SEKOLAH

BERASRAMA PENUH INTEGRASI PEKAN

PROJECTWORK FOR
ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS
2009

Osman bin Safee

920902-06-5301

5 Jaguh

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT DIVISION MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

MALAYSIA
 SEKOLAH
BERASRAMA PENUH INTEGRASI PEKAN

circle
PROJECTWORK FOR
ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS
2009

Osman bin Safee

920902-06-5301

5 Jaguh

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT DIVISION MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

MALAYSIA
 CONTENT

iTEM PAGES
Appreciation 01
Introduction 02
-history
-advanced properties
Aim 20
Part 1 21
Part 2 24
Part 3 28
Conclusion 30
-part 1
-part 2
-part 3
References 31
 APPRECIATION

First of all, I would like to say Alhamdulillah, for giving me the strength and health to do

this project work. Not forgotten my parents for providing everything, such as money, to

buy anything that are related to this project work and their advise, which is the most

needed for this project. Internet, books, computers and all that. They also supported me

and encouraged me to complete this task so that I will not procrastinate in doing it. Then I

would like to express my gratitude to my teacher, Miss Elissa for guiding me and my friends

throughout this project. We had some difficulties in doing this task, but she taught us

patiently until

we knew what to do. She tried and tried to teach us until we understand what we

supposed to do with the project work. Last but not least, my friends who were doing this

project with me and sharing our ideas. They were helpful that when we combined and

discussed together, we had this task done.

 INTRODUCTION

A circle is a simple shape of Euclidean geometry consisting of those points in a plane which
are the same distance from a given point called the centre. The common distance of the
points of a circle from its center is called its radius. A diameter is a line segment whose
endpoints lie on the circle and which passes through the centre of the circle. The length of a
diameter is twice the length of the radius. A circle is never a polygon because it has no sides
or vertices.

Circles are simple closed curves which divide the plane into two regions, an interior and an
exterior. In everyday use the term "circle" may be used interchangeably to refer to either the
boundary of the figure (known as the perimeter) or to the whole figure including its interior,
but in strict technical usage "circle" refers to the perimeter while the interior of the circle is
called a disk. The circumference of a circle is the perimeter of the circle (especially when
referring to its length).

A circle is a special ellipse in which the two foci are coincident. Circles are conic sections
attained when a right circular cone is intersected with a plane perpendicular to the axis of
the cone.

The circle has been known since before the beginning of recorded history. It is the basis for the
wheel, which, with related inventions such as gears, makes much of modern civilization possible. In
mathematics, the study of the circle has helped inspire the development of geometry and calculus.

Early science, particularly geometry and Astrology and astronomy, was connected to the divine for
most medieval scholars, and many believed that there was something intrinsically "divine" or
"perfect" that could be found in circles.

Some highlights in the history of the circle are:

 1700 BC – The Rhind papyrus gives a method to find the area of a circular field. The result
corresponds to 256/81 as an approximate value of π. [1]
 300 BC – Book 3 of Euclid's Elements deals with the properties of circles.
 1880 – Lindemann proves that π is transcendental, effectively settling the millennia-old
problem of squaring the circle[2]
The letter π

The name of the Greek letter π is pi, and this spelling is commonly used in typographical
contexts when the Greek letter is not available, or its usage could be problematic. It is not
normally capitalised (Π) even at the beginning of a sentence. When referring to this
constant, the symbol π is always pronounced like "pie" in English, which is the conventional
English pronunciation of the Greek letter. In Greek, the name of this letter is pronounced
/pi/.

The constant is named "π" because "π" is the first letter of the Greek words περιφέρεια
(periphery) and περίμετρος (perimeter), probably referring to its use in the formula to find
the circumference, or perimeter, of a circle. [3] π is Unicode character U+03C0 ("Greek small
letter pi").[4]

Definition

In Euclidean plane geometry, π is defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference to its

diameter:[3]

The ratio C/d is constant, regardless of a circle's size. For example, if a circle has twice the
diameter d of another circle it will also have twice the circumference C, preserving the ratio
C
/ d.

