Page 1 of 6
Physics-Based Design Optimization of High
Frequency Transformers for Solid State Transformer
Applications
Temitayo O. Olowu Student Member, IEEE, Hassan Jafari Student Member, IEEE,
Masood Moghaddami Student Member, IEEE, Arif I. Sarwat, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract—The use of solid state transformers (SST) is fast
becoming an attractive alternative to conventional low frequency
transformers. For adequate galvanic isolation, the use of high
frequency transformer (HFT) is of great importance to achieving
high efficiency and high power-density SST. This paper proposes
an physics-based design and multi-objective optimization of HFT
for SST applications. A multi objective optimization algorithm
that minimizes the volume of the core (maximizes the power
density), the total transformer losses as well as the overall cost
of the HFT is developed. A case study of a 20kHz, 10kW HFT
is investigated, and the Pareto-optimal solution are presented.
The results shows the dependencies of the objective functions on
the various design variables. The results also show that, with
careful selection of the design variables based on the developed
method, the size, efficiency and cost of the HFT can be effectively
optimized. Many of the Pareto-Optimal solutions show that an
efficiency above 97% can be achieved in the HFT design for SST
applications.
Index Terms—high frequency transformer, finite element anal-
ysis, multi-objective optimization, solid state transformer
I. I NTRODUCTION
W ITH the ongoing drive towards achieving smart distri-
bution systems, the need for compact, highly efficient,
communication-enabled, flexible and multi-purpose transform-
ers are gaining an increased interest [1, 2]. The traditional
50/60Hz transformers are highly cost effective, reliable, and
highly efficient. However, such transformers have some ma-
jor drawbacks which include their relatively large size, and
limited control functionalities. These drawbacks on the use
of conventional low frequency transformers can be easily
addressed with the use of power electronic-based solid state
transformers[3]. Several topologies of SST have been proposed
over the years. Central to all these topologies is the use of high
frequency transformers which provides the galvanic isolation
between the input and the output of the SST. Due to high-
frequency operation of the power electronic of SSTs, HFTs
have small size and volume and thereby SSTs with have a
high power density. SSTs can have many functionalities such
as, reactive power compensation, harmonic attenuation and
elimination, ability to interface with DC power sources such as
PV, batteries etc., voltage sag compensation, efficient voltage
regulation, power flow control, power flow in both directions,
T.O Olowu, H. Jafari, M. Moghaddami and A. Sarwat are with Florida
International University, Miami, United States.
This work is supported by National Science Foundation under the grant
number:1541108 and Petroleum Technology Development Fund (Nigeria)
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2019-IACC-0892
fault isolation and fault current limitation [3]. The use of HFT
based SST has its own technical challenges which include
increased losses due to the high frequency-operation, high
switching losses in the power electronic converters, high cost,
and lower efficiency.
Several works have been published on design optimization of
HFTs. In [4], a leakage inductance controlled technique by
using a winding arrangement that is asymmetrical is presented.
The optimized model from this work was able to achieve
a reduction in core volume of 8% and improved efficiency
of 1.4%. Petkov in [5] presents an analytical procedure that
optimizes the selection of the flux density and wire to achieve a
minimal power loss, and selection of the smallest core volume.
Reference [6] presents an iterative optimization method to
calculate the HFT leakage inductance, dimensions of the HFT
core, the number of primary and secondary windings (and
their resistance values) as well as the phase-shift angle for a
dual active bridge DC-DC converter to achieve the minimum
amount of total converter loss. The proposed optimization
method is done to eliminate the need for an external inductor
in order to achieve zero voltage and current switching. Most
of the existing studies on design optimization of HFTs , are
carried out analytically. The drawback of these approaches
is the inability to accurately determine the electromagnetic
parameters of the HFT in the design process. Also, the cost of
the HFT is usually ignored in the existing design optimization
methods.
To address these issues, this paper proposes the use of
physics-based design optimization algorithm with the use of
multi-objective genetic algorithm. The remaining of this paper
is structured as follows: Section II presents the analytical steps
and iteration used as part of HFT optimization. Section III
presents a multi-objective optimization formulation for power
density, total power loss and the cost of the HFT. Section IV
presents the physics-based simulation and optimization with
the discussion of results, while Section V concludes the paper.
II. HFT A NALYTICAL AND FEA D ESIGN
The optimal design of HFT usually involves several design
iteration depending on the parameters of interest and its area
of application. According to [5, 7, 8], the optimal flux density
of an HFT can be calculated using the following equation:
1/16
(hc ka ∆τ )2/3

