Lesson 1 : Art and Its Beginnings

Cave painting at Hall of Bulls. Unknown maker. Paleolithic period. 17, 300 years old est.
Lascaux, France. Photography by Prof. Saxx
The capacity to think and create are characteristics that make human beings unique.
Human beings can make willful decisions beyond the call of their instincts. They
consciously try to make sense of the world around them. Although scholars still do not
have definite answers concerning the origins and purpose of archaeological artifacts,
they undeniably show how the growth of civilizations coincide with creative acts. These
were not yet considered art but are nevertheless incipient examples of creation by
human beings. Incidentally, they were unearthed in countries of the Western world.
lesson enables the student to distinguish characteristics of early examples of human
creativity. Students will also identify cultures where archaeological evidence of human
creativity was discovered. Students are expected to discuss in written or oral form why
the will to create makes the human being unique.
Archaeological artifacts were not considered art. In Europe, the category "art" was used
to refer to skill or mastery, and was not different from crafts or sciences until it was
distinguished in the 17th century as a domain that goes beyond skills and technique.
Nevertheless, and regardless of the purpose why they were made by their makers, cave
paintings and small sculptures reveal the human capacity to create out of free will and
represent the world. Aside from the creative impetus, they reveal the human ability to
imagine, remember, and draw up sentiments about the world around them. Human I
beings did not simply obey their instincts when they created these artifacts.

Hall of Bulls

In the village of Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil near Montignac, France are around 37

caves and shelters that appear to have been decorated by early humans.
Archaeologists estimate that these decorations are around 17,300 years old, therefore
dating them as early as the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. They have been discovered by
teenagers as early as 1940. Archaeologists were fascinated with paintings on natural
rock walls in caves, government opened them for public viewing eight years after.
UNESCO declared it a World Heritage Site in 1979.
Archaeologists study the site and the decorations as though the early humans
organized space. Ihere appears to be hallways and separate rooms where these
decorations are found. In a large circular gallery in a cave that archaeologists call "Hall
of the Bulls" are painted representations of animals, most but not all of them are
representations of bulls. The scenes in the paintings appear to be a rapidly moving herd
without any indication of place of origin or purpose. The approach of the anonymous
painter or painters appears to ignore any faithful representation of the natural world
since the heads of the animals are rendered in profile but the horns have a frontal
orientation.
The cave has nearly 2,000 figures that seem to suggest representations of
animals, human figures, and other abstract signs that to this day no one has fully
explained. Ihere were initial arguments that they depict a hunt or typical subsistence
strategies of early humans. However, this has already been debunked, because of the
absence of evidence that the depicted animals were the main food source. 'The main
food source of the inhabitants of this valley were reindeer. Yet, none of the depicted
figures showed a reindeer. Other scholars suggest that the cave paintings represent a
ritual of some form.
The paintings contain mineral pigments of the hues red, yellow, and black. Iron
oxide or ochre, hematite, and manganese were detected in these pigments—these
suggest that the pigments were special preparations and were not gathered at random
for a painting done on a whim. Certainly, and based on the evidence of past scholars,
this was not the case. Of the 2,000 figures, 900 are animals and 605 of them have been
determined, there are 364 equines and 90 stags. Cattle, bison, birds, a bear, feline
animals, the now extinct rhinoceros, and a human figure were identified. There are also
geometric figures on the wall. What is currently known as the Great Hall of the Bulls had
paintings of bulls in several sizes. The bulls appear to be situated in overlapping planes
—there was no distinction between foreground and background because techniques of
linear perspective were not in use at this point.

The Woman of Willendorf

The Venus of Willendorf or more appropriately known as Woman of Willendorf is one of
the oldest creations that seem to represent the human form in a stylized manner. In the
Venus of Wi11endorf, one can easily see the anatomical exaggeration of breasts and
hips or body parts associated with fertility. It was discovered by a workman during
excavations conducted by archaeologists in a village near the town of Krems in Lower
Austria. I-he Paleolithic figure is carved out of oolitic limestone tinted with red ochre.
The purpose of the figure—ritual, decoration, commemoration—remains unknown.
Nevertheless, the existence of the object reveals the will to create from imagination and
in a manner that goes beyond perceived physical characteristics that one sees in the
natural world.

