The Cell

Nattapat Khongsirisombat,

DDS, MSc (Geriatric Dentistry)

1
The Cell
Outline

• Overview of cell
• Cell components
• Cell division & Cell cycle

• Mitosis
• Meiosis

2
OVERVIEW OF CELL
Overview of cell

VDO : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8 4
Definition

“A cell is defined as the

smallest, basic unit of life
that is responsible for all
of life’s processes.”

5
Timeline of cell

1625 - First microscope invented

Galileo Galilei, an Italian scientist,
developed the first microscope

6
Timeline of cell

1665 – Robert Hooke

Discovery of cell while studying the section of cork
under his self-made microscope.

7
 1670 - Anton van Leeuwenhoek
Observation of living organisms
Timeline of cell

1804 – Karl Asmund Rudolphi

Cell is independent

1805 – Lorenz Oken

Living things made-up of cells
8
Timeline of cell
1809 – Jean Baptist de Lamarck
No life without cell

1831 – Robert Brown

Discovery of nucleus

1838-1839 –
Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann
Cell theory
9
Cell theory

The three parts of cell theory are:

1. All organisms are made up of one or

more cells

2. All cells arise from preexisting cells

3. Cell is the structural and functional

unit of life

10
Type of cell

https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/cellular-microscopic/prokaryotic-vs-eukaryotic-cells.htm 11
Prokaryotic Cells

■ Have no membrane covered

nucleus
■ Have no membrane - covered
organelles
■ Have circular DNA
■ Are bacteria

https://byjus.com/biology/prokaryotic-cells/

12
Eukaryotic Cells

■ Have a nucleus
■ Have a membrane - covered
organelles
■ Have linear DNA
■ Are all other cells

https://www.britannica.com/science/eukaryote

13
 Prokaryotic Cells
VS
Eukaryotic Cells

https://byjus.com/biology/prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells/ 14
Differences Between Animal Cells & Plant Cells

https://www.thoughtco.com/animal-cells-vs-plant-cells-373375
15
https://www.twinkl.co.th/teaching-wiki/animal-cell
16
Examples of specialized cells

Sperm Cells Nerve Cells

Red blood Cells White blood cell Cardiomyocyte

17
CELL COMPONENTS
Simple cell structure diagram

https://www.coolgalapagos.com/biology/animal_cells.php 19
 Plasma(Cell)
membrane
Cell-covering
Cell wall
Ribosome

Nuclear
membrane No
Centriole
membrane

Cell Nucleus Nucleoplasm

Cytoskeleton

Nucleolus Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Cytosol Golgi
Cytoplasm apparatus

Organelles Single
membrane Lysosomes

Peroxisome

Cell Vacuoles

components Double
membrane
Mitochondria

Chloroplasts
20
 Cell-covering

Plasma (Cell)
Cell wall
membrane

https://www.toppr.com/ask/en-af/content/concept/plasma-membrane-268098/ https://aashritlearning.weebly.com/cell-wall.html 21
 Plasma (Cell) membrane

■ Elastic outermost structure

■ Living and semi-permeable
membrane
■ Bilipid layer with embedded
protein molecules
■ Thickness varies from 75-110 A˚
■ Can be observed under an
electron microscope only

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329187565_Fractional_Derivatives_modeling_dielectric_properties_of_biological_tissue/figures

22
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book%3A_Human_Anatomy_and_Physiology_Preparatory_Course_(Liach
ovitzky)/04%3A_Smallest_Level_of_Complexity_Alive-_Cells_Their_Structures_and_Functions/4.01%3A_Cell_Structure_and_Function 23
Plasma (Cell) membrane

Functions
■ Maintains shape & size of the cell
■ Protects internal contents of the cell
■ Regulates entry and exit of substances in and out of the cell
■ Maintains homeostasis

24
Cell wall

■ Non-living and outermost covering of a cell

(plants & bacteria)
■ Can be tough, rigid and sometimes flexible
■ Made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and
pectin
■ May be thin or thick, multilayered structure
■ Thickness varies from 50-1000 A˚

25
https://sites.google.com/site/thecellycompany/departments-organelles/cell-wall https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_wall

26
https://www.azooptics.com/Article.aspx?ArticleID=1807
27
Cell wall

Functions
■ Provides definite shape, strength & rigidity
■ Prevents drying up(desiccation) of cells
■ Helps in controlling cell expansion
■ Protects cell from external pathogens

