MATHEMATICS (II)

PART II
Analytical Geometry

Co-ordinate Geometry
Gradients
Mid points
Length of lines
Equation of lines
 Gradients
• Gradient = (change in y) / (change in x)
∆y
=
∆x A(x2;y2)
y2 − y1
=
x2 − x1 y2 – y 1

B(x1;y 1) x2 – x 1
 Gradients
• Gradient = (change in y) / (change in x)

y2 − y1
m(AB) = A(6;4)
x2 − x1

4 − (−1)
=
6 − (−7)

5
=
13
B(-7;-1)
 Gradients
• If the gradient of the line joining A(-3;-2) and B(4 ;y)
is – 6, calculate y.

y2 − y1
m= Solving for y
x2 − x1
so need an equation
y − (−2)
−6 =
4 − (−3)
y+2
−6 =
7

-42 = y + 2 ∴ y = - 44
 Angle of Inclination m = tan θ
• m = Gradient = (change in y) / (change in x)

B(-2;5)
y2 − y1 5 − (1)
m(AB) = = =-1
x2 − x1 − 2 − (2)
A(2;1)
∴ tan θ = - 1
θ
Q2,4 Key ∠ = 450
WHY ?
∴ θ = 1350
 Collinear
• Show that the line through the points A(4;3),
B(-5;6) and C(22;-3) are collinear.
y2 − y1 1 y2 − y1 1
m (AB) = =− m(CA) = =−
x2 − x1 3 x2 − x1 3
3−6 −3−3
= =
4 − (−5) 22 − (4)
∴ m(AB)
1 = m(AC) 1
=− =−
3
AND 3 point A is common

∴ A , B and C are collinear.

 Find equation of line
In order to find the equation of a line, two
facts are required.

Need to know (or be able to calculate)

- the gradient and
- the co-ordinates of a point on the line.
Find the equation of the line perpendicular to
2y + 3x = 2 and passing through the
point ( 2;-1)
Arrange into standard form
• 2y + 3x = 2 2
2y = - 3x +2 (2;−1) ∈ y − y1 = ( x − x1 )
3
y = - 3/2 x + 1
2
y + 1 = ( x − 2)
3 3
∴m= −
2 3 y + 3 = 2( x − 2)

∴ m( ⊥ ) =
2 ∴3 y − 2x −1 = 0
3
 Find equation of line
To find the gradient need :-

a. 2 points , or

b. An equation of a line that is parallel /

perpendicular to the line, or

c. the angle of inclination

 Find the equation of the line joining the
points A( 1; -2) and B(-3; 4)
2 parts :
1. Find gradient 2. Substitute the gradient
and one point into the
y2 − y1
m= formula
x2 − x1 3
(1;−2) ∈ y − y1 = − ( x − x1 )
4 − (−2) 2
m= 3
− 3 −1 ∴ y − (−2) = − ( x − 1)
2
6 3 2( y + 2) = −3( x − 1)
m= =−
−4 2 2 y + 4 = −3 x + 3
ie the equation is 2y+3x+1=0
 Length of line segment
A(x2;y2)

∴AB = (x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 )
2 2
y2 – y 1

B(x1;y 1) C
x2 – x 1

• AB 2 = BC 2 + AC 2 (pythag)
= ( x 2 – x 1 ) 2 + ( y 2 – y 1 )2
 Length of line segments
• Determine the length of the line joining the points
X( 6;4) and Y( -2;1)

∴AB = (x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 )
2 2

= (6 − (−2) ) + (4 − 1)
2 2

= (8) + (3)
2 2

= 73
• Determine x if the length of line joining
A(x;1) and B( -1;3) is 2 2

∴AB = (x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 )
2 2

2 2= (x − (−1) ) + (1 − 3)
2 2

2 2= (x + 1) + (− 2)
2 2
SQUARE both
8 = x2 + 2x + 1 + 4 sides
8 = x2 +2 x + 5
x2 +2x – 3 = 0
( x + 3 )(x – 1 ) = 0 ∴ x – 3 or x = 1
 Mid point of line segments