Lesson 2: The Ancient Megalithic Civilizations

A lamassu or guardian at the North West Palace of Ashurnasirpal in the Ancient
Assyrian City of Nimrud. Photograph taken before the terrorist organization ISIS
destroyed it with bulldozers and explosives in 2015.
The legacy of ancient megalithic civilizations endures until the present day. Their basic
forms are seen in contemporary architectural feats. They are mentioned in ancient
secular and biblical texts. From the cradle of civilization in the valley of Tigris and
Euphrates to the valley of the Nile, colossal structures were built to commemorate the
living and the dead. Inside these are objects that tell stories of how civilizations rose,
expanded, and conquered.
None of the ethnolinguistic groups in the pre-historic archipelago of what
eventually became known as the Philippines are megalithic societies. Filipinos were not
fixated with temples and god-kings with numerous slaves. Rather, artistic feats
produced in ancient megalithic civilizations influenced Western art only at a later age
and long after it has faded from the annals of historical memory. They reached
academies of fine art and archaeology programs in European and American academies
upon the transmission of ideas along global networks, institutions, and print
publications. Eventually, they reached Philippine art education.
This lesson is about the artistic contributions of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt
to the West.
Megalithic civilizations tend to be invested in building massive architectural
structures. Even at a considerable distance, these landmarks exhibit colossal size that
easily overwhelms the ordinary viewer. were built not only to commemorate rulers but
display the power and might of their domains. These colossal structures asserted the
economic status and military prowess of the civilizations that built them. These
structures were built by deploying a huge labor force of followers or slaves. Megalithic
civilizations tend to prioritize territorial expansion and the rule over people they consider
weaker than themselves.
Many outdated writings describe megalithic civilization as "great," because of the
way the early empires expanded their domain and initiated developments in civilization.
However, this is not equated with virtue or moral uprightness, for they acquired wealth in
warfare. With warfare comes the pillaging of resources and oppression of communities
different from them.
Mesopotamia, Cradle of Civilization
The lower valley between the Tigris and the Euphrates known as ancient
Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq and Kuwait) was home to the first cities and eventually,
the early empires. Mesopotamia is therefore known as the cradle of civilization. these
early civilizations were home to unnamed artisans who introduced innovations such as
glass, glazed bricks, the potter's wheel' arches, ramps and scales of measurements for
building structures. Their knowledge of medicine, astronomy, and geometry were also
hallmarks Of civilization.