28
 Cell Wall VS Cell Membrane

https://byjus.com/biology/cell-wall-and-cell-membrane/
29
 Nucleus

Functions
▪ Control all the cell activities like
metabolism, protein synthesis, growth
and cell division
• Nucleolus synthesizes ribonucleic acid
(RNA) to constitute ribosomes
• Store hereditary information in genes
https://www.thoughtco.com/all-about-animal-cells-373379

30
 Cell nucleus with organelles in the electron microscope 50,000x

https://www.slideshare.net/apurvanagvenker/the-cell-nucleus https://www.alamy.com/cell-nucleus-with-organelles-in-the-electron-microscope-50000x-image353669645.html

31
 Nucleus

Nuclear membrane
Nucleoplasm Nucleolus
(Nuclear envelope)

https://stock.adobe.com/th/search/images?k=nucleus&asset_id=212951817 https://stock.adobe.com/search/images?k=nucleus&asset_id=212951817

32
Nuclear membrane
(Nuclear envelope)
■ Consist of 2 membrane; inner & outer membranes
■ 10-50 nm separation
■ Have nucleopore of diameters ≈ 80-100 nm.
■ Outer membrane → continuous with endoplasmic reticulum
■ Underlying inner nuclear membrane = nuclear lamina, a fibrous
meshwork that provides structural support to nucleus

33
 Nuclear pores
■ gateways across which
movement of RNAs& proteins
takes place between nucleus
& cytoplasm in both direction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_pore
34
Nucleoplasm

■ Clear like water substance

■ Present in space between
nuclear membrane & nucleolus
■ Contain;
– Chromatin & nucleolus
– Nucleotides & enzymes

http://lifeofplant.blogspot.com/2011/03/nucleoplasm.html

35
 Chromatin
■ complex of DNA, protein and
RNA
■ coiled thread-like structures
suspended in the nucleoplasm
■ chromatin usually folds into
characteristic formations
called chromosomes

https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Chromatin
36
Nucleolus

■ Production of RNA molecules

needed to transmit and express
information coded in DNA

https://slideplayer.com/slide/8653956/

37
 Plasma(Cell)
membrane
Cell-covering
Cell wall
Ribosome

Nuclear
membrane No
Centriole
membrane

Cell Nucleus Nucleoplasm

Cytoskeleton

Nucleolus Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Cytosol Golgi
Cytoplasm apparatus

Organelles Single
membrane Lysosomes

Peroxisome

Cell Vacuoles

components Double
membrane
Mitochondria

Chloroplasts
38
 Cytosol
Ribosome

Centriole

No membrane
Cytoskeleton

Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Golgi apparatus
Organelles

Lysosomes
Cytoplasm

Single membrane

Peroxisome

Vacuoles

Mitochondria
39

Chloroplasts
Double membrane
 Cytoplasm

• Jelly-like material formed by 80 % of water

• Present between plasma membrane & nucleus
• Contains clear liquid portion called cytosol & various particles
• Particles = proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids &
inorganic ions
• Also contains many organelles with distinct structure &
function
• Some of organelles visible only under electron microscope
• Granular & dense in animal cells & thin in plant cells
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Cytoplasm

Cytosol Organelles
40
 Ribosome

Centriole
No membrane

Cytoskeleton

Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Golgi apparatus

Lysosomes
Single membrane
Organelles

Peroxisome

Vacuoles

Mitochondria
41

Chloroplasts
Double membrane
Ribosome

■ No membrane
■ Specialized cell organelles found in
both prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells
■ Every living cell requires ribosomes
for production of proteins
■ 2 subunit → large & small subunit
Function
■ Protein synthesis
https://sites.google.com/site/cell941tu78/_/rsrc/1454141051387/neuxha/cell6.jpg

42
Ribosome
Found at 2 locations
■ Free ribosome
– Free in the cytoplasm
– Synthesize proteins mostly for
use within cell
■ Bound ribosomes
– Attached to rough endoplasmic
reticulum
– Synthesize proteins mostly for
export (secretion) from the cell
or use in lysosome
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Ribosome

43
Ribosome

https://knowledgist9.com/ribosomes-function/

44
Centriole

■ Mostly found in eukaryote cell

■ No membrane
■ Paired barrel-shaped organelles
■ Pair commonly known as
centrosome
■ Main function ➔ help with cell
division in animal cells.
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Centriole