Kv f kf ku
Bop = P (1)
22/3 [ρcu kw ku ]1/12 [kc Kf α ]7/12 VA
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2

6.62
(2) δs = √ (10)
fs
where ρcu is the resistivity of the copper conductor used, ku The value of the HFT’s winding AC resistance can be com-
and kf is the transformer’s window utilization and stacking puted using the following set of equations [6]:
factor respectively, hc is the heat transfer coefficient, ka , kc
and kw are unit-less coefficients which are based on the type of Γ = −2.4128d2cu + 1.5113dcu + 0.3535 (11)
core used (typical values based on studies on different types
of cores are ka = 40, kc = 5.6 and kw = 10), ∆τ is the s p
change in temperature, Kv is a factor depending on the voltage −b1 + b21 + 12δs4
P dcu = (12)
waveform, V A is the transformer’s apparent power rating 2
[9]. The core dimensions can be estimated using the expression
π 2 Γ2
 
for the core area product in equation (3) 2 24 2
b1 = 16l − 1 + 2 dcu (13)
√ P 24 π
 8/7
2 VA
Ap = √
s
(3) 3
Kv f Bo Kf Kt Ku ∆τ ξ =4× 4 (14)
π 2 ns Γ
1 + 24 (16l2 − 1 + π242 )
where s
hc ka √ 1 ξ3 ξ5
 
Kt = Λ1 (ξ) = 2 2 + − (15)
ρw kw ξ 3 × 28 3 × 214
and ξ3 ξ7
 
1
X 1 Λ2 (ξ) = √ − 5 + 12 (16)
V A = Pout (1 + ) (4) 2 2 2
η
η is the overall efficiency of the HFT. For power density √
π 2 ns Γ
 
2ρcu N 2 24
optimization, the volume of the winding and that of the core Rcuac = Λ1 (ξ) − (16l − 1 + Λ2 (ξ))
can be expressed as, πδs ns docu 24 π2
(17)
where dcu is the copper conductor diameter, l is the layers of
Vc = lm Ac (5)
the winding, ns is the Litz wire number of strands, ξ is the
Vw = M LT × Aw (6) packing factor of the Litz wire and N is the number of turns
of the winding (either primary or secondary)
where lm is the HFT core mean length as provided by the According to [8, 10, 11], in other minimize the winding and
core data sheet, MLT is the winding mean length per turn, proximity loss, the ratio of Rcuac and Rcudc should be around
Ac and Aw are core cross-sectional area and total winding 2. Which can be simply calculated using equation (18) [8].
cross-sectional area respectively.
[ro /δs ]4
 
At high frequencies, the core loss in transformers becomes Rcuac
= 1+ (18)
significant. To estimate the core power loss, the improved gen- Rcudc 48 + 0.8[ro /δs ]4
eralized Steinmetz Equation (iGSE) can be used as expressed where ro , is the round conductor radius in mm.
in equation (7) [7]. The HFT’s copper winding loss can then calculated using
α equations (19) or (20) [12]
1 T  dB(t) 
Z 
core
Ploss = ki  (∆B)Γ−α dt (7) cu
T 0 dt  Ploss = i2rms × Rcuac (19)

K n
ki = R 2π  α (8) X Ni × M LT (JAw )2
(2π)α−1 0 cosθ 2Γ−α dθ
where K, α, and Γ are the core parameters which can be
sourced from the manufacturer’s data sheet and T is the period.
Equation (9) can be used to set the minimum isolation distance
between the primary and the secondary winding.
Viso
di,min =
kiso Eins
where kiso is margin for safety,Viso is the isolation voltage,
Pwinding = ρcu (20)
i=1
Aw
To achieve ZVS (zero voltage switching) and ZCS (zero
current switching), the estimation of the leakage inductance
value becomes important. The values of the HFT’s inductances
can be accurately estimated using finite element analysis FEA.
The primary (Lp ), secondary (Ls ), mutual (Lm ) and leakage
(9)
inductances (Lk , referred to the primary) can be numerically
estimated using equations (21)- (24) [13–15]
Eins is the insulation material’s dielectric strength. Z 