The first cities emerged in Sumer around 3300 BC. The Sumerians developed
the earliest known writing system called the cuneiform. Texts ranged from administrative
edicts to aid temple authorities to literature such as the epic of Gilgamesh. The
Sumerians were credited for the creation of city-states. The Sumerians are organized
into several large families inhabiting several city-states in established complex urban
spaces that have temples dedicated to deities. Increased labor specialization
characterizes Sumerian society.
 In one of the graves meant for Sumerian nobility, archaeologists found a
rectangular box inlaid with precious stones and materials. The box can be mounted on
poles and carried like a military standard. Scholars also explain that it can be a sound
box or a musical instrument. scene is interpreted as a celebration of victory and the
amassing of spoils. On one side is a scene showing warfare. Soldiers are seen herding
captured foes and animals. A ruler-like figure is at the center, distinct from all the other
figures. On the opposite side is a victory feast. A ruler shown by his larger size is clad in
fleece and seated on a throne. Nobles are seated on wooden stools with animal legs.
Lyre players and servants attend to their needs. Sheep, goats, cattle, fish, and other war
booty are carried, shown in a procession-like manner.
One of the creative feats of the Sumerians is the ziggurat. Ziggurats were
massive temples of mudbricks and bitumen with a solid base and ramp-like stairways of
a hundred steps each that led to the top. A shrine at the top is dedicated to the moon
city god. corners of the ziggurat were associated with the cardinal points of the
compass. Inside was a central hall and an altar. The most cited in books and best
preserved of the ziggurats is that found in Ur, also known as Tell el-Muqayyar in
modern-day Iraq.
Around 2350 BC, Sargon led the Akkadians and dominated Mesopotamia. His
administration introduced weights and measures to standardize transactions.
Hammurabi of Babylon, who reigned in 1800 BC, also counted among the rulers noted
for major cultural contributions such as the Code of Hammurabi, a seven-foot basalt
stele that inscribes ideas on law, justice, and governance at the time.
Tre Assyrians (Assyr, from then city ofAshur, 300 km north of Baghdad, Iraq)
reigned soon after and built the ancient city of Nimrud (1250-610 BC). Tin, copper, and
textiles were sent out from this city for trade. The Assyrians are noted for temples and
palaces in self-contained complexes that have all the elements of urban planning.
These complexes and palace entrances are guarded by figures of gigantic human-
headed lions or bulls with wings. %ese figures made of stone were installed there to
invoke and at the same time, symbolize guardian spirits. The combination of human and
animal figures in one composite statue also serves as a reminder of the ruler's strength
and wisdom. are called the lamassu (see image in lesson overview). Excavations also
include warfare inscriptions that depict towers and ladders. terrorist Islamic State of Iraq
and Syria or ISIS, driven by their poor and twisted understanding of Islam, destroyed
the ancient city of Nimrud with bulldozers and explosives in 2015, effectively destroying
centuries-old worth of history and Mesopotamian heritage.
Egyptians and the Afterlife
Civilization of settlements along the Nile River also grew into city-states. Egypt is cited
in many writings as the jewel of the Nile. The Nile River brought annual floods that
sustained agricultural cycles. Agriculture was crucial to settlements and eventually,
increased social stratification in societies. With stratification comes conflict and rulers
maintaining the social order. Egypt was therefore the setting for alternate regionalized
rule and centralized political control that lasted in dynasties. Scholars note that certain
tumultuous political moments coincided with times of famine and social disintegration.
Although the Egyptians consider the god, Osiris, as the first ruler in their myths, the ruler
Menes eventually united the upper and lower regions of Egypt in 3100 BC. Menes
established a capital in Memphis. There were provincial governors to oversee their
domains outside the capital.
Artistic feats of the Egyptians are testaments of the desire for power and
dominion in preparation for the afterlife and at the expense of subdued people.
Pharaohs or rulers of Egypt were buried in rock-cut tombs along with precious objects
and clay figures of their attendants.
 One of the creative feats of the Egyptians is the mastaba, a standard tomb
shaped like a pyramid. The shape of the structure is similar to the Benben, an emblem
of the cult of Re or the sun god worshipped by the Egyptians. The cult of Re does not
distinguish the body and soul. Rather, they believed that the ka or life force that is
considered an "other self" coexisted with the person from birth. Thus, the ka lives on
even if the body deteriorates upon death, although certain conditions were required for
this to be realized. Egyptians devoted to Re have beliefs that manifest in their
architecture. For example, Pharaohs were invested in building projects that will
guarantee that their ka will live on to enjoy power and wealth. Therefore, great pyramids
were built on the backs of their architects and the labor of their slaves. In order to
underscore the importance of the sun god, massive structures of stone blocks called the
pyramids faced the east. The pharaoh, Djoser, constructed the first pyramid in Saqqara
in the 27th century BC. Saqqara pyramid appears to have giant steps leading towards
the apex and culminating in the figure of the Benben. His successors built smooth-
shaped pyramids, an evidence of advancement in harnessing and refining materials.
Mortuary temples and subsidiary pyramids were also built for wives.
The pyramids of Giza show the Egyptian civilization's ingenuity and expertise in
ashlar masonry and their power to subdue a large workforce. In ashlar masonry, chisels
and mallets made of stone and copper were used to quarry or cut the stone away from
the bedrock. Wooden levers were used to pry the stones free of the bedrock and move
them to be dressed or shaped to the exact measurements needed. Finishing touches
were then applied by rubbing and grinding the surface with fine polishing stones in a
manner similar to sanding. Tie workers laboring under cruel Egyptian masters used
ropes, pulleys, levers, and ramps to haul the stones where they belong in the entire
structure.

The Great Sphinx is only one of the pyramids that dominate the valley of Gizeh.
Tie colossal statue (see image in unit overview) is a lion with a human head. Tbe Sphinx
is a monument to a pharaoh (argued to be either Khafre or Khufu in various scholarly
works). manner of representation implies that the ruler for whom the structure is
dedicated has the attributes of the image—the strength and courage of a lion as the
king of beasts, yet the intelligence and wisdom of a human being.

In Egypt, images of the deceased are created not only to commemorate but also
to preserve their life force, even more so if the deceased is an important and powerful
personality like a pharaoh. A sculpture of Khafre, a seated ruler with a headdress and a
serene expression on his face, was found in the valley of pyramids. sculpture has a
frontal orientation and a rigid pose. The anatomy of the figure has bilateral symmetry,
where two sides of the imaginary central axis in the figure has equal visual weight.
Between the legs of the throne of Khafre are two stylized lions' bodies. Lotus and
papyrus plants incised on the throne are shown to symbolize the unity of Egypt. Over
Khafre's head, a falcon associated with the god Horus is shown extending its wings as a
gesture of protection.
Ramses Il was also considered one of the greatest pharaohs, having ruled Egypt
for two thirds of a century. The temple at Abu Simbel features four colossal figures
carved on a cliff. Inside are 32-foot tall figures of the pharaoh, carved and serving as
pillars along a corridor where they are seen facing each other. Ramses appears as
Osiris, god of the underworld and giver of eternal life.
 The megalithic civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt brought forth the earliest
architectural feats of a colossal scale. As a whole, they reveal beliefs on life, death, and
the supernatural.