45
Cytoskeleton
■ Complex, dynamic network of interlinking protein filaments present
in the cytoplasm of all cells

https://www.ahmadcoaching.com/2020/10/structure-and-function-of-cytoskeleton.html
46
Cytoskeleton
Functions
1. Integral strength
2. Cell shape
3. Motility
– inside the cell
– whole cell
– motor proteins associated with 2 filament
systems
4. Signal transduction

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47931943_The_Neurofibromatosis_2_tumor_suppressor_merlin_in_c
47
ytoskeleton_organization_and_cell_cycle_regulation/figures?lo=1&utm_source=google&utm_medium=organic
 Cytoskeleton

Cytoskeletal filaments
1. Intermediate filaments are found throughout the cell and hold organelles in place.
2. Microfilaments thicken the cortex around the inner edge of a cell; like rubber bands, they resist tension.
3. Microtubules are found in the interior of the cell where they maintain cell shape by resisting compressive forces.

https://cnx.org/contents/YJx4WKaS@1/07-5-The-Cytoskeleton-MS
48
The microfilaments of this cell
are shown in red, while
microtubules are shown in green.
The blue dots are nuclei.

https://biologydictionary.net/cytoskeleton/

49
https://microbenotes.com/cytoskeleton/

50
Cytoskeleton
Microtubules
Structure
■ Thickest fibers
■ Hollow rods about 25nm in diameter
■ Constructed of protein, tubulin
■ Grow or shrink as more tubulin
molecules are added or removed
https://biologydictionary.net/microtubule/

51
Cytoskeleton
Microtubules
Function structural support & cell movement

■ Move chromosomes ■ Tracks that guide motor proteins

during cell division carrying organelles to their destination
– Centrioles – motor proteins: myosin & dynein
■ Motility
– Cilia
– flagella

52
Cytoskeleton
Microtubules

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Figure_04_03_08.jpg
53
Cytoskeleton
Microtubules
• The Difference between Cilia and Flagella is
in their function and presence since they are
structurally similar.
• They are made of microtubules that are
arranged in 9 pairs.
• Cilia are smaller as compared to flagella and
their movement is also faster.
• Cilia are only present in eukaryotes while
flagella are present on cell surfaces of the
eukaryotic and prokaryotic organism.
https://anydifferencebetween.com/difference-between-cilia-and-flagella/

54
https://www.majordifferences.com/2016/07/difference-between-cilia-and-centriole.html
55
Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments (actin filaments)
Structure
■ Thinnest class of fibers
■ Solid rods of protein, actin
twisted double chain of
actin subunits
■ About 7nm in diameter
Function
■ 3-D network inside cell
membrane
■ In muscle cells, actin
filaments interact with
myosin filaments to create
muscle contraction
56
Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments (actin filaments)

57
https://mmegias.webs.uvigo.es/02-english/5-celulas/7-actina.php https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1/chapter/reading-microfilaments/
Cytoskeleton
Intermediate filaments
Structure
■ specialized for bearing tension
■ built from keratin proteins
– same protein as hair
■ intermediate in size 8-12nm
Function
■ hold “things” in place inside cell
■ more permanent fixtures of cytoskeleton
■ reinforce cell shape & fix organelle
location
– nucleus is held in place by a network
of intermediate filaments
58
Cytoskeleton
Intermediate filaments

https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Cell_and_Molecular_Biology/Book%3A_Cells_-
_Molecules_and_Mechanisms_(Wong)/12%3A_Cytoskeleton/12.02%3A_Intermediate_Filaments
59
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

■ Complex network of tubular membranes exclusively present in

the cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cell
■ Continuous folds, eventually joining the outer layer of
the nuclear membrane
■ 2 types
– Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
– Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) - ribosome-studded
surface

60
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

https://byjus.com/biology/endoplasmic-reticulum/ https://tengk.wordpress.com/2015/11/05/set-27-general-science-biology/
61
62
 SER
vs
RER

https://biodifferences.net/difference-between-
smooth-and-rough-endoplasmic-reticulum/
63
Golgi apparatus

■ Also known as Golgi complex, Golgi body or Golgi.

■ Membrane bound organelles, which are sac-like.

■ Found in cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells and absent in prokaryotes,

Mammalian RBCs and sperm cells of bryophytes.

■ Ranges from one to several within a cell.

■ In plant cells several small Golgi complex – dictyosomes.