At high frequencies, the AC resistance of a conductor Lp = AJdS  (21)
Sp Ip =1A,Is =0
becomes significantly more than the DC resistance. The skin Z 
depth (for copper) δs in cm at switching frequency fs can be 
Ls = AJdS  (22)
expressed as: Ss Is =1A,Ip =0
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Page 3 of 6 2019-IACC-0892
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The expressions of for the Pcore and Pwinding is as presented

in equations (7) and (19) respectively.
Z 

Lm = AJdS  − Lp − Ls (23) 2) The Power Density: At higher frequencies, the volume
Ss +Sp Is =1A,Ip =1A
of transformers can be significantly reduced. It is desirable to
W have a smaller sized HFT with high power handling capabil-
Lk = (24)
Ip2 ities i.e a high power density (W/cm3 ). The optimization of
Z the size of the HFT could be assumed to be an optimization of
1
W = A.Jdv (25) the weight and volume of the entire SST architecture since the
2 V HFT constitutes the largest fraction of the weight and volume
III. P HYSICS -BASED M ULTI -O BJECTIVE O PTIMIZATION of the SST [5]. The power density is as expressed in equation
(28) Po
For HFTs, the use of analytical methods for electromag- Pd = (28)
netic field and temperature distribution analysis becomes very Vc + Vw
challenging. This makes the use of numerical methods become where
handy. In this paper, the finite element analysis of the HFT is Vc = hc lc tc − 2(Wh Ww tc ) (29)
performed using ANSYS and FEMM software packages. For
simplicity, fast computation and optimization, a 2D model is Po is the output power of the HFT and hc , lc , tc are the height,
developed and solved using the eddy current solver for quasi length and the thickness of the core material respectively,
static FEA. The eddy current solver is used, whose partial while Wh , Ww are the width and height of the wore core
differential equation for magnetic vector potential is given as window area respectively and Vw can be estimated using
equation (26) [16, 17]. equation (6).

∇ × (v(∇ × A)) = Je − jωσA (26) 3) Total Cost: The cost of the HFT is also an important
factor for optimization. The cost of the HFT consists mainly of
where A is the magnetic vector potential (V.s/m), v is the the price of the Litz wire and the core material (Amorphous).
magnetic reluctivity (m/H), Je is the eddy current density This can be expressed as shown in equation (30).
(A/m2 ), ω is the frequency in (rad/s) and σ is the electrical
conductivity (S/m). Ct = M LT × (Np + Ns )Cw + Vc Cc (30)
This paper uses the multi-objective genetic algorithm tech- where Ns and Np are the number of turn of the primary and
nique to optimize three major parameters of the HFT’s design. secondary winding respectively, and parameters Cc and Cw
These parameters include the total HFT losses, the power are the cost coefficients of the core material and the Litz wire
density as well as its cost [16, 18]. used for the winding respectively.
B. Design Optimization Constraints
To limit the search space for the optimization objectives
defined previously, some constraints need to be formulated as
a part of the optimization. For this paper, the constraints used
are based on the geometry of the core and the limitations of
the power electronic converter.
1) Power Electronic Converter Constraints: Figs. 2 and 3
show a typical LLC resonant converter equivalent circuit that
can be used for SST applications. The voltage gain (transfer
function) as a function of the frequency is as expressed in
equation (31).
Vo (jω)
H(jω) =
Fig. 1: A 3D model of a core type HFT with dimensions for Vin (jw)
optimization −ω 2 Lm Rac Cr
= "  # (31)
A. Design Optimization Objectives −ω 2 L01 Cr (n2 L2 +Lm )+n2 Lm L2 Cr
jω 1 + n2 L2 +Lm ×
The optimization objectives proposed in this paper is pre-  
sented as follows:
(Lm + n2 L2 ) + Rac 1 − ω 2 (L01 + Lm )
1) The Total Power Loss: At high frequencies, the eddy
current and hysteresis losses becomes significant. Also the
where
impact of skin effect becomes more pronounced. The skin
L01 = L1 + Lr
effect challenges can easily be addressed by using the Litz
wires for the HFT’s winding. The approximate total loses in The quality factor of an HFT is as expressed in equation
the HFT is the sum of the core loses (hysteresis and eddy (32)
current) and the copper loses as expressed in equation (27)
2πf Lk
Pt = Pwinding + Pcore (27) QHF T = (32)
Rcuac
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 2019-IACC-0892 Page 4 of 6
4