Lesson 3: The Origins of Classical Beauty

The characteristics of mythological characters represented in cinema indicate how

filmmakers perceive and interpret them based on literature, sculpture, and painting.
Sculpture is an artistic creation in-the-round that can represent ideals on classical
beauty. On the other hand, some of the characteristics that make architectural
landmarks appear to have timeless elegance are not entirely contemporary innovations
but a legacy of Classical Greece. Philosophers, mathematicians, dramatists, architects,
sculptors collectively introduced and propagated ideals in art that have endured until the
present day. This lesson enables the students to distinguish characteristics of the art of
Classical Greece and analyze the elements and principles of art that give these
characteristics. The students will identify artists, statesmen, and thinkers who have
contributed to the Classical style in Greece. At the end of the lesson, students are
expected to discuss in written and oral form the ideas informing the artistic creation of
selected examples and determine how the Classical style contributed to Western art.
Students may also explore how ideas inform artistic creations by creating a project.
The Greeks called themselves Hellenes and established independent city states by the
Aegean Sea and the West Coast of Asia Minor. As a whole, Greek art signified their
humanistic ideals. These has long transcended Greek art in the sense that the
humanistic worldview of the Greeks has been an integral foundation of the Western
World. This even manifests in how they represent Greek mythology. Gods and
goddesses are represented with human-like characteristics: they are immortal yet
fallible. Aside from this, Greek mythology is also a source of heroic virtues that have
been represented in art.

The archaic age of the Greeks lasted from 800-500 BC, when trade flourished in
independent city-states increased around the Mediterranean. In 360 BC, the
philosopher Plato writes in Phaedo how the Greeks have settled down upon the shores
of the Aegean Sea like frogs around the pond. The Greeks lived in several poleis or city-
states that were independent, had their own calendar and currency, and considered
each other as rivals. Athens and Sparta were two of the most powerful poleis in Greece.
The beginning of what art historians refer to as the Classical age is marked by
the triumph of Hellenic city-states who had created an alliance against the Xerxes and
the Persians he led. Tie alliance was called the League. victorious Hellenes regarded
the Persians as barbarians. Greeks considered themselves as purveyors of virtue and
guardians of civilization. Many of the well-cited philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle lived in the succeeding decades of the Classical age. Herodotus is credited for
being the first historian. Pythagoras is credited for his mathematical theorems.
Hippocrates pioneered in medicine. Dramatists like Sophocles created excellent Greek
tragedies. Architects and sculptors worked under city builders and statesmen like
Pericles, supported by funds from the League.
The story of art in Classical Greece is that of heroic virtue and humanism, the
triumph of order over chaos, and the quest for perfect forms. Art in Classical Greece
generally sought to idealize the natural world not by copying nature as it is, but by
attempting perfection only by a skillful wielding of the artistic medium and an intimate
knowledge of the elements and principles of design. This is the aim of classical beauty.
Greeks mastered rendering perfect forms in marble. Even after Greece became
reduced to a province of Rome, features of art in Classical Greece were admired,
imitated, and disseminated by the Roman Empire.
High Classical Architecture
What art historians call the High Classical period covers 450-400 BC and is considered
the Golden Age of Greece. From Classical Greek architecture comes notions of
symmetry and balance, ideal proportions, and harmony. Architectural ornamentation
shows unity and variety, rhythm, and spatial depth. There is nothing in excess, because
all the parts were made to manifest ideal beauty.
There were areas called the Acropolis, home of the most important temples in
Greek society. There were also places outside of the polis that Greeks believed to be
holy enough for gods to relay their message through oracles.
Classic temples were built on the mainland and exemplified by the Parthenon
(see photograph in lesson introduction). structure is one of the architectural feats
associated with the High Classical age, displaying the highly refined art of the Greek
stonemasons. The Parthenon was a temple dedicated to Athena Parthenos (Athena, the
Virgin) and a project of Pericles. Work in the Parthenon started in 447 BC under the
supervision of architects, Iktinos and Kallikrates. Phidias supervised sculptural
ornamentation in the temple. He served as Pericles' minister for arts and culture in
Athens, already an established artist.
The architects and sculptors responsible for the Parthenon believed in adhering
to ideal numerical ratios and observing the symmetry of the parts, in order to produce
harmony in design. Deviations from algebraic formulas were allowed for the sake of a
harmonious optical illusion. The Parthenon's short ends have eight columns and the
long ends have 17. Columns are vertical posts designed to distribute the weight of the
roof. A colonnade is a uniform row of columns that can set a sense of direction or visual
rhythm. colonnade also disperses the harsh heat of the sun and gives a sense of
monumental grandeur to the viewer dwarfed beneath the immensity of the temple.
The site as a whole rises 500 feet above sea level. structure is a post-and-lintel
construction type. Columns support the entablature that runs horizontally across the
structure. The precise fluted columns that hold the structure of the Parthenon were thick
and massive, created in a style known as Doric. Fluting is seen in small sections of
concave curves running vertically down the shaft or the length of the column. However,
the back room that housed Athena's treasury had tall and slender columns topped by
capitals decorated by everting scrolls in a style known as Ionic.