A(x2;y2)
x + x y2 + y1
M( 2 1 ; )
2 2
y2 + y1
2

B(x1;y 1) x2 + x1 C

2
 Mid point of line segments
• Calculate the co-ordinates of the mid point M of
the line joining the points A(-2;3) and B(4; -3)

M( x2 + x1 ; y 2 + y1)

2 2

−2+4 −3+3
M( ; )
2 2

M( 1 ; 0)
 Mid point of line segments
Given M(1 ; 0 ) is the mid point of the line joining the
points A( -2;3) and B ( p; q) , determine p and q.

x2 + x1 y2 + y1
Xm = Ym =
2 2
p − (−2) q+3
1= 0=
2 2
2= p+2 0 = q+3
∴p=0 ∴q = −3
The equation of the circle with center at the origin and radius R is

R
y

x2 + y 2 =
x
R2
The equation of the circle with center at (a,b) and radius R is

R
( x − a ) 2 + ( y − b) 2 =
R2 b
( a, b)
Then

x 2 − 2ax + a 2 + y 2 − 2by + b 2 =
R2 a

x 2 + y 2 − 2ax − 2by + a 2 + b 2 − R 2 =
0

h=
−a k =
−b
Or

x + y + 2hx + 2ky + d =
2 2
0
d = a 2 + b2 − R 2
Then for the circle

x 2 + y 2 + 2hx + 2ky + d =
0

The center will be (−h , − k )

The radius will be

R= h2 + k 2 − d
Example

Find the equation of the circle whose center is at (2,-3) and with radius 4

Solution

( x − 2) 2 + ( y + 3) 2 =
16
Then

x2 − 4 x + 4 + y 2 + 6 y + 9 =
16
x2 + y 2 − 4 x + 6 y − 3 =0
Important Note

For the circle x + y − 4x + 6 y − 3 =

2 2
0 we have

2h =
−4 2k =
6 d=
−3

Then h=
−2 k =
3 d=
−3

The center will be (2, − 3)

The radius will be R= 4 + 9 + 3= 1 =64
Example

Study the circle x 2 + y 2 + 8 x − 10 y + 5 =0

Solution

2h =
8 2k =
−10 d =
5

Then h=
4 k=
−5 d =
5

The center will be (−4,5)

The radius will be R= 16 + 25 − 5= 36= 6
Another solution By Completing The Squares

For the circle

x 2 + y 2 + 8 x − 10 y + 5 =0

Step 1: gather the similar terms

( x 2 + 8 x) + ( y 2 − 10 y ) + 5 =0

Step 2: take the square root of the squared terms

(x ) + (y )+5=0
Step 3: take half the coefficients of the linear terms then put the whole bracket
to be square (we still have another step)

( x + 4) + ( y − 5)
2 2
+5=0

Step 4: square the numbers inside the brackets and then subtract them outside it

( x + 4) 2 + ( y − 5) 2 − 16 − 25 + 5 =0

Thus (a, b) = (−4,5)

( x + 4) + ( y − 5) =
2
36 2

R=6
Example

Study the circle x2 + y 2 − 6 x + 3 y + 1 =0

Solution

Buy completing the square we get

( x 2 − 6 x) + ( y 2 + 3 y ) + 1 = 0
3 2 9
( x − 3) + ( y + ) − 9 − + 1 =
2
0 −3
2 4 (a, b) = (3, )
2
3 2 41
( x − 3) + ( y + ) =
2
41
2 4 R=
2
 Note
P2 = ( x2 , y2 )
=
For the points P1 (=
x1 , y1 ) , P2 ( x2 , y2 )

( x1 , y1 ) + ( x2 , y2 ) P1 = ( x1 , y1 )
The mid-point will be =
2

The distance between the points will be = ( x1 − x2 ) 2 + ( y1 − y2 ) 2

Example

Find the equation of the circle on which the points (2,-3) and (8,7) the end points
of a diameter of this circle

Solution

(2, −3) + (8,7)

=
The center will be ( a, b) = (5,2) (8,7)
2
The radius will be
( a, b)
1 136
=
R (2 − 8) 2 + (−3 − =
7) 2 (2, −3)
2 2
The equation of the circle will be
136
( x − 5) + ( y − 2) =
2 2

