may be nonpolar either when there is an equal
sharing of electrons between the two atoms of a diatomic
molecule or because of the symmetrical arrangement of polar
bonds in a more complex molecule. Carbon dioxide (CO2) has two
polar C=O bonds, but the geometry of CO2 is linear so that the
two bond dipole moments cancel and there is no net molecular
dipole moment; the molecule is nonpolar. Carbon dioxide has two
polar C-O bonds in a linear geometry

In the methane molecule (CH4) the four C−H bonds are arranged
tetrahedrally around the carbon atom. Each bond has polarity
(though not very strong). The bonds are arranged symmetrically
so there is no overall dipole in the molecule. The diatomic oxygen
molecule (O2) does not have polarity in the covalent bond
because of equal electronegativity, hence there is no polarity in
the molecule. In methane, the bonds are arranged symmetrically
(in a tetrahedral arrangement) so there is no overall dipole.
 Lesson
A state or a condition of an atom or a molecule having positive and also negative charges,
especially in case of magnetic or an electrical poles. Polarity, in general, refers to the
physical properties of compounds such as boiling point, melting points, and their
solubilities. The polarity of bonds mainly arises from the act between molecules and atoms
with various electronegativities. Moving on, usually, the term Polarity is used in areas like
magnetism, electricity, and signalling of electronic devices. Consider an electromotive force
(EMF) or an electric potential, acting between two points. Here the points or poles as they
are commonly known as has more number of electrons than the other. The pole having
more electrons possesses a negative polarity whereas the other end has a positive polarity.

Polar Molecules: A polar molecule is usually formed when the one end of the molecule is
said to possess more number of positive charges and whereas the opposite end of the
molecule has negative charges, creating an electrical pole. When a molecule is said to have
a polar bond, then the center of the negative charge will be one side, whereas the center of
positive charge will be in the different side. The entire molecule will be a polar molecule.
Non- Polar Molecules: A molecule which does not have the charges present at the end due
to the reason that electrons are finely distributed and those which symmetrically cancel out
each other are the non- polar molecules. In a solution, a polar molecule cannot be mixed
with the non-polar molecule. For example, consider water and oil. In this solution, water is a
polar molecule whereas oil behaves as a non-polar molecule. These two molecules do not
form a solution as they cannot be mixed up.
Intermolecular Forces Of Attraction(IMFA)
Intermolecular Forces Of Attraction(IMFA)
• Properties like melting and boiling points are a measure of how
strong the attractive forces are between individual atoms or
molecules. (We call these intermolecular forces –
forces between molecules, as opposed to intramolecular forces –
forces within a molecule. )
• It all flows from this general principle: as bonds
become more polarized, the charges on the atoms
become greater, which leads to greater intermolecular
attractions, which leads to higher boiling points.
• There are four major classes of interactions between
molecules and they are all different manifestations
of “opposite charges attract”.
 Ionic Forces
Ionic are interactions between charged atoms or molecules “ions”. Positive ely
charged ions, such as Na(+) , Li(+), and Ca(2+), are termed cations. Negatively
charged ions, such as Cl(–), Br(–), HO(–) are called anions (I always got this
straight through remembering that the “N” in “Anion” stood for “Negative”)
The attractive forces between oppositely charged ions is described
by Coulomb’s Law, in which the force increases with charge and decreases as
the distance between these ions is increased. The highly polarized (charged)
nature of ionic molecules is reflected in their high melting points (NaCl has a
melting point of 801 °C) as well as in their high water solubility (for the alkali
metal salts, anyway; metals that form multiple charges like to leave residues
on your bathtub)
 Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonding occurs in molecules containing the highly
electronegative elements F, O, or N directly bound to hydrogen. Since H has
an electronegativity of 2.2 (compare to 0.9 for Na and 0.8 for K) these
bonds are not as polarized as purely ionic bonds and possess some
covalent character. However, the bond to hydrogen will still be polarized
and possess a dipole.

The dipole of one molecule can align

with the dipole from another molecule,
leading to an attractive interaction that
we call hydrogen bonding.
 Van Der Waals Dipole-Dipole Interactions
Other groups beside hydrogen can be
involved in polar covalent bonding with
strongly electronegative atoms. For
instance, each of these molecules contains a
dipole.
These dipoles can interact with each other
in an attractive fashion, which will also
increase the boiling point. However since
the electronegativity difference between
carbon (electronegativity = 2.5) and the
electronegative atom (such as oxygen or
nitrogen) is not as large as it is for
hydrogen (electronegativity = 2.2), the polar
interaction is not as strong. So on average
these forces tend to be weaker than in
hydrogen bonding.
 Van der Waals Dispersion Forces (“London
forces”)
The weakest intermolecular forces of all are
called dispersion forces or London forces. These
represent the attraction between instantaneous
dipoles in a molecule. there might be a mismatch
between how many electrons are on one side and
how many are on the other, which can lead to
an instantaneous difference in charge.
The polarizability is the term we use to describe
how readily atoms can form these instantaneous
dipoles.
Polarizability increases with atomic size. That’s
why the boiling point of argon (–186 °C) is so
much higher than the boiling point of helium (–
272 °C). By the same analogy, the boiling point of
iodine, (I-I, 184 °C) is much higher than the boiling
point of fluorine (F-F, –188°C).
 Lesson
Intermolecular forces are the interactions that occur
between neighboring particles and have a large effect on a
compound's physical properties such as the melting point,
boiling point, viscosity, etc.

why does HCl have dipole dipole interactions, and not hydrogen bonding?
like HF does.