The Parthenon featured sculptural ornamentations esteemed throughout the

Western world, for the Greeks had the expertise in harnessing stone. In the interiors
and exteriors are pediments, metopes, and friezes. Pediments have sculptures wholly in
the round and fitted into the ground. Metopes are figures cut almost in the round, as
though bursting from the frame.
The outer metopes do not represent a continuous story. Instead, the message of
Greek triumph as a race and over other civilizations is depicted by showing warriors
fighting three kinds of enemies. The Trojans are defeated in the north metopes, the
Amazons fall in the west, and the centaurs (half human and half-horse beings) are
defeated in the south. eastern end shows gods fighting with each other.
Some of the metopes are seen on the pediment in the Parthenon's facade or
outer face. An entablature extends from the lintel to the top molding above the
colonnade. An architrave spans across the colonnade. Cornices provide shade and
repel water away from the structure. A frieze on the entablature shows figures carved in
relief.
Narratives are sculpted in relief in the West, North, South, and East friezes.
Sculpted figures are clustered together in blocks of relatively uniform size to represent a
scene in an entire sequence that alludes to the Panathenaic procession. procession is a
festival that took place every four years in Athens to honor Athena and celebrate Athens
as a leader of all Greek city states. The procession begins on the West and proceeds
down the North to South and ends at the East—a total of 160 meters long if combined.
The overlap of figures in the friezes suggests depth.
The Southern frieze features horsemen dressed differently in order to represent
the ten tribes of a democratic Athens. There are chariots and attendants in the
procession.