Fig. 2: An LLC converter resonant converter equivalent circuit

Fig. 3: An LLC converter resonant converter equivalent circuit Fig. 5: The flowchart of the proposed physics-based optimiza-
in the frequency domain tion for HFT
where Lk is the HFT’s leakage inductance referred to the C. Formulation of the Multi-Objective Optimization Problem
primary. While the quality factor of the LLC resonant circuit For optimal selection of the HFT’s core dimensions, the
is expressed in equation (33). multi-objective problem is formulated as presented in equation
q (36)
LR
Cr
Qr = (33) (lc , hc , tc , dc ) = min(Pt , Ct , Pd ) (36)
Rac
where
IV. S IMULATION AND R ESULTS
LR = L01 + Lm //n2 L2
The simulation and optimization of the 10 kW HFT was
Fig.4 shows the Qr values and the the gain of the converter done using FEA software (ANSYS and FEMM) coupled with
with Lm /L01 = 5. A Low value of Qr indicates light loads MATLAB. For the Pareto-optimal solution, an elitist non-
and large values of Qr indicates the heavy load conditions dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) is used. The
[19]. In order to achieve zero voltage switching (ZVS), with a design specifications of the HFT used for the optimization
reasonable amount of gain, it is recommended that the value is shown Table I. The HFT switching frequency is set at 20
of Qr is chosen close to the maximum load point [20]. The kHz. An amorphous core (AMCC) with saturation flux density
constraint of Qr is as defined in equation (34) 1.56 is used. The cost factors used in the optimization is as
presented in Table III.
0.5 ≤ Qr ≤ 1 (34)
TABLE I: HFT Design Specifications
Description Value
Output Power (Pout ) 10kW
Switching Frequency (fs ) 20kHz
Transformer Type Shell
Core Type Amorphous (AMCC-400)
Conductor Type 660/36 (6 guage) Litz Wire
Primary Voltage and Secondary Voltage 208/208V
Rated Current 48.1A

TABLE II: Optimization Parameters

Description Value
Population size 117
Fig. 4: Gain curves of the resonant converter with Lm /L01 = 5 Number of generations 333
Number Pareto-optimal points 50
2) Core Dimensions Constraints: For feasible practical
implementation of the optimized HFT, the outer dimensions TABLE III: Cost coefficients used in optimization
(core height (hc ), core length (lc ), core thickness (tc )) and core
Coefficient Description Value
limb (dc ) constrains of the HFT is as expressed in equation Cw Cost of Litz wire per unit length ($/m) 2.3
(35). Cc Cost of Amorphous per unit volume ($/cm3 ) 0.28

hc ≤ hmax; lc ≤ lmax; tc ≤ tmax; dc ≤ dmax (35) m

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Page 5 of 6 2019-IACC-0892
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TABLE IV: Pareto Optimization Solution for a 10 kW HFT the various dimensions of the cores can be selected. The
for SST Application leakage inductances of the HFT for the Pareto-optimal points
(a) Parameters Units is as shown in Fig. 11, while the FEA plot of the flux density
and flux lines for one of the Pareto-optimal solution is as
Parameters Description Units
Hc ,Lc ,Tc ,dc Core Dimensions cm
shown in Fig. 12. As part of the optimization process the HFT
Cc Total Cost $ winding parameters are also computed.
Pd Power Density W/cm3
Pd Total Power Loss W
η Efficiency % 2500

Transformer Power Loss (W)

2000
(b) Pareto-Optimal Values
Design Variables Objective Functions 1500

No. hc lc tc dc Ct Pd Pt η
1 10.02 12.04 3.00 3.00 102.1 27.4 85.8 99.1 1000

2 10.04 12.04 3 1.53 69.7 8 294.7 97.1

3 13.97 20 7.89 1.52 295.5 1.2 2052.2 83 500

4 13.97 19.96 7.77 2.35 403.3 1.7 1410.8 87.6

5 13.71 19.94 7.97 1.65 313.7 1.2 1899.3 84 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

6 13.95 19.87 7.82 2.56 430.6 1.9 1272.9 88.7 Number of Iterations
7 13.97 20 7.89 1.52 295.5 1.2 2052.2 83
8 10.03 12.07 3.04 2.97 103.2 22.3 189.6 98.1 Fig. 6: The HFT loss vs the number of iteration during
9 13.95 16.07 4.6 2.52 224.7 4 586.1 94.5 optimization
10 10.99 13.66 3.65 2.92 144.4 13.4 175.2 98.3
11 10.08 12.2 3.02 2.94 103.3 24.9 94.6 99.1
12 10.07 12.17 3.01 2.31 91.7 15.1 156.4 98.5 500