Alternatively π can be also defined as the ratio of a circle's area (A) to the area of a square
whose side is equal to the radius:[3][5]

These definitions depend on results of Euclidean geometry, such as the fact that all circles
are similar. This can be considered a problem when π occurs in areas of mathematics that
otherwise do not involve geometry. For this reason, mathematicians often prefer to define π
without reference to geometry, instead selecting one of its analytic properties as a
definition. A common choice is to define π as twice the smallest positive x for which
cos(x) = 0.[6] The formulas below illustrate other (equivalent) definitions.
Irrationality and transcendence

Being an irrational number, π cannot be written as the ratio of two integers. This was proved
in 1768 by Johann Heinrich Lambert.[7] In the 20th century, proofs were found that require
no prerequisite knowledge beyond integral calculus. One of those, due to Ivan Niven, is
widely known.[8][9] A somewhat earlier similar proof is by Mary Cartwright.[10]

Furthermore, π is also transcendental, as was proved by Ferdinand von Lindemann in 1882.

This means that there is no polynomial with rational coefficients of which π is a root.[11] An
important consequence of the transcendence of π is the fact that it is not constructible.
Because the coordinates of all points that can be constructed with compass and straightedge
are constructible numbers, it is impossible to square the circle: that is, it is impossible to
construct, using compass and straightedge alone, a square whose area is equal to the area of
a given circle.[12] This is historically significant, for squaring a circle is one of the easily
understood elementary geometry problems left to us from antiquity; many amateurs in
modern times have attempted to solve each of these problems, and their efforts are
sometimes ingenious, but in this case, doomed to failure: a fact not always understood by
the amateur involved.

Numerical value

The numerical value of π truncated to 50 decimal places is:[13]

3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 41971 69399 37510

While the value of π has been computed to more than a trillion (1012) digits,[14] elementary
applications, such as calculating the circumference of a circle, will rarely require more than a
dozen decimal places. For example, a value truncated to 11 decimal places is accurate
enough to calculate the circumference of a circle the size of the earth with a precision of a
millimeter, and one truncated to 39 decimal places is sufficient to compute the
circumference of any circle that fits in the observable universe to a precision comparable to
the size of a hydrogen atom.[15][16]

Because π is an irrational number, its decimal expansion never ends and does not repeat.
This infinite sequence of digits has fascinated mathematicians and laymen alike, and much
effort over the last few centuries has been put into computing more digits and investigating
the number's properties.[17] Despite much analytical work, and supercomputer calculations
that have determined over 1 trillion digits of π, no simple base-10 pattern in the digits has
ever been found.[18] Digits of π are available on many web pages, and there is software for
calculating π to billions of digits on any personal computer.
Calculating π

π can be empirically estimated by drawing a large circle, then measuring its diameter and
circumference and dividing the circumference by the diameter. Another geometry-based
approach, due to Archimedes,[19] is to calculate the perimeter, Pn , of a regular polygon with
n sides circumscribed around a circle with diameter d. Then

That is, the more sides the polygon has, the closer the approximation approaches π.
Archimedes determined the accuracy of this approach by comparing the perimeter of the
circumscribed polygon with the perimeter of a regular polygon with the same number of
sides inscribed inside the circle. Using a polygon with 96 sides, he computed the fractional
range: .[20]

π can also be calculated using purely mathematical methods. Most formulae used for
calculating the value of π have desirable mathematical properties, but are difficult to
understand without a background in trigonometry and calculus. However, some are quite
simple, such as this form of the Gregory-Leibniz series:[21]

While that series is easy to write and calculate, it is not immediately obvious why it yields π.
In addition, this series converges so slowly that 300 terms are not sufficient to calculate π
correctly to 2 decimal places.[22] However, by computing this series in a somewhat more
clever way by taking the midpoints of partial sums, it can be made to converge much faster.
Let

and then define

then computing π10,10 will take similar computation time to computing 150 terms of the
original series in a brute-force manner, and , correct to 9
decimal places. This computation is an example of the van Wijngaarden transformation.[23]
History
See also: Chronology of computation of π and Numerical approximations of π

The history of π parallels the development of mathematics as a whole. [24] Some authors
divide progress into three periods: the ancient period during which π was studied
geometrically, the classical era following the development of calculus in Europe around the
17th century, and the age of digital computers.[25]