High Classical Sculpture and Beyond

The sculptural style of Athens became influential not only in antiquity, but throughout the
Western world as well. Heroes were considered divine and the divine assigned human
characteristics. male sculptures are portrayed as virile and athletic, while the female
sculptures are portrayed as curvaceous and supple. From Classical Greek sculpture
comes ideas on ideal proportions, symmetry and balance, the harmony of parts in a
whole, and the harmony of opposites. These are seen especially in sculptures of the
human form, for the Greeks sought perfection. Rather than strictly copying from reality,
sculptors idealized the human body and face by creating figures that are comprised of
beautiful parts in one composite whole. Another defining feature of sculptures of the
human form is the contrapposto stance, as seen in the Doryphoros. renowned German
antiquarian and one of the pioneers of the discipline of art history, Johann Joachim
Winckelmann, says the following (Winckelmann 1755, in Preziosi, ed., 2009, p. 30):
“The general and most distinctive characteristics of the Greek masterpieces are,
finally, a noble simplicity and quiet grandeur, both in posture and expression. Just as the
depths of the seam always remain calm however much the surface may rage, so does
the expression of the figures of the Greeks reveal a great and composed soul even in
the midst of passion.”
The Doryphoros is one of the most frequently copied Greek sculptures made by
the sculptor, Polykleitos. Also called the Spear Bearer, it is an epitome of the High
Classical Style. Polykleitos created it in order to demonstrate his assertions written in
his treatise on the ideal statue. Art historians sometimes refer to the sculpture as Tie
Canon. Polykleitos was inspired by the mathematician Pythagoras and believed that
harmony can be found in all nature. A select few took this a little further by believing that
numbers have mystical qualities. On the other hand, the Greeks believed that rational
human beings bring order to society and therefore preferred creations that
demonstrated order in the elements and principles of design. The idea is further
supported by depictions of the triumph of order over chaos seen in the Parthenon
sculptures in the round and on relief.
In the ideal sculpture, the contrapposto is more pronounced. Tie figures must
stand with implied subtle movement, unlike the rigid poses of Early Classical sculptures
of nude male figures. The ideal sculpture is not a simple copy of the human figure in
standing position. Rather, Polykleitos wanted to make the work beautiful through
perfection. Perfection was seen through the harmony of opposite limbs in alternate
tension and relaxation. The relaxed arm echoes the diagonally opposite relaxed leg and
the latter arm is tense like the latter leg that holds the entire body weight. The hips
slightly twist to the left while the head slightly turns to the right. The entire length is
equivalent to seven heads. Writers consider the sculpture as beautiful, showing the
commensurability of all parts in one organic whole.
The facial expression of the Spear Bearer also barely displays emotion.
Following the Greeks' preference for order, the ideal sculpture must have restrained
emotions. Temperance of emotions was seen as a mark of human rationality—a value
that sets the Greeks apart from people they considered barbaric. They disdained
excessive displays of emotion and exaggerated formal properties.
The Peloponnesian War followed even before the rule of Pericles ended. Thus,
diminishing resources, plague, and incompetent leaders caused disillusionment in
Greek society. Creators then focused more on individuals rather than the values
privileged by ideal city states.
During the late classical period, Praxiteles retained the beauty of Classicism but
sought to humanize the gods and goddesses further. Tie Aphrodite of Knidos show the
goddess in a vulnerable state, completely nude and bashful as she is about to bathe.
Praxiteles is esteemed for creating life-like images and suggesting supple flesh using
marble. Tie sculpture emphasizes femininity and grace.
Praxiteles also created a composite sculpture of Hermes with the infant
Dionysus. In the composition, Hermes holds a bunch of grapes (currently missing) to
tease the infant Dionysus who was known as the god of wine and merrymaking. Note
how the figure of Hermes has a more elongated and leaner physique compared to the
Doryphoros. Although Polykleitos introduced a canon or standard in making sculpture,
Praxiteles improves on this and refines the idea of Classical beauty.
The Hellenistic Period covers 323-30 BC, from the death of Alexander the Great
until the time Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire and the cultural center
shifted to Pergamon in Asia Minor. Some art historians dispute that Greece suffered a
decline and that the Hellenistic period was a period of decadence and dilution of
characteristics of the Greek ideal sculpture. Another argument is that there is no clear
break from the time that High Classical styles flourished and the time of this so-called
decline. An evidence of this flourishing of the classical style was seen in the winged
Athena Nike of Samothrace. Set up in the island of Samothrace in the Sanctuary of the
great Gods, the sculpture shows Athena Nike as though she has just alighted in the
prow of the war ship. Seen in the sculpture is a motion captured by the sculptor's mallet
and chisel.
Antiquarians like Johan Joachim Winckelmann describe the Laocoon as a
sculpture at the pinnacle of perfection although the sculptural group was dated during a
time that others refer to as the decline of the Greek empire. During the second century
BC, the Roman general, Flamininus, defeated the Macedonians, and Greece became a
Roman province. Nonetheless, Athens continued to be a center of learning, and
sculptors continued to flourish. sculptural group of Laocoon and his sons is well cited
and highly influential in succeeding art historical styles in Europe. Note the dynamic
gestures of the figures, as though they display pain and torment after Laocoon tried to
warn the Trojans not to accept the Greeks' gift of a massive wooden horse. Imagine
dynamic lines guiding the viewer's sightline to realize that the entire work is a dynamic
composition. sculpture refuses stasis or the state of being still and rejects rigidity or
stiffness. The implied movements are varied yet the emotions remain tempered. The
work is inspired by the Odyssey, in which Laocoon and his sons, were strangled by two
sea serpents sent by the gods who favored Greece. Here, the artist openly depicted the
agony of Laocoon and his sons, instead of consciously restraining the show of
emotions. It is as though a scream escapes from Laocoon's mouth, but this scream is
quickly stifled as he quickly succumbs to death. In relation to Greek mythology, the
Laocoon sculpture underscores the victory of the Greeks against their enemies, namely
the Trojans, being the ones favored by Athena, Virgil's literary work Aenid, describes the
death throes of Laocoon in similar fashion as that' of the sculpture;

Rather than see it as a decline, an alternative argument is that sculptors during

the time of rule of the Roman Empire also explored the art form further and sought a
closer observation of the natural world. practice was sustained through the latter years
because the Romans were connoisseurs of Greek art. An example of an art work that
shifted to a more naturalistic style is a sculpture of an old woman in tattered clothes
bringing in produce to the market. sculpture has no attribution, but at the time of its
creation, the social climate was such that the elites began to look at the underserved
around them. The sculpture therefore shows no attempt to idealize the human form. The
unnamed sculptor made sure that imperfections were captured in marble so that the
viewer fully understands the concept behind the work. The sculpture of the old market
woman nevertheless retains ideas of beauty from the Classical age. The sculptor
observed the rules of proportion, the harmony of alternating tension and relaxation of
the opposite sets of limbs, and the temperance of emotions.
Classical beauty is therefore an enduring quality in art, seen in the different art
forms like sculpture, architecture, and later on, painting in academies of fine art.
Lesson 4: All Roads Lead to Rome

The perceived characteristics of the Roman Empire are manifest in the architectural
innovations during the period of imperial expansion. The scale and grandiosity of their
civic spaces communicate the ambition of the Romans. Many of their contributions are
architectural landmarks for public life. are lovers of Greek art and even patronized
Greek artists, yet the Romans refused to rest on their laurels and willed to innovate
upon those introduced by the Greeks. At the end of the lesson, the students are
expected to distinguish characteristics of the art of the Roman Empire and analyze the
elements and principles of art that give these characteristics. They must identify leaders
and city states who contributed to the creation and dissemination of art at the height of
the Roman Empire. Students are expected to discuss in written and oral form the ideas
informing the artistic creation of selected examples and determine how the art of
imperial Rome contributed to Western art. Students may also explore how ideas inform
artistic creations by creating a project.