4
The equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin and focus on the positive
X-axis is

y 2 = 4a x

The distance between the vertex

and the focus is a a
(0,0)
(a,0)
The vertex will be at (0,0)

The focus will be at (a,0)

Example

y 2 = 12 x

then 4a = 12 a=3

The vertex will be at (0,0) (0,0) (3,0)

The focus will be at (3,0)

The equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin and focus on the negative
X-axis is

y 2 = −4a x

a
(0,0)
The vertex will be at (0,0) (−a,0)

The focus will be at (− a,0)

Also we have the following cases of the parabola with vertex at the origin and focus
on the Y-axis is

x 2 = 4a y x 2 = −4a y
(0,0)

(0, a ) a
a
(0, −a )
(0,0)

The vertex will be at (0,0) The vertex will be at (0,0)

The focus will be at (0, a ) The focus will be at (0, − a )
Example

x 2 = −8 y

then 4a = 8 a=2

(0, −2)
The vertex will be at (0,0)
The focus will be at (0, −2)
 Important note

For the equation

( y − k ) 2 = 4a ( x − h)
k
(h, k ) ( h + a, k )

(0,0)
The vertex will be at (h, k ) h h+a

The focus will be at (h + a, k )

Example

( y − 3) 2 = 16 ( x − 5)

then 4a = 16 a=4 3
(9,3)

=
also h 5=
, k 3 4

(0,0)
The vertex will be at (5,3) 5 5+4

The focus will be at (5 + 4,3) =

(9,3)
Example

( x − 1) 2= 12 ( y − 7) 7+3 (1,10)

3
then 4a = 12 a=3 7

=
also h 1=
, k 7

The vertex will be at (1,7) (0,0)

1
The focus will be at (1,7 + 3) =
(1,10)
Example

Study the equation of the parabola x 2 − 2 x − 12 y + 85 =

0

Solution

By using the method of completing of the square we get

x 2 − 2 x − 12 y + 85 =
0
( x 2 − 2 x) − 12 y + 85 =
0
( x − 1) 2 − 1 − 12 y + 85 =0 We will study the equation
( x − 1) 2 = 12 y − 84 ( x − 1) 2 = 12( y − 7)
( x − 1) 2 = 12( y − 7)
( x − 1) 2= 12 ( y − 7)
7+3 (1,10)

3
then 4a = 12 a=3 7

=
also h 1=
, k 7

The vertex will be at (1,7) (0,0)

1
The focus will be at (1,7 + 3) =
(1,10)
Example

Study the equation of the parabola y 2 + 4 y + 4 x − 16 =

0

Solution

By using the method of completing of the square we get

( y 2 + 4 y ) + 4 x − 16 =
0
( y + 2) 2 − 4 + 4 x − 16 =0
( y + 2) 2 =
−4 x + 20 We will study the equation

( y + 2) =
−4( x − 5)
2 ( y + 2) 2 =
−4( x − 5)
 ( y + 2) 2 =
−4( x − 5)

5 −1
(0,0) 1 5

then 4a = 4 a =1

also h = 5 , k = −2 (4, −2)

−2

The vertex will be at (5, −2)

The focus will be at (5 − 1, −2) = (4, −2)
Example

Find the equation of the parabola whose vertex is at (-2,5) and its focus
Is at the point (-2,8)

Solution

By sketching the parabola first

8
Then we can suppose the equation
a=3
to be on the form
( x − h) 2 = 4a ( y − k ) 5

but h =
−2 , k =
5 ,a=
3
−2
Then the equation is

( x + 2) 2 = 12( y − 5)
The equation of the Ellipse with center at the origin and foci on the X-axis is

x2 y 2
+ =
1 , a 2
> b 2

a 2 b2
The center will be at (0,0)

The distance between the centre

and each focus is c where c c
(−c,0) (c,0)
c=
2
a 2 − b2
The foci will be at (c,0) , (−c,0)
Example

x2 y 2
+ =
1
9 4
then a 2 =9 > b 2 =4

c2 = 9 − 4 = 5
5 5
then c= 5
(− 5,0) ( 5,0)
The center will be at (0,0)
The foci will be at ( 5,0) , (− 5,0)
Important notes