Geometrical period

That the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle is the same for all circles, and
that it is slightly more than 3, was known to ancient Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian and Greek
geometers. The earliest known approximations date from around 1900 BC; they are 25/8
(Babylonia) and 256/81 (Egypt), both within 1% of the true value.[3] The Indian text
Shatapatha Brahmana gives π as 339/108 ≈ 3.139. The Hebrew Bible appears to suggest, in
the Book of Kings, that π = 3, which is notably worse than other estimates available at the
time of writing (600 BC). The interpretation of the passage is disputed, [26][27] as some believe
the ratio of 3:1 is of an interior circumference to an exterior diameter of a thinly walled
basin, which could indeed be an accurate ratio, depending on the thickness of the walls.
Liu Hui's π algorithm

Archimedes (287–212 BC) was the first to estimate π rigorously. He realized that its
magnitude can be bounded from below and above by inscribing circles in regular polygons
and calculating the outer and inner polygons' respective perimeters: [27]

By using the equivalent of 96-sided polygons, he proved that 223/71 < π < 22/7.[27] Taking the
average of these values yields 3.1419.

In the following centuries further development took place in India and China. Around AD
265, the Wei Kingdom mathematician Liu Hui provided a simple and rigorous iterative
algorithm to calculate π to any degree of accuracy. He himself carried through the
calculation to a 3072-gon and obtained an approximate value for π of 3.1416, as follows:

π ≈ A3072 = 3 ⋅ 28 ⋅ √(2 - √(2 + √(2 + √(2 + √(2 + √(2 + √(2 + √(2 + √(2 + 1)))))))))

  ≈ 3.14159.

Later, Liu Hui invented a quick method of calculating π and obtained an approximate value
of 3.1416 with only a 96-gon, by taking advantage of the fact that the difference in area of
successive polygons forms a geometric series with a factor of 4.

Around 480, the Chinese mathematician Zu Chongzhi demonstrated that π ≈ 355/113, and
showed that 3.1415926 < π < 3.1415927 using Liu Hui's algorithm applied to a 12288-gon.
This value was the most accurate approximation of π available for the next 900 years.

Classical period
Until the second millennium, π was known to fewer than 10 decimal digits. The next major
advance in π studies came with the development of calculus, and in particular the discovery
of infinite series which in principle permit calculating π to any desired accuracy by adding
sufficiently many terms. Around 1400, Madhava of Sangamagrama found the first known
such series:

This is now known as the Madhava–Leibniz series[28][29] or Gregory-Leibniz series since it was
rediscovered by James Gregory and Gottfried Leibniz in the 17th century. Unfortunately, the
rate of convergence is too slow to calculate many digits in practice; about 4,000 terms must
be summed to improve upon Archimedes' estimate. However, by transforming the series
into

Madhava was able to calculate π as 3.14159265359, correct to 11 decimal places. The record
was beaten in 1424 by the Persian mathematician, Jamshīd al-Kāshī, who determined 16
decimals of π.

The first major European contribution since Archimedes was made by the German
mathematician Ludolph van Ceulen (1540–1610), who used a geometric method to compute
35 decimals of π. He was so proud of the calculation, which required the greater part of his
life, that he had the digits engraved into his tombstone.[30]

Around the same time, the methods of calculus and determination of infinite series and
products for geometrical quantities began to emerge in Europe. The first such
representation was the Viète's formula,

found by François Viète in 1593. Another famous result is Wallis' product,

by John Wallis in 1655. Isaac Newton himself derived a series for π and calculated 15 digits,
although he later confessed: "I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures I carried these
computations, having no other business at the time."[31]
In 1706 John Machin was the first to compute 100 decimals of π, using the formula

with

Formulas of this type, now known as Machin-like formulas, were used to set several
successive records and remained the best known method for calculating π well into the age
of computers. A remarkable record was set by the calculating prodigy Zacharias Dase, who in
1844 employed a Machin-like formula to calculate 200 decimals of π in his head at the
behest of Gauss. The best value at the end of the 19th century was due to William Shanks,
who took 15 years to calculate π with 707 digits, although due to a mistake only the first 527
were correct. (To avoid such errors, modern record calculations of any kind are often
performed twice, with two different formulas. If the results are the same, they are likely to
be correct.)

Theoretical advances in the 18th century led to insights about π's nature that could not be
achieved through numerical calculation alone. Johann Heinrich Lambert proved the
irrationality of π in 1761, and Adrien-Marie Legendre also proved in 1794 π2 to be irrational.
When Leonhard Euler in 1735 solved the famous Basel problem – finding the exact value of

which is π2/6, he established a deep connection between π and the prime numbers. Both
Legendre and Leonhard Euler speculated that π might be transcendental, which was finally
proved in 1882 by Ferdinand von Lindemann.