64
Golgi apparatus

Structure Function
■ flattened membrane sacs = cisternae ■ Modified proteins & lipids

■ 2 sides = 2 functions ■ Process materials to be

removed from the cell
– cis = receives material by fusing with
vesicles = “receiving” ■ Make & secrete mucus
– trans buds off vesicles cis that travel to ■ Packages products into vesicles
other sites = “shipping” (transport) for transport

65
Golgi apparatus

https://microbenotes.com/golgi-apparatus-structure-and-functions/
66
Golgi apparatus

https://id.pinterest.com/diahytm927/tugas-poster-golgi-biosel/ https://bhavanajagat.com/2015/06/10/a-science-of-consciousness/
67
Lysosome

Structure
■ Sacs of enzymes that hydrolyze/digest
macromolecules
■ Enzymes made by rough ER only in animal cells

68
Lysosome

Cell digestion
■ Lysosomes fuse with
food vacuoles
■ Polymers digested
into monomers

69
https://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/L/lysosome.html
Lysosome

Apoptosis
■ Lysosomes can kill cells when they need to die for proper
development
■ Self-destruct
■ Lysosomes break open & kill cell
■ Ex: tadpole tail gets re-absorbed when it turns into a frog

70
Peroxisome
■ Other digestive enzyme sacs
■ In both animals & plants
■ Breakdown fatty acids to sugars
■ Why? Sugars are easier energy source
■ Detoxify cell alcohol/poisons
■ Produce peroxide (H2O2)
– must breakdown
– H2O2 → H2 O + O (bubbles)

71
Peroxisome

https://www.thinglink.com/scene/1249038714911326209 72
Vacuole

■ Membrane-bound cell organelles present in cytoplasm & filled with watery fluid
containing various substance

Function
■ Storage materials like water, food, nutrients & waste product
■ Destroy bacterial intruders, stores helpful bacteria
■ Storage ions & compounds that cannot be satisfactorily stopped in the cytoplasm.
■ Protozoans & animal cells vacuoles have osmoregulatory, digestive & defensive role.
■ Balances the pH value of the cell.

73
Vacuole

https://www.expii.com/t/vacuoles-structure-function-10124

74
Vacuole

https://www.expii.com/t/vacuoles-structure-function-10124

75
Vacuole

https://www.expii.com/t/vacuoles-structure-function-10124

76
Mitochondria

■ Membrane-bound organelles
present in the cytoplasm of all
eukaryotic cells, that produces
adinosine triphosphate (ATP),
the main energy molecule used
by the cell

https://www.lhsc.on.ca/medical-genetics-program-of-southwestern-ontario/all-about-mitochondria

77
 Mitochondria

■ SIZE: 0.5 - 1.0 μm in diameter

■ SHAPE: normally Sausage shaped,
■ NUMBER: Depends on type size &
functional state of cell.
– Ex: An average liver cells contain
around 1500 mitochondria.
■ LOCATION: Cells with high energy
requirements
Electron micrograph of one mitochondrion within a mouse liver cell (hepatocyte). – Ex: Sperm tail, Muscle, Flagella
The cytoplasm surrounding this organelle contains free polyribosomes, cisternae of
rough endoplasmic reticulum, glycogen granules, and vesicles. May 20, 2015 ©
Dr.M (Dr.M on Science, Research, & Scientists)

78
Mitochondria

Structure
1. Outer Membrane
2. Intermembrane Space
3. Inner Membrane
4. Cristae
5. Matrix

The outer and inner membrane is composed of

phospholipid bilayers and proteins.
https://sites.google.com/a/lublae.ac.th/my-site4/mi-tho-khxn-de-riy-khux-xari
The two membranes have different properties.
79
Mitochondria
FUNCTIONS
■ Energy transducer of the cell- synthesis of ATP
– Kreb’s cycle in matrix
– ETC system
– Phosphorylating system- ATPase
■ Extra mitochondrial inheritance
– mtDNA contains plasma genes (extra chromosomal genes)
– Transmitted from mother to the offspring
■ Synthesis of mtDNA, RNA, protein.
– Bring about gene expression through gene duplication transcription and
translation.
– Synthesis 13 different polypeptides in human.