For the Ellipse

2 2
x y
+ = >
2 2 (0, b)
1 , a b
a 2 b2
b
The length of the major axis is 2a (−a,0) a (a,0)
The length of the minor axis is 2b
2 (0, −b)
b
The eccentricity is e = 1− 2 < 1
a
In the case of a= b= R we get

x2 y 2
x +y =
This is a circle with center
2
+ 2=
1 2
R 2 2
at the origin and radius R
R R

In this case R

b2 R2
e = 1− 2 = 1− 2 =0
a R
The equation of the Ellipse with center at the origin and foci on the Y-axis is

x2 y 2
+ =
1 , a 2
> b 2

b2 a 2
The center will be at (0,0)
(0, c)

The distance between the centre c

and each focus is c where

c=
2
a 2 − b2 c

(0, −c)
The foci will be at (0, c) , (0, −c)
 Another case of the Ellipse

( x − h) ( y − k)
2 2

+ 1 , a 2 > b2
= c c
a2 b2 k
(h, k )

The center will be at (h, k )

The foci will be at ( h + c, k ) , ( h − c, k ) (0,0)
h−c h h+c

where c=
2
a 2 − b2
Example

( x − 6) ( y − 7)
2 2

+ =
1 5
9 4 7

then a 2 =9 > b 2 =4
5
c =9−4 =5
2

(0,0) 6− 5 6 6+ 5
then c= 5
The center will be at (6,7)
The foci will be at (6 + 5,7) , (6 − 5,7)
 Example

Study the equation of the Ellipse 9 x 2 + 16 y 2 − 18 x + 64 y − 71 =

0
solution

By completing the square we get

(9 x 2 − 18 x) + (16 y 2 + 64 y ) − 71 =
0
9( x 2 − 2 x) + 16( y 2 + 4 y ) − 71 =
0
9 ( x − 1) 2 − 1 + 16 ( y + 2) 2 − 4  − 71 =
0
9( x − 1) 2 − 9 + 16( y + 2) 2 − 64 − 71 =0
9( x − 1) + 16( y + 2) =
2
144 2
÷144
 9( x − 1) 2 16( y + 2) 2
+ =
1
144 144 1− 7 7 1+ 7

( x − 1) 2 ( y + 2) 2
+ =
1 (0,0) 1
16 9
then a 2 = 16 > b 2 = 9 7
−2
c 2 = 16 − 9 = 7
then c= 7
The center will be at (1, −2)
The foci will be at (1 + 7, −2) , (1 − 7, −2)
 Example

Study the equation of the Ellipse 25 x 2 + 4 y 2 − 250 x − 16 y + 541 =

0
solution

By completing the square we get

25 x 2 + 4 y 2 − 250 x − 16 y + 541 =
0
25( x 2 − 10 x) + 4( y 2 − 4 y ) + 541 =
0
25 ( x − 5) 2 − 25 + 4 ( y − 2) 2 − 4  + 541 =
0
25( x − 5) − 625 + 4( y − 2) − 16 + 541 =
2 2
0
25( x − 5) 2 + 4( y − 2) 2 =
100 ÷100
 25( x − 5) 2 4( y − 2) 2
+ =
1
100 100
2 + 21
( x − 5) ( y − 2)
2 2
+ = 1 21
4 25 2
then a 2 = 25 > b 2 = 4
5
c = 25 − 4 = 21
2

2 − 21
then c = 21
The center will be at (5,2)
The foci will be at (5,2 + 21) , (5,2 − 21)
Example
The arch of a bridge is semi-elliptical, with the major axis horizontal. The base of
the arch is 30 feet across and the highest part is 10 feet above the horizontal
roadway. Find the height of the arch 6 feet from the center of the base.