William Jones' book A New Introduction to Mathematics from 1706 is said to be the first use
of the Greek letter π for this constant, but the notation became particularly popular after
Leonhard Euler adopted it in 1737.[32] He wrote: There are various other ways of finding the
Lengths or Areas of particular Curve Lines, or Planes, which may very much facilitate the
Practice; as for instance, in the Circle, the Diameter is to the Circumference as 1 to

(16/5 − 4/239) − 1/3(16/53 − 4/2393) + ... = 3.14159... = π[3]}

Computation in the computer age

The advent of digital computers in the 20th century led to an increased rate of new π
calculation records. John von Neumann et. al. used ENIAC to compute 2037 digits of π in
1949, a calculation that took 70 hours. [33][34] Additional thousands of decimal places were
obtained in the following decades, with the million-digit milestone passed in 1973. Progress
was not only due to faster hardware, but also new algorithms. One of the most significant
developments was the discovery of the fast Fourier transform (FFT) in the 1960s, which
allows computers to perform arithmetic on extremely large numbers quickly.

In the beginning of the 20th century, the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan found
many new formulas for π, some remarkable for their elegance and mathematical depth. [35]
One of his formulas is the series,

and the related one found by the Chudnovsky brothers in 1987,

which deliver 14 digits per term.[35] The Chudnovskys used this formula to set several π
computing records in the end of the 1980s, including the first calculation of over one billion
(1,011,196,691) decimals in 1989. It remains the formula of choice for π calculating software
that runs on personal computers, as opposed to the supercomputers used to set modern
records.

Whereas series typically increase the accuracy with a fixed amount for each added term,
there exist iterative algorithms that multiply the number of correct digits at each step, with
the downside that each step generally requires an expensive calculation. A breakthrough
was made in 1975, when Richard Brent and Eugene Salamin independently discovered the
Brent–Salamin algorithm, which uses only arithmetic to double the number of correct digits
at each step.[36] The algorithm consists of setting

and iterating
until an and bn are close enough. Then the estimate for π is given by

Using this scheme, 25 iterations suffice to reach 45 million correct decimals. A similar
algorithm that quadruples the accuracy in each step has been found by Jonathan and Peter
Borwein.[37] The methods have been used by Yasumasa Kanada and team to set most of the π
calculation records since 1980, up to a calculation of 206,158,430,000 decimals of π in 1999.
The current record is 1,241,100,000,000 decimals, set by Kanada and team in 2002. Although
most of Kanada's previous records were set using the Brent-Salamin algorithm, the 2002
calculation made use of two Machin-like formulas that were slower but crucially reduced
memory consumption. The calculation was performed on a 64-node Hitachi supercomputer
with 1 terabyte of main memory, capable of carrying out 2 trillion operations per second.

An important recent development was the Bailey–Borwein–Plouffe formula (BBP formula),

discovered by Simon Plouffe and named after the authors of the paper in which the formula
was first published, David H. Bailey, Peter Borwein, and Plouffe.[38] The formula,

is remarkable because it allows extracting any individual hexadecimal or binary digit of π

without calculating all the preceding ones.[38] Between 1998 and 2000, the distributed
computing project PiHex used a modification of the BBP formula due to Fabrice Bellard to
compute the quadrillionth (1,000,000,000,000,000:th) bit of π, which turned out to be 0. [39]

In 2006, Simon Plouffe, using the integer relation algorithm PSLQ, found a series of beautiful
formulas.[40] Let q = eπ, then

and others of form,

where q = eπ, k is an odd number, and a, b, c are rational numbers. If k is of the form 4m + 3,
then the formula has the particularly simple form,

for some rational number p where the denominator is a highly factorable number, though
no rigorous proof has yet been given.
Memorizing digits

Recent decades have seen a surge in the record for number of digits memorized.