The Roman Empire had the farthest reach in the history of humanity— dominating the
Strait of Gibraltar, the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, the Rhine, Danube, Thames, and
beyond. Extending to Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa are churches. Based on
their origin myths, Romans claim that Romulus, the son of the war god Mars (Ares in
Greece), established Rome in 753 BC. Archaeological evidence supports the argument
that Rome began as farming settlements in Italy, growing into towns, and larger political
structures. made alliances, controlled resources, and mobilized manpower from their
conquests. Many of the building projects were built out of slave labor.

The Romans established a republic (affair of the people) governed by elected

magistrates of Roman citizens. Citizens had liberties and benefits, unlike the slaves
purchased by wealthy politicians and merchants. Even foreigners were eligible for
citizenship, ensuring that the empire occupied vast territories. %ere were consuls and
commanders of the army that governed each state with the advice of the Senate.
Senators were wealthy elites coming from Roman provinces and they form the ultimate
decision-making body of Rome. The republic eventually crumbled. Julius Caesar was a
dictator of the Roman republic. republic lasted from 509 to 27 BC. The year 211 BC was
a turning point for the Romans. They were lovers of Greek sculpture and painting that
their soldiers plundered from Greece and their artisans imitated.

The Roman Empire disseminated architectural innovations. For example, vaults

are seen in architectural structures like museums, department stores, and factories.
The Roman amphitheaters continue to be used today. Romans specialized in civic
architecture, activating spaces not so much for the worship of gods as civilizing
measures.

The early empire saw the rule of several conquerors who claimed lands,
extracted resources and oppressed people they considered less civilized than
themselves. Among these include Augustus (27-14 BC) Nero (54-68 CE), Vespasian
(69-79 AD), Titus (79-81 AD), and Domitian (81-96 AD). Conquerors of the High Empire
include Trajan (98-117 AD), Hadrian (117-138 AD), and Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD).
The Late Empire was marked by a power-sharing between Diocletian and his potential
rivals. He abdicated in 305 BC, causing a period of conflict. Eventually, this culminated
in the victory of Constantine (306-337 AD) as the undisputed ruler of the Roman Empire
after the defeat of other co-rulers in the short-lived tetrarchy.
Public Life, Civility, and Brutality
Public life is important to the Romans, and so they built the Forum Romano. The forum
is a wide-open space intended for civic life. The structure resembles a rectangular plaza
framed by colonnades. However, only males participated in public life.
Another important landmark is the amphitheater. structure built for public life, is a
circular theater consisting of radially disposed concrete barrel vaults leading to an arena
or a circular open space. Romans also refer to the landmark as Amphitheatrum
Caesareum. Many Roman towns had an amphitheater. The use of concrete allowed the
Romans to construct structures with substantial stability and the much-needed plasticity
they desired for architectural ornamentation. Another reason is that the Romans did not
have the same level of skill and length of tradition required for quarrying and finishing
stones as the Greeks. Nevertheless, the use of concrete allowed the Roman Empire to
create architectural structures and ornamentation with greater speed and ease.
The Colosseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheater, was the largest theater
ever built made of concrete (different from today's Portland cement) combined with a
mix of volcanic ash. structure can hold around 50,000-80,000 spectators. The moniker
refers to Flavian dynasty. The colosseum was a project of Vespasian that started in 70-
72 AD and eventually succeeded by Titus. The site where the Colosseum stands is a
low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline, and Palatine hills at the heart of Rome that
used to be highly populated and on top of a canalized lake that Nero built. This was
Vespasian's gesture of returning to the people what Nero took by force. Tie site is the
heart of Rome.
Beneath the arena floor are interconnecting barrel vaults. A barrel vault is a
series of arches laid out horizontally in the form of a tunnel-like hallway. Arches are
made of wedges of bricks or concrete called voussoirs that are locked together by a
keystone. The Romans did not invent arches but used and developed them well.
The colosseum was the venue for public spectacles staged in the arena. Among
these were gladiator combats that served as free entertainment for all Roman citizens.
Until 435 AD, there were gladiatorial games in the colosseum. Mock sea battles, animal
hunts, and dramas based on Classical mythology were also staged in the arena.
Executions and trials by combat are staged in the colosseum. Thousands of animals
were killed during the inaugural games. Thus, while the Romans espoused ideas of
civility, the games at the arena revealed their brutality.