Solution

We have

a = 15 10 y =?

b = 10 6

30
x2 y2
The equation of this Ellipse will be + =
1
225 100
36 y2
At x = 6 we have + =1 =y 84 ≈ 9.165
225 100
 Example
Halley’s comet has an elliptical orbit with the sun at one of its foci its eccentricity
is e=0.967. The closest distance between the comet and the sun is 0.587 AU
(Astronomical Unit). Approximate the maximum distance of the comet from the
sun.
Note: 1 AU = 93,000,000 miles

Solution

c
The position The position
0f a a 0f
maximum distance closest distance

The closest distance is a−c =0.587

The maximum distance is a+c=?
 Also c= a − b
2 2 2

 b 2

= a  1 − 2  = a 2e 2
2

 a 
Then c = ae
By using this result with a−c =0.587 we get
a − ae = 0.587
a (1 − e) =0.587 a = 17.788
But e = 0.967
0.587 c = 17.2
a=
1− e
Then the maximum distance is a=
+ c 17.788 + 17.2
= 34.988 ≈ 35 AU
Hyperbola

• Hyperbola: set of all

points where the
absolute value of the
difference of the
15

distance from any point

on the hyperbola to the
foci is contant
0 -10 10 20
 Two Standard Equations
• Vertical Hyperbola: ( y − k ) 2
( x − h ) 2

2
− 2
=
1
a b
– Foci: (h, - c + k ) and (h, c + k )
** To Find C , c= a + b ** 2 2 2

– Vertices: (h, -a + k ) and (h, a + k )

a
– Asymptote Slopes: ±
b
 Two Standard Equations
• Horizontal Hyperbola: ( x −2h) − ( y −2k ) =
2 2
1
a b
– Foci: (-c + h, k ) and (c + h, k )
** To Find C , c= a + b ** 2 2 2

– Vertices: (-a + h, k ) and a( + h, k )

b
– Asymptote Slopes: ±
a
Writing in Standard Form

1. Complete the
square for both the
x-terms and y-terms
and move the
constant to the
other side of the
equation
The first term will be
the positive term
2 2
 Example:
x 2 − 9 y 2 − 4 x + 54 y − 113 =
0

(x − 4 x) − (9 y − 54 y ) =
2 2
113 Group terms
(x − 4 x + __) − 9( y − 6 y + __) =
2 2
113 Complete the square
(x − 4 x + 4) − 9( y − 6 y + 9)= 113 + 4 + (−9)(9)
2 2

(x − 2) 2 − 9( y − 3) 2 =
36 Simplify Don’t forget to the
negative nine!
(x − 2) 2 9( y − 3) 2 36
− = Divide by Constant
36 36 36
(x − 2) 2 ( y − 3) 2
− =
1
36 4
 Graphing the hyperbola
1. Put equation in standard form
2. Graph the center (h, k)
3. Graph the foci (look at the equation to determine
your direction)
4. Graph the vertices
5. Graph the asymptotes (start at the center and
use “Rise over Run”)
6. Draw “U” shapes that go through the vertices and
stay in between the asymptotes
 (x − 2) ( y − 3)
2 2

Example: − =
1
36 4
6

1) Graph Center 4

(-4,3) (8,3)

2) Graph Foci (-4.32,3 ) (2,3) (8.32,3)

3) Graph Vertices
4) Graph Asymptotes
5) Graph
Hyperbola
 You Try! Write the following equation in
standard form, then graph it.
− x 2 + 4 y 2 − 6 x + 16 y − 29 =
0
4( y + 4 y + __) − ( x + 6 x + __) = 29 + 4(__) − __
2 2

4( y + 4 y + 4) − ( x + 6 x + 9)− =29 + 16 − 9
2 2

4( y − (−2)) 2 − ( x − (−3)) 2 =36

( y − (−2)) ( x − (−3))
2 2
− − =1 6

9 36
Center: (-3,-2) -10 -5 5

Foci: (-3, -8.71) & (-3, 4.71)

Vertices: (-3,-8) and (-3,4)
1
Asymptotes: ±
2
 Equation of a sphere
• Pythagoras hypotenuse
Theorem: c
b
a2 + b2 = c2
a

• Given a circle
through the origin
P
with radius r,
then for any point r
yp
P on it we have:
(0, 0) xp
x2 + y2 = r2
 Equation of a sphere
∗ If the circle is not centred on the origin:

We still have
yp P
(xp,yp) a2 + b2 = r2
b r
b
but
yc a
(xc,yc) a = xp- xc

b = yp- yc

(0, 0) xc xp
a
So for the general case (x- xc)2 + (y- yc)2 = r2
Equation of a sphere
∗ Pythagoras theorem generalises to 3D giving

a2 + b2 + c2 = d2 Based on that we can easily

prove that the general equation of a sphere is:

(x- xc)2 + (y- yc)2 + (z- zc)2 = r2

and at origin: x2 + y2 + z2 = r2
 Geometric transformations in three-dimensional space
(2)
• Three-dimensional translation
– A point P (x,y,z) in three-dimensional space translate to new
location with the translation distance T (tx, ty, tz)
x' = x + t x y' = y + t y z' = z + t z
– In matrix format
 x'  1 0 0 t x  x
     
 y' = 0 1 0 t y  y
⋅ P' = T ⋅ P
 z'  0 0 1 t z  z
     
 1  0 0 0 1   1
 Geometric transformations in three-dimensional space
(3)
• Three-dimensional scaling
– Relative to the coordinate origin, just include the parameter
for z coordinate scaling in the transformation matrix
 x '  s x 0 0 0  x 
     
 y' =  0 sy 0 0  y 
⋅ P' = S ⋅ P
 z'  0 0 sz 0 z

     
 1  0 0 0 1  1
– Relative to a fixed point (xf, yf zf)
• Perform a translate-scaling-translate composite transformation

t( x f , y f , z f ) ⋅ S(s x , s y , s z ) ⋅ T( − x f ,− y f ,− z f )
s x 0 0 (1 − s x )x f 
 
0 sy 0 (1 − s y )y f 
=
0 0 sz (1 − s z )z f 
 
0 0 0 1 
Geometric transformations in three-dimensional space (4)

• Three-dimensional rotation definition

– Assume looking in the negative direction along the
axis
– Positive angle rotation produce counterclockwise
rotations
about a coordinate axis
 Geometric transformations in three-dimensional space
(5)

• Three-dimensional coordinate-axis rotation

– Z-axis rotation equations
Rz
x' = x cos θ − y sinθ  x' cos θ − sinθ 0 0  x 
     
y' = x sinθ + y cos θ  y' =  sinθ cos θ 0 0  y 
⋅
z' = z  z'  0 0 1 0 z

     
 1  0 0 0 1  1
– Transformation equations for rotation about the other two coordinate axes
can be obtained by a cyclic permutation
x  y  z  x
– X-axis rotation equations 1 0 0 0
y' = y cos θ − z sinθ 0 cosθ − sin θ 0
z' = y sinθ + z cos θ R x = Rx (θ ) = 
0 sin θ cosθ 0
x' = x
 
0 0 0 1
 Geometric transformations in three-dimensional space
(6)

• Three-dimensional coordinate-axis rotation

– Y-axis rotation equations  cosθ 0 sin θ 0
z' = z cos θ − x sinθ  0 1 0 0
x' = z sinθ + x cos θ R y = R y (θ ) = 
y' = y − sin θ 0 cosθ 0
 
– General Three-dimensional rotations  0 0 0 1
• Translate object so that the rotation axis coincides with the parallel coordinate
axis
• Perform the specified rotation about that axis
• Translate object back to the original position
P' = T −1 ⋅ R x (θ ) ⋅ T ⋅ P
R(θ ) = T −1 ⋅ R x (θ ) ⋅ T
 Polar ,Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates

• In plane geometry the polar coordinate

system is used to give a convenient
description of certain curves and
regions.

• Figure 1 enables us to recall the

connection between polar and
Cartesian coordinates. If the point
P has Cartesian coordinates (x, y)
and polar coordinates (r, θ ), then, Figure 1
from the figure,
• x = r cos θ y = r sin θ
• r2 = x2 + y2 tan θ =
 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates

• In three dimensions there are two coordinate

systems that are similar to polar coordinates
and give convenient descriptions of some
commonly occurring surfaces and solids.