80
Chloroplast

■ Chloroplasts are plant organelles Class of plant structures = plastids

■ amyloplasts
– store starch in roots & tubers
■ chromoplasts
– store pigments for fruits & flowers
■ chloroplasts
– store chlorophyll & function in
photosynthesis
– in leaves, other green structures of
https://rsscience.com/chloroplast-function-and-structure-solar-panels/
plants & in eukaryotic algae
81
Chloroplast

■ Surrounded by double membrane. ■ A stack of thylakoids is called a granum

■ Thickened regions called thylakoids. ■ Stroma is a liquid surrounding the
thylakoids
https://rsscience.com/chloroplast-function-and-structure-solar-panels/ 82
Chloroplast

https://justinegraykin.wordpress.com/2011/10/12/thinking-like-a-chloroplast/ https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-biology-concepts/r143/section/2.20/ 83
Chloroplast

Function
■ Photosynthesis
■ Generate ATP & synthesize
sugars
– transform solar energy
into chemical energy
– produce sugars from CO2

84
 CELL DIVISION
AND CELL CYCLE
 Chromosomes

“Structure within the cell that bears

the genetic material as a threadlike linear
strand of DNA bonded to various proteins
in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, or as a
circular strand of DNA (or RNA in some
viruses) in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes
and in the mitochondrion and chloroplast
of certain eukaryotes.”

86
Chromosomes

https://www.dreamstime.com/difference-homologous-chromosomes-pair-homologous-chromosomes-sister-chromatids-difference-homologous-image158332961
87
Cell division

■ Process cells go through to divide

■ Prokaryotes → binary fission

■ Eukaryotes → Mitosis

■ Sexually-reproducing eukaryotes
→ Meiosis
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-communication-and-cell-cycle/cell-cycle/a/cell-cycle-phases

88
Cell cycle
”series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides”

Divided into two major phases:

■ Interphase – cell grows into its mature size, makes a copy of its
DNA, and prepares for division.
■ Mitosis (Mitotic phase, M-phase) – one copy of the DNA is
distributed into each of its daughter cells

89
Mitotic (M) phase Interphase
■ Prophase ■ G1
■ Metaphase ■ S (DNA replication)
■ Anaphase ■ G2
■ Telophase

https://www.sciencefacts.net/cell-cycle.html 90
Interphase

■ Chromosome gets duplicated as the cell

prepares for division

■ Longest part of the cell cycle involving

three sub-phases

■ Duration of this phase is 23 hours

https://www.sciencefacts.net/cell-cycle.html 91
Interphase

G1-phase
■ First-gap phase
■ Cells grow in size
■ Synthesize cell organelles &
macromolecules; proteins
■ Accumulate sufficient energy
required for division

https://www.pngwing.com/en/free-png-ddqwy/download
92
Interphase

S-phase (DNA-replication)
■ Synthesis phase → the
existing DNA is copied
within the nucleus
■ Centrosome → duplicated
→ rise to spindle fibers

https://www.pngwing.com/en/free-png-ddqwy/download
93
Interphase

G2-phase
■ Second gap phase
■ Similar to the G1-phase
■ Cells grow further in size
■ Making more proteins &
organelles
■ Preparations for mitosis get
completed

https://www.pngwing.com/en/free-png-ddqwy/download
94
Cell Division

■ Once the cell is ready to ■ Two key steps

divide & make two new – Cytokinesis
identical cells, it enters
– Karyokinesis
mitosis (M Phase)
■ During the M Phase, all of
the cell’s energy is devoted
to the process of cell
division.

file:///C:/Users/nattapat/Downloads/Major_events_in_mitosis.svg 95
Mitosis (M-Phase)

There are four stages

1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase

https://cell171.wordpress.com/cell-division/
96
Prophase

■ Chromatin condense into

chromosome

■ Nucleolus disappear

97
http://cyberbridge.mcb.harvard.edu/mitosis_5.html
Metaphase

■ Chromosomes align upon

theoretical line →
metaphase plate

■ Centrosomes located at
opposite ends of the cell

98
http://cyberbridge.mcb.harvard.edu/mitosis_5.html
Anaphase

■ Sister chromatids are pulled to

opposite ends of the cell
■ Spindle fibers contract, breaking
the chromatids at the centromere
■ Moving them to opposite poles of
the cell
■ Spindle fibers not attached to
chromatids will elongate the
cell to prepare it for division.

99
http://cyberbridge.mcb.harvard.edu/mitosis_5.html
Telophase

■ Cell has elongated

■ Nearly finished dividing

■ Chromosomes decondense

■ Mitotic spindles fibers are

broken down

100
http://cyberbridge.mcb.harvard.edu/mitosis_5.html
Cytokinesis

■ Division of the cytoplasm

■ Begins between anaphase &
telophase
■ However, doesn’t finish until after
telophase
■ Actin ring pinches the cytoplasm
along a crease → cleavage furrow
■ This splits the cytoplasm equally
between the two cells.