Warfare and Victory

Art in the Roman Empire tended to espouse ideas of valor in warfare, they prided
themselves for their efficiency in battles and conquests. The triumphal Arch of Titus was
erected by his brother who succeeded him as emperor upon his death. Inside the
passageway are two relief panels to signify the triumphal parade of Titus after the
conquest of Judaea. Personifications of honor and valor—imperial virtues in Titus' time
—are seen on the passageway.
Trajan was born in Spain but the empire expanded significantly under his rule. A
tribute to both emperor and his soldiers, the Trajan column was built to commemorate
the victory of Rome against the Dacian army. In the narrative seen in the relief, the
Romans won not because of supernatural qualities of the emperor but because of
coordination and efficiency of the Roman army as a strong, powerful unit. Trajan can be
seen overseeing rituals where animals are sacrificed to gain favor from the gods.
Hierarchies in the Roman imperial army are seen—legionnaires are distinguished from
their followers. former is shown in testudo or tortoise-shell formation. They are seen
securing their bases in enemy territories, crossing the Danube River, and listening to
Trajan rally them in his speeches.
The Trajan Column is actually an architectural structure with sculpted elements.
column itself is hollow inside. Light floods in from the 40 slit windows that are distributed
as the column appears to wind upwards. Inside, a spiral staircase leads to the balcony
at the top, where a statue Of Trajan stand. Sculptors used scaffolding to carve the frieze
on the surface. Apollodorus, a Greek sculptor from Damascus, supervised the
construction. More than 2,000 figures depicted in the column display Roman attitudes to
warfare and heroism. The entire frieze may stretch up to 190 meters long.

A Pantheon of Conquerors
The Pantheon is a well-preserved architectural landmark standing on a site of an earlier
landmark built by Marcus Agrippa during the rule of Augustus. structure was completed
under the rule of Hadrian that started after his death. Tie exact purpose of the Pantheon
—a temple or an audience hall—remains undetermined.
The Pantheon features the full potential of concrete as reinforcement and when
shaped into forms, as ornamentation. The Pantheon has a rectangular portico that
serves as a façade composed of eight large Corinthian columns in front and two groups
of four columns at the rear. As a whole, the portico has 16 monolithic granite columns.
This approach transformed Greek architectural stylistic traits. Behind the porch with
columns is a vestibule that links it to a rotunda. is the cylindrical or drum-shaped
structure of the Pantheon and is the main activity area. The rotunda is the base of the
large cylindrical structure. A hemispherical dome caps this structure. There is an attic
between the portico and the drum. Lastly, there is a coffered dome made of concrete.
These are the four main parts Of the Pantheon.
The Romans used coffers or sunken decorative panels to minimize the heavy
load of the dome. There are five rings of 28 sunken square coffers each, creating
textural varieties in the ceiling. Above the dome is an oculus or a circular opening that
allows natural light to stream through and opens to the heavens. height to the oculus
and the diameter of the interior circle are both 43.3 meters each. While the oculus
provides ventilation in the interior, the splendor of light moving around it at different
parts of the day cannot be ignored. Rain falling through the oculus also create a
beautiful sight as water flows down a drainage system.
In the walls at the back of the Pantheon's portico and below the dome are niches
intended for sculptures possibly to commemorate great Roman conquerors. They are
beautifully illuminated by light streaming in from the oculus. Seen in the entire structure
is a variety of circles and squares. The floors look like a chess board, adding variety to
the composition.
A ring of 9.1 meters, made up wedge-shaped blocks (called voussoirs) hold
4,535 metric tons of concrete. is the diameter that forms the oculus. weight thrusts
downward and is carried by a total of eight-barrel vaults. The thickness of the dome
ranges from 6.4 to 1.2 meters. Aside from Roman concrete, there are additional
materials used such as travertine aggregate, terracotta tiles, tufa and pumice. %ese
materials make the Pantheon concrete durable so that the structure resists to the pull of
gravity and stress. Lighter materials are placed at the top and heavier ones at the
bottom. The Pantheon dome has a series of arches that are hidden from full view in the
interior.
The Roman Empire fell in 476 but it left a lasting legacy in the Western world.
The English language contains many words derived from Latin, the official language of
the Romans. Roman calendar is in use on a worldwide scale. political system of many
nations such as the United States and the
Philippines, were modeled from the Roman Republic. Christianity was widely
disseminated because of Emperor Constantine. To this day, the center of Christianity is
in Rome and it is also home to many magnificent artistic feats in architecture, sculpture,
and painting created long after the disintegration of the empire. The saying "All Roads
Lead to Rome" holds true for art, for it is through art that they asserted their political
power' military might, and ability to govern.