• They will be especially useful when we

compute volumes and triple integrals.
Cylindrical Coordinates
 Cylindrical Coordinates

• In the cylindrical coordinate system,

a point P in three-dimensional space
is represented by the ordered triple (r,
θ, z), where r and θ are polar
coordinates of the projection of P
onto the xy-plane and z is the directed
distance from the xy-plane to P. (See
Figure 2.)
Figure 2
 Cylindrical Coordinates
• To convert from cylindrical to Cartesian coordinates, we
use the equations

• whereas to convert from Cartesian to cylindrical

coordinates, we use

• whereas to convert from rectangular to cylindrical

coordinates, we use
 Example 1 – Converting Between Cylindrical and cartesian Coordinates

• (a) Plot the point with cylindrical coordinates (2, 2π/3, 1) and
find its rectangular coordinates.
• (b) Find cylindrical coordinates of the point with rectangular
coordinates (3, –3, –7).
• Solution:
• (a) The point with cylindrical coordinates (2, 2π/3, 1) is
plotted in Figure 3.

Figure 3
 cont’d
Example 1 – Solution
• From Equations 1, its Cartesian coordinates are

• Thus the point is (–1, , 1) in Cartesian

coordinates.
 cont’d
Example 1 – Solution
• (b) From Equations 2 we have

• so

• Therefore one set of cylindrical coordinates is

( , 7π/4, –7). Another is ( , –π/4, –7). As with
polar coordinates, there are infinitely many choices.
Spherical Coordinates
Spherical Coordinates
• The spherical coordinates (ρ, θ, φ) of
a point P in space are shown in Figure
6, where ρ = | OP | is the distance from
the origin to P, θ is the same angle as
in cylindrical coordinates, and φ is the
angle between the positive z-axis and
the line segment OP.
• Note that
• ρ≥0 0≤φ≤π
• The spherical coordinate system
is especially useful in problems
where there is symmetry about a
point, and the origin is placed at
this point. Figure 6

The spherical coordinates of a point

Spherical Coordinates
• The relationship between
rectangular and spherical
coordinates can be seen from
Figure 10.

• From triangles OPQ and OPP ′

we have
• z = ρ cos φ r = ρ sin φ

Figure 10
Spherical Coordinates
• But x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ, so to
convert from spherical to Cartesian
coordinates, we use the equations

• Also, the distance formula shows that

• We use this equation in converting

from rectangular to spherical
coordinates.
Example 4 – Converting from Spherical to Rectangular Coordinates

• The point (2, π/4, π/3) is

given in spherical
coordinates. Plot the point
and find its rectangular
coordinates.

• Solution:
• We plot the point in Figure
11.
Figure 11
 cont’d
Example 4 – Solution
• From Equations 3 we have

• x = ρ sin φ cos θ

• y = ρ sin φ sin θ

• z = ρ cos φ
 Two-Dimensional Geometric
Transformations
1-A two dimensional transformation is any
operation on a point in space (x, y) that
maps that point's coordinates into a new
set of coordinates (x’, y’).
2-Instead of applying a transformation to
every point in every line that makes up an
object, the transformation is applied only
to the vertices of the object and then new
lines are drawn between the resulting
endpoints.
 Two-Dimensional Geometric
Transformations

• Basic Transformations
• Translation
• Rotation

Transformation include change in size, shape & orientation

 Translation

• Translation transformation
x = x + tx
'
y '
= y + ty
• Translation vector or shift vector T = (tx, ty)
• Rigid-body transformation
• Moves objects without deformation
y y

P’
T
T
p
x
x
 Matrix
Translation matrix
Representation

Row vector representation

P = (x, y) T = (tx ty) P = (x, y) x ‘ = x + tx

y’ = y + ty

P’= (x’, y’) P’ = P + T

 Rotation
Repositioning along a circular path in
the xy plane y
P’

yr ө
P

xr

(xr, yr) is the rotation point ө is the rotation angle

 Rotation

• Rotation transformation
x=rcos φ y=rsin φ
x’=rcos(φ+θ)= rcos φ cos θ -rsin φ sin θ

y’=rsin(φ + θ)= rcos φ sin θ +rsin φ cos θ

(x’, y’)
x’ = x cos ө - y sin ө P’
r (x, y)
y’ = x sin ө + y Cos ө ө r P
Φ

P’= R· P cosθ − sin θ 

R= 
 sin θ cosθ 