101
http://cyberbridge.mcb.harvard.edu/mitosis_5.html
Cytokinesis

https://teachmephysiology.com/biochemistry/cell-growth-death/mitosis/
102
http://cyberbridge.mcb.harvard.edu/mitosis_5.html
Mitosis

VDO : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DwAFZb8juMQ 103

Meiosis
“Process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells
containing half the original amount of genetic information”

These cells are sex cells ;

• sperm in males
• eggs in female

104
Meiosis
Meiosis I
■ Divided into meiosis I & meiosis II • Prophase I
• Metaphase I
• Anaphase I
• Telophase I
Meiosis II
• Prophase II
• Metaphase II
• Anaphase II
• Telophase II
https://stock.adobe.com/search?k=meiosis&asset_id=273158166
105
Meiosis

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-meiosis
106
Prophase I

■ Similar to prophase in mitosis

■ Chromosomes condense & move towards
the middle of the cell
■ Chromosomes pair with
their homologous partner (unlike mitosis)
■ Pairs of chromosomes exchange bits of
DNA in a process → recombination or
crossing over
■ At the end of Prophase I, the membrane
around the nucleus in the cell dissolves
away, releasing the chromosomes

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-meiosis
107
Metaphase I

■ Homologous pairs of chromosomes

line up on the metaphase plate
■ This step called reductional division
■ Centrioles are at opposite poles of
the cell
■ Spindle fibers from one pole attach to
one chromosome
■ Spindle fibers from the opposite pole
attach to the homologous
chromosome

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-meiosis
108
Anaphase I

■ Much like anaphase of

mitosis
■ Each of the homologous
chromosomes get pulled
towards opposite poles of
the cell as the spindle fibers
retract
■ This equally divides the DNA
between the two cells which
will be formed

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-meiosis
109
Telophase I

■ Chromosomes are pulled

completely apart
■ New nuclear envelopes form
■ The plasm membrane is
separated by cytokinesis
■ Two new cells are effectively
formed

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-meiosis
110
Prophase II

■ Resembles prophase I
■ Nuclear envelopes disappear
■ Centrioles formed
■ Microtubules extend across the
cell to connect to the kinetochores
of individual chromatids,
connected by centromeres
■ Chromosomes begin to get pulled
toward the metaphase plate
https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-meiosis
111
Metaphase II

■ Resembling mitosis
■ Chromosomes line up with
their centromeres on the
metaphase plate
■ One sister chromatid is on
each side of the metaphase
plate

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-meiosis
112
Anaphase II

■ Sister chromatids separate

by pulled toward the
centrioles
■ This separation marks the
final division of the DNA

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-meiosis
113
Telophase II

■ Cell is now divided into two

■ Chromosomes are on
opposite ends of the cell
■ Cytokinesis or plasma
division occurs,
■ New nuclear envelopes are
formed around he
chromosomes.

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-meiosis
114
Meiosis

VDO : 115
 Mitosis and Meiosis : Similarities

Mitosis and Meiosis

Diploid parent cell

Consists of interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase

In metaphase individual chromosomes (pairs of chromatids) line up along
the equator.
During anaphase the sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles.

Ends with cytokinesis.

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/mitosis-versus-meiosis
116
 Mitosis VS Meiosis : Differences
Mitosis Meiosis

Involves one cell division? Involves two successive cell divisions

Results in two daughter cells Results in four daughter cells

Results in diploid? daughter cells? (chromosome? number Results in haploid? daughter cells (chromosome number is halved

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/mitosis-versus-meiosis
remains the same as parent cell) from the parent cell)
Daughter cells are genetically identical Daughter cells are genetically different

Occurs in all organisms except viruses Occurs only in animals, plants and fungi

Creates all body cells (somatic?) apart from the germ cells? Creates germ cells (eggs and sperm) only
(eggs and sperm)
Prophase is much shorter. Prophase I takes much longer

No recombination/crossing over occurs in prophase. Involves recombination/crossing over of chromosomes in

prophase I
In metaphase individual chromosomes (pairs of chromatids) In metaphase I pairs of chromosomes line up along the equator.
line up along the equator.
During anaphase the sister chromatids are separated to During anaphase I the sister chromatids move together to the
opposite poles same pole.
During anaphase II the sister chromatids are separated to
opposite poles.
117
Mitosis VS Meiosis : Differences

118
https://byjus.com/biology/mitosis-and-meiosis/
Thank
you

119