13 10.12 12.42 3.33 2.88 114.6 20.6 114.6 98.9

450
14 12.53 16.97 4.19 2.02 167.2 3.1 754.9 93
15 10.25 13.96 6.39 2.83 236.5 8.4 281.6 97.3 400

16 11.1 12.76 4.43 2.76 165.4 12.4 190.5 98.1 350

17 13.94 19.6 7.95 2.37 411.4 1.7 1352.4 88.1

Cost ($)

300

18 12.7 18.06 6.11 2.3 277.7 2.6 899 91.8

250
19 13.97 19.95 7.82 2.6 436.9 1.9 1263.6 88.8
20 13.97 19.91 7.89 1.55 298.7 1.2 2010.3 83.3 200

21 11.78 12.66 4.13 2.64 157.9 11.4 205.8 98 150

22 13.98 19.93 7.98 2.94 485.2 2.2 1095.9 90.1 100

23 13.76 19.93 7.92 2.94 475.7 2.2 1067.4 90.4

50
24 13.94 19.98 7.87 2.07 373 1.5 1609.7 86.1 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

25 13.83 18.19 7.29 2.55 380.3 2.4 992.4 91 Number of Iteration

26 13.72 15.3 7.78 2.52 363.7 3.4 690.7 93.5
27 13.97 19.45 7.88 2.79 455.9 2.1 1100.3 90.1 Fig. 7: HFT cost vs the number of iteration during optimization
28 13.47 19.96 7.77 2.35 393 1.8 1344.1 88.2 30

29 10.04 12.04 3 1.78 76.5 9.9 238.6 97.7

30 13.97 19.95 7.82 2.35 406 1.7 1413.2 87.6 25

31 12.33 12.58 4.37 2.66 174.6 10.7 220.4 97.8

Power density (W/cm3)

32 11.74 16.06 5.45 2.84 247.5 5.6 421.3 96 20

33 10.45 17.6 7.71 2.81 337 4.2 568.2 94.6

34 12.42 14.82 7.5 2.91 347.1 5.2 452.7 95.7 15

35 10.03 12.07 3.02 1.7 74.6 9.2 257 97.5

36 11.61 16.64 5.51 2.7 247.2 4.8 493.6 95.3 10

37 10.05 12.04 3 2.82 99.9 24.1 97.8 99

38 13.62 14.16 7.01 1.77 244.2 3 800.1 92.6 5

39 12.21 12.95 5.95 2.25 215.4 6.1 389.1 96.3

40 12.78 18.36 5.68 2.36 266.2 2.7 885 91.9 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

41 13.96 19.91 7.97 2.76 463.8 2 1181.1 89.4 Transformer power loss (W)

42 11.46 14.25 6.97 2.79 287.1 6.3 374.2 96.4

43 11.86 13.39 3.67 2.74 148.4 11.3 208.8 98 Fig. 8: The plot of the HFT’s power density Pd against the
44 10.48 12.6 5.72 2.62 195.2 10.2 231.7 97.7 HFT power loss
45 13.43 19.86 7.82 2.57 419.9 2 1203.5 89.3
46 13.43 14.17 6.12 2.48 268.6 4.9 484.8 95.4 V. C ONCLUSION
47 10.79 14.42 4.59 2.74 179.1 8.9 266.3 97.4
48 10.74 13.42 3.59 2.92 137.6 14.8 159.4The proposed physics-based multi-objective optimization
98.4
49 13.93 19.91 7.91 2.23 396.4 1.6 1486.8 87.1
method, is an effective approach for optimal design HFTs for
50 13.97 19.82 7.75 1.86 336.8 1.4 1728 85.3
SST applications. The objective functions in the optimization
Figures 6 and 7 shows the various GA iteration for the cost are, power density, efficiency and cost, which are all of im-
and the HFT power loss. As shown in Fig. 8, the HFT power portance in HFT design. To maximize any of these objectives,
loss increases as the HFT’s power density reduces and vice there are some trade offs within the geometric and power
versa. Also, as seen in Fig. 9, the cost of the HFT goes up electronic converter constraints. The optimal design based on
as the power density is reduced consequently increasing the the priority of the on each objective can be selected from the
volume of the HFT. The multi-objective optimization provided Pareto-optimal solutions. Many of the Pareto-optimal solutions
50 Pareto-optimal solutions as shown in Fig. 10 and also achieved an efficiency above 97 % and more which is highly
presented in Table IVb. Depending on the objective of priority, desirable for SST designs.
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