Even long before computers have calculated π, memorizing a record number of digits
became an obsession for some people. In 2006, Akira Haraguchi, a retired Japanese
engineer, claimed to have recited 100,000 decimal places. [41] This, however, has yet to be
verified by Guinness World Records. The Guinness-recognized record for remembered digits
of π is 67,890 digits, held by Lu Chao, a 24-year-old graduate student from China.[42] It took
him 24 hours and 4 minutes to recite to the 67,890th decimal place of π without an error. [43]

There are many ways to memorize π, including the use of "piems", which are poems that
represent π in a way such that the length of each word (in letters) represents a digit. Here is
an example of a piem, originally devised by Sir James Jeans: How I need (or: want) a drink,
alcoholic in nature (or: of course), after the heavy lectures (or: chapters) involving quantum
mechanics.[44][45] Notice how the first word has 3 letters, the second word has 1, the third has
4, the fourth has 1, the fifth has 5, and so on. The Cadaeic Cadenza contains the first 3834
digits of π in this manner.[46] Piems are related to the entire field of humorous yet serious
study that involves the use of mnemonic techniques to remember the digits of π, known as
piphilology. In other languages there are similar methods of memorization. However, this
method proves inefficient for large memorizations of π. Other methods include
remembering patterns in the numbers.[47]
Advanced properties
Numerical approximations

Due to the transcendental nature of π, there are no closed form expressions for the number
in terms of algebraic numbers and functions.[11] Formulas for calculating π using elementary
arithmetic typically include series or summation notation (such as "..."), which indicates that
the formula is really a formula for an infinite sequence of approximations to π. [48] The more
terms included in a calculation, the closer to π the result will get.

Consequently, numerical calculations must use approximations of π. For many purposes,

3.14 or 22/7 is close enough, although engineers often use 3.1416 (5 significant figures) or
3.14159 (6 significant figures) for more precision. The approximations 22/7 and 355/113, with 3
and 7 significant figures respectively, are obtained from the simple continued fraction
expansion of π. The approximation 355⁄113 (3.1415929…) is the best one that may be expressed
with a three-digit or four-digit numerator and denominator.[49][50][51]

The earliest numerical approximation of π is almost certainly the value 3.[27] In cases where
little precision is required, it may be an acceptable substitute. That 3 is an underestimate
follows from the fact that it is the ratio of the perimeter of an inscribed regular hexagon to
the diameter of the circle.

Open questions

The most pressing open question about π is whether it is a normal number—whether any
digit block occurs in the expansion of π just as often as one would statistically expect if the
digits had been produced completely "randomly", and that this is true in every base, not just
base 10.[52] Current knowledge on this point is very weak; e.g., it is not even known which of
the digits 0,…,9 occur infinitely often in the decimal expansion of π. [53]

Bailey and Crandall showed in 2000 that the existence of the above mentioned Bailey-
Borwein-Plouffe formula and similar formulas imply that the normality in base 2 of π and
various other constants can be reduced to a plausible conjecture of chaos theory.[54]

It is also unknown whether π and e are algebraically independent, although Yuri Nesterenko
proved the algebraic independence of {π, eπ, Γ(1/4)} in 1996.[55]
Use in mathematics and science
Main article: List of formulas involving π

π is ubiquitous in mathematics, appearing even in places that lack an obvious connection to

the circles of Euclidean geometry.[56]

Geometry and trigonometry

See also: Area of a disk

For any circle with radius r and diameter d = 2r, the circumference is πd and the area is πr2.
Further, π appears in formulas for areas and volumes of many other geometrical shapes
based on circles, such as ellipses, spheres, cones, and tori.[57] Accordingly, π appears in
definite integrals that describe circumference, area or volume of shapes generated by
circles. In the basic case, half the area of the unit disk is given by:[58]

and

gives half the circumference of the unit circle.[57] More complicated shapes can be integrated
as solids of revolution.[59]

From the unit-circle definition of the trigonometric functions also follows that the sine and
cosine have period 2π. That is, for all x and integers n, sin(x) = sin(x + 2πn) and cos(x) = cos(x
+ 2πn). Because sin(0) = 0, sin(2πn) = 0 for all integers n. Also, the angle measure of 180° is
equal to π radians. In other words, 1° = (π/180) radians.

In modern mathematics, π is often defined using trigonometric functions, for example as the
smallest positive x for which sin x = 0, to avoid unnecessary dependence on the subtleties of
Euclidean geometry and integration. Equivalently, π can be defined using the inverse
trigonometric functions, for example as π = 2 arccos(0) or π = 4 arctan(1). Expanding inverse
trigonometric functions as power series is the easiest way to derive infinite series for π.
 Complex numbers and calculus

Euler's formula depicted on the complex plane. Increasing the angle φ to π radians (180°) yields
Euler's identity.