-HCl has *some* hydrogen bonding, it’s just not particularly strong. All molecules
with hydrogen have ‘hydrogen bonding’, but it is to such a very weak degree that it
doesn’t really matter.However, when hydrogen bonds with elements that are
extremely electronegative (primarily F, O, and N) they hold on VERY tightly and the
hydrogen bonding that occurs during them is extremely significant.
Chemical Change
 Chemical Change
A chemical change is a change of materials into another, new
materials with different properties and one or more than one new
substances are formed.
It results when a substance combines with another to form a new
substance (synthesis or either decomposes to form more
substances). The oxidation reaction is a chemical change example
that causes a chemical reaction.
They are generally irreversible except by further chemical
reactions. Chemical change examples include chemical reaction
which develops the dye in the color and creates a chemical
change in the hair. There are three types of chemical changes
namely organic, inorganic and biochemical change.
Examples of Chemical Change in Everyday
Life
Chemical changes happen around us all the time and not just in a chemistry lab.
Some chemical change examples in our everyday life.
• Burning of paper and log of
wood
• Digestion of food
• Boiling an egg
• Chemical battery usage
• Decomposition of waste
• The explosion of fireworks
• The reaction between salts and
acids.
• Rusting of iron
• Lighting a matchstick
 Chemical Changes Involving Organic
Pouds
Organic Compounds are complex compounds of carbon in which one or more atoms
are covalently linked to atoms of other elements. Some examples of chemical change
involving organic compounds are stated below.

1. Burning of a Natural Gas 2. Ripening of Fruits

This is a clear example of a combustion reaction.
Natural gas comprehends methane gas. When
methane reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere it
produces water and carbon dioxide. Hence, it is
an example of chemical change.
It involves a series of changes.
Fruits consist of ethylene. There is
an increase in ethylene production
when fruit gets damaged or when
it is plucked.
Atom
 Atom
An atom is the smallest unit of ordinary matter that forms a
chemical element. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is
composed of neutral or ionized atoms. Atoms are extremely
small, typically around 100 picometers across.
Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to
the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or more protons and a number of
neutrons. Only the most common variety of hydrogen has no neutrons. More
than 99.94% of an atom's mass is in the nucleus. The protons have a positive
electric charge, the electrons have a negative electric charge, and the
neutrons have no electric charge. If the number of protons and electrons are
equal, then the atom is electrically neutral. If an atom has more or fewer
electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative or positive charge,
respectively – such atoms are called ions.
Atoms were created after the Big Bang
13.7 billion years ago. As the hot,
dense new universe cooled, conditions
became suitable for quarks and
electrons to form.
 Atomic Particles

Protons and neutrons are heavier than electrons and reside in

the nucleus at the center of the atom. Electrons are extremely
lightweight and exist in a cloud orbiting the nucleus.

Nucleus
The nucleus is held together by the strong force, one of
the four basic forces in nature. This force between the
protons and neutrons overcomes the repulsive
electrical force that would otherwise push the protons
apart, according to the rules of electricity.
 Protons
The number of protons in an atom is unique to each element. For
example, carbon atoms have six protons, hydrogen atoms have one
and oxygen atoms have eight. The number of protons in an atom is
referred to as the atomic number of that element. The number of protons
also determines the chemical behavior of the element. Elements are
arranged in the Periodic Table of the Elements in order of increasing
atomic number.

Electrons
Electrons are tiny compared to protons and neutrons,
over 1,800 times smaller than either a proton or a
neutron. Electrons surround the atomic nucleus in
pathways called orbitals. An atom's electron
configuration refers to the locations of the electrons
in a typical atom. Using the electron configuration and
principles of physics, chemists can predict an atom's
properties, such as stability, boiling point and
conductivity.
Light
 Light
Light or visible light is electromagnetic
radiation within the portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum that can be
perceived by the human eye.Visible light is
usually defined as having wavelengths in the
range of 400–700 nm, between the infrared
(with longer wavelengths) and the ultraviolet
(with shorter wavelengths).This wavelength
means a frequency range of roughly 430–750
terahertz (THz).
In physics, the term 'light' sometimes refers to electromagnetic
radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not.In this
sense, gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves and radio waves are
also light. Like all types of electromagnetic radiation, visible
light propagates as waves. However, the energy imparted by
the waves is absorbed at single locations the way particles are
absorbed. The absorbed energy of the electromagnetic waves is
called a photon and represents the quanta of light.
 Electromagnetic spectrum and visible light
Generally, EM radiation (the designation "radiation"
excludes static electric, magnetic and near fields), or
EMR, is classified by wavelength into radio waves,
microwaves, infrared, the visible spectrum that we
perceive as light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma
rays.The behavior of EMR depends on its wavelength.
Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths and lower
frequencies have longer wavelengths. When EMR
interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior
depends on the amount of energy per quantum it
carries.EMR in the visible light region consists of
quanta (called photons) that are at the lower end of the
energies that are capable of causing electronic
excitation within molecules, which leads to changes in
the bonding or chemistry of the molecule. At the lower
end of the visible light spectrum, EMR becomes
invisible to humans (infrared) because its photons no
longer have enough individual energy to cause a lasting
molecular change (a change in conformation) in the
visual molecule retinal in the human retina, which
change triggers the sensation of vision.