A complex number z can be expressed in polar coordinates as follows:

The frequent appearance of π in complex analysis can be related to the behavior of the
exponential function of a complex variable, described by Euler's formula

where i is the imaginary unit satisfying i2 = −1 and e ≈ 2.71828 is Euler's number. This formula
implies that imaginary powers of e describe rotations on the unit circle in the complex plane;
these rotations have a period of 360° = 2π. In particular, the 180° rotation φ = π results in
the remarkable Euler's identity

There are n different n-th roots of unity

The Gaussian integral

A consequence is that the gamma function of a half-integer is a rational multiple of √π.

Physics
Although not a physical constant, π appears routinely in equations describing fundamental
principles of the Universe, due in no small part to its relationship to the nature of the circle
and, correspondingly, spherical coordinate systems. Using units such as Planck units can
sometimes eliminate π from formulae.

 The cosmological constant:[60]

 Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which shows that the uncertainty in the measurement of
a particle's position (Δx) and momentum (Δp) can not both be arbitrarily small at the same
time:[61]

 Einstein's field equation of general relativity:[62]

 Coulomb's law for the electric force, describing the force between two electric charges (q1
and q2) separated by distance r:[63]

 Magnetic permeability of free space:[64]

 Kepler's third law constant, relating the orbital period (P) and the semimajor axis (a) to the
masses (M and m) of two co-orbiting bodies:

Probability and statistics

In probability and statistics, there are many distributions whose formulas contain π,
including:
  the probability density function for the normal distribution with mean μ and standard
deviation σ, due to the Gaussian integral:[65]

 the probability density function for the (standard) Cauchy distribution:[66]

Note that since for any probability density function f(x), the above
formulas can be used to produce other integral formulas for π. [67]

Buffon's needle problem is sometimes quoted as a empirical approximation of π in "popular

mathematics" works. Consider dropping a needle of length L repeatedly on a surface
containing parallel lines drawn S units apart (with S > L). If the needle is dropped n times and
x of those times it comes to rest crossing a line (x > 0), then one may approximate π using
the Monte Carlo method:[68][69][70][71]

Though this result is mathematically impeccable, it cannot be used to determine more than
very few digits of π by experiment. Reliably getting just three digits (including the initial "3")
right requires millions of throws,[68] and the number of throws grows exponentially with the
number of digits desired. Furthermore, any error in the measurement of the lengths L and S
will transfer directly to an error in the approximated π. For example, a difference of a single
atom in the length of a 10-centimeter needle would show up around the 9th digit of the
result. In practice, uncertainties in determining whether the needle actually crosses a line
when it appears to exactly touch it will limit the attainable accuracy to much less than 9
digits.

Pi in popular culture
 A whimsical "Pi plate".

Probably because of the simplicity of its definition, the concept of pi and, especially its
decimal expression, have become entrenched in popular culture to a degree far greater than
almost any other mathematical construct.[72] It is, perhaps, the most common ground
between mathematicians and non-mathematicians.[73] Reports on the latest, most-precise
calculation of π (and related stunts) are common news items.[74] Pi Day (March 14, from 3.14)
is observed in many schools.[75] At least one cheer at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology includes "3.14159!"[76] One can buy a "Pi plate": a pie dish with both "π" and a
decimal expression of it appearing on it.[77]

AIM
 o Develops mathematical knowledge in a way which increases students confidence
o Apply mathematics to everyday situations and begin to understand the part that
mathematics play in the world in world we live.
o Improve thinking skills and promote effective mathematical communication
o Assists students to develop positive attitude and personalities, intrinsic mathematical values
such as accuracy, confidence and systematic reasoning.
o Stimulate learning and enhance effective learning.

Part 1
 There are a lot of things around us related to circles or parts of a circles. We need to play with
circles in order to complete some of the problems involving circles. In this project I will use the
principles of circle to design a garden to beautify the school.

Wheel of a bicycle Circles on water surface wall clock

Round table ball plate

coin

Definition
In Euclidean plane geometry, π is defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference to its

diameter:

The ratio C/d is constant, regardless of a circle's size. For example, if a circle has twice the diameter
d of another circle it will also have twice the circumference C, preserving the ratio C/d.

Area of the circle = π × area of the shaded square

Alternatively π can be also defined as the ratio of a circle's area (A) to the area of a square whose
side is equal to the radius:[3][5]

These definitions depend on results of Euclidean geometry, such as the fact that all circles are
similar. This can be considered a problem when π occurs in areas of mathematics that otherwise do
not involve geometry. For this reason, mathematicians often prefer to define π without reference to
geometry, instead selecting one of its analytic properties as a definition. A common choice is to
define π as twice the smallest positive x for which cos(x) = 0.[6] The formulas below illustrate other
(equivalent) definitions.

History
 The ancient Babylonians calculated the area of a circle by taking 3 times the square of its radius,
which gave a value of pi = 3. One Babylonian tablet (ca. 1900–1680 BC) indicates a value of 3.125 for
pi, which is a closer approximation.

In the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus (ca.1650 BC), there is evidence that the Egyptians calculated the area
of a circle by a formula that gave the approximate value of 3.1605 for pi.

The ancient cultures mentioned above found their approximations by measurement. The first
calculation of pi was done by Archimedes of Syracuse (287–212 BC), one of the greatest
mathematicians of the ancient world. Archimedes approximated the area of a circle by using the
Pythagorean Theorem to find the areas of two regular polygons: the polygon inscribed within the
circle and the polygon within which the circle was circumscribed. Since the actual area of the circle
lies between the areas of the inscribed and circumscribed polygons, the areas of the polygons gave
upper and lower bounds for the area of the circle. Archimedes knew that he had not found the value
of pi but only an approximation within those limits. In this way, Archimedes showed that pi is
between 3 1/7 and 3 10/71.

A similar approach was used by Zu Chongzhi (429–501), a brilliant Chinese mathematician and
astronomer. Zu Chongzhi would not have been familiar with Archimedes’ method—but because his
book has been lost, little is known of his work. He calculated the value of the ratio of the
circumference of a circle to its diameter to be 355/113. To compute this accuracy for pi, he must
have started with an inscribed regular 24,576-gon and performed lengthy calculations involving
hundreds of square roots carried out to 9 decimal places.

Mathematicians began using the Greek letter π in the 1700s. Introduced by William Jones in 1706,
use of the symbol was popularized by Euler, who adopted it in 1737.
An 18th century French mathematician named Georges Buffon devised a way to calculate pi based on
probability.
 Q
Part 2 (a)
C

P R
B
d1 d2
10 cm

Diagram 1 shows a semicircle PQR of diameter 10cm. Semicircles PAB and BCR of diameter d1 and d2
respectively are inscribed in PQR such that the sum of d1 and d2 is equal to 10cm. By using various
values of d1 and corresponding values of d2, I determine the relation between length of arc PQR, PAB,
and BCR.

Using formula: Arc of semicircle = ½πd

d1 d 2 (cm) Length of arc PQR in terms Length of arc PAB in Length of arc BCR
(cm) of π (cm) terms of π (cm) in terms of π (cm)

0.5 9.5 5 ¼ 19/4

1.0 9.0 5 ½ 9/2
1.5 8.5 5 ¾ 17/4
2.0 8.0 5 π 4
2.5 7.5 5 5/4 15/4
3.0 7.0 5 3/2 7/2
3.5 6.5 5 7/4 13/4
4.0 6.0 5 2 3
4.5 5.5 5 9/4 11/3
5.0 5.0 5 5/2 5/2
From the table above we know that the length of arc PQR is not affected by the different in d 1 and d2
in PAB and BCR respectively. The relation between the length of arcs PQR , PAB and BCR is that the
length of arc PQR is equal to the sum of the length of arcs PAB and BCR, which is we can get the
equation:

SPQR = S + S PAB BCR

Let d1= 3, and d2 =7 SPQR = S + S PAB BCR

5π = ½ π(3) + ½ π(7)

5π = 3/2 π + 7/2 π

5π = 10/2 π

5π = 5 π
 Q

E
C
A

P R
B D
d1 d2 d3
10 cm
d1 d2 d3 SPQR SPAB SBCD SDER
1 2 7 5π 1/2 π π 7/2 π
2 2 6 5π π π 3π
2 3 5 5π π 3/2 π 5/2 π
2 4 4 5π π 2π 2π
2 5 3 5π π 5/2 π 3/2 π

SPQR = SPAB + SBCD + SDER

Let d1 = 2, d2 = 5, d3 = 3 SPQR = SPAB + SBCD + SDER
5 π = π + 5/2 π + 3/2 π

5π = 5π

bii) The length of arc of outer semicircle is equal to the sum of the length of arc of inner semicircle
for n = 1,2,3,4,….

Souter = S1 + S2 + S3 + S4 + S5

c) Assume the diameter of outer semicircle is 30cm and 4 semicircles are inscribed in the outer
semicircle such that the sum of d1(APQ), d2(QRS), d3(STU), d4(UVC) is equal to 30cm.
 d1 d2 d3 d4 SABC SAPQ SQRS SSTU SUVC
10 8 6 6 15 π 5π 4π 3π 3π
12 3 5 10 15 π 6π 3/2 π 5/2 π 5π
14 8 4 4 15 π 7π 4π 2π 2π
15 5 3 7 15 π 15/2 π 5/2 π 3/2 π 7/2 π

let d1=10, d2=8, d3=6, d4=6, SABC = SAPQ + SQRS + SSTU + SUVC
15 π = 5 π + 4 π + 3 π + 3 π

15 π = 15 π

Part 3
a. Area of flower plot = y m 2
y = (25/2) π - (1/2(x/2)2 π + 1/2((10-x )/2)2 π)

= (25/2) π - (1/2(x/2)2 π + 1/2((100-20x+x2)/4) π)

= (25/2) π - (x2/8 π + ((100 - 20x + x2)/8) π)

= (25/2) π - (x2π + 100π – 20x π + x2π )/8

= (25/2) π - ( 2x2 – 20x + 100)/8) π

= (25/2) π - (( x2 – 10x + 50)/4)

= (25/2 - (x2 - 10x + 50)/4) π

y = ((10x – x2)/4) π

b. y = 16.5 m2

16.5 = ((10x – x2)/4) π

66 = (10x - x2) 22/7

66(7/22) = 10x – x2

0 = x2 - 10x + 21

0 = (x-7)(x – 3)

x=7 , x=3

When x = 4.5 , y/x = 4.3

Area of flower plot = y/x * x

= 4.3 * 4.5

= 19.35m 2

d. Differentiation method

dy/dx = ((10x-x2)/4) π
 = ( 10/4 – 2x/4) π

0 = 5/2 π – x/2 π

5/2 π = x/2 π

x = 5

Completing square method

y = ((10x – x2)/4) π

= 5/2 π - x2/4 π

= -1/4 π (x2 – 10x)

y+ 52 = -1/4 π (x – 5)2

y = -1/4 π (x - 5)2 - 25

x–5=0

x=5

e. n = 12, a = 30cm, S12 = 1000cm Tn (flower bed) Diameter

(cm)
S12 = n/2 (2a + (n – 1)d T1 30
T2 39.697
1000 = 12/2 ( 2(30) + (12 – 1)d)
T3 49.394
1000 = 6 ( 60 + 11d) T4 59.091
T5 68.788
1000 = 360 + 66d T6 78.485
T7 88.182
1000 – 360 = 66d
T8 97.879
640 = 66d T9 107.576
T10 117.273
d = 9.697 T11 126.97
T12 136.667

CONCLUSION

Part 1
Not all objects surrounding us are related to circles. If all the objects are circle, there would be no
balance and stability. In our daily life, we could related circles in objects. For example: a fan, a ball or
a wheel. In Pi, we accept 3.142 or 22/7 as the best value of pi. The circumference of the circle is
proportional as pi x diameter. If the

circle has twice the diameter, d of another circle, thus the circumference, C will also

have twice of its value, where preserving the ratio =Cid

Part 2

The relation between the length of arcs PQR, PAB and BCR where the semicircles

PQR is the outer semicircle while inner semicircle PAB and BCR is Length of

arc=PQR = Length of PAB + Length of arc BCR. The length of arc for each

semicircles can be obtained as in length of arc = 1/2(2_r). As in conclusion, outer

semicircle is also equal to the inner semicircles where Sin= Sout .

Part 3

In semicircle ABC(the shaded region), and the two semicircles which is AEB and

BFC, the area of the shaded region semicircle ADC is written as in Area of shaded

region ADC =Area of ADC – (Area of AEB + Area of BFC). When we plot a straight

link graph based on linear law, we may still obtained a linear graph because Sin= Sout

where the diameter has a constant value for a semicircle.

REFERENCES

(1) www.scribd.com
(2) www.4shared.com
(3) www.dogpile.com

(4) www.oneschool-net.com

(5)Wikipedia
(6)Additional Mathematics Form 4
(7) www.alumnisbpip.ning.com