CH3 Design Considerations of Primary Systems Mars 2020

Chapter 3
Design Considerations of
Primary Systems
1. Introduction
The part of the electric utility system which is between the
distribution substation and the distribution transformers is called the
primary system.
It is made of circuits known as primary feeders or primary distribution

feeders.
FIGURE 3.1 shows a one-line diagram of a typical primary distribution

feeder that includes a "main" or main feeder, which usually is a 3-phase
4-wire circuit, and branches or laterals, which usually are single-phase
or 3-phase circuits tapped off the main. Also, sublaterals may be tapped
off the laterals as necessary.
In general, laterals and sublaterals located in residential and rural

areas are single-phase: one-phase conductor and the neutral.
The majority of the distribution transformers are single-phase and

connected between the phase and the neutral through fuse cutouts.
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 2
1. Introduction
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 3

1. Introduction
A given feeder is sectionalized by reclosing devices at various
locations in such a manner as to remove as little as possible of the
faulted circuit so as to hinder service to as few consumers as possible.
This can be achieved through the coordination of the operation of all

the fuses and reclosers.
The congested and heavy-load locations in metropolitan areas are

served by using underground primary feeders. They are usually radial
three-conductor cables. This method is more expensive, and the repair
time is overhead systems.
In some cases, the cable can be employed as suspended on poles. The

cost involved is greater than that of open-wire but much less than that of
underground installation.
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 4

1. Introduction
The voltage conditions on distribution systems can be improved by
using shunt capacitors which are connected as near the loads as
possible to derive the greatest benefit.
The use of shunt capacitors also improves the power factor involved
which in turn lessens the voltage drops and currents, and therefore
losses, in the portions of a distribution system between the capacitors
and the bulk power buses.
The capacitor ratings should be selected carefully to prevent the

occurrence of excessive over voltages at times of light loads because of
the voltage rise produced by the capacitor currents.
The voltage conditions on distribution systems can also be improved

by using series capacitors. But the application of series capacitors does
not reduce the currents and therefore losses, in the system.
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 5

2. Radial Type Primary Feeder
The simplest and the
lowest cost and therefore
the most common form of
primary feeder is the
radial-type primary feeder
as shown in FIGURE 3.2.
The main primary feeder

branches into various
primary laterals which in
turn separates into several
sublaterals to serve all the
distribution transformers.
FIGURE 3.2 Radial-type primary feeder
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 6
In general, the main feeder and subfeeders are three-phase three- or
four-wire circuits and the laterals are three- or single-phase.
The current magnitude is the greatest in the circuit conductors that

leave the substation. The current magnitude continually lessens out
toward the end of the feeder as laterals and sublaterals are tapped off
the feeder.
Usually, as the current lessens, the size of the feeder conductors is
also reduced. However, the permissible voltage regulation may restrict
any feeder size reduction which is based only on the thermal capability,
that is, current-carrying capacity, of the feeder.
The reliability of service continuity of the radial primary feeders is
low. A fault occurrence at any location on the radial primary feeder
causes a power outage for every consumer on the feeder unless the
fault can be isolated from the source by a disconnecting device such as
a fuse, sectionalizer, disconnect switch, or recloser.
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 7
FIGURE 3.3 shows a

modified radial-type
primary feeder with tie
and sectionalizing
switches to provide fast
restoration of service to
customers by switching
unfaulted sections of the
feeder to an adjacent
primary feeder or feeders.

with tie and sectionalizing switches.
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 8
FIGURE 3.4 shows another type
of radial primary feeder with
express feeder and backfeed.
The section of the feeder

between the substation low-
voltage bus and the load center
of the service area is called an
express feeder.
No subfeeders or laterals are

allowed to be tapped off the
express feeder.
However, a subfeeder is allowed

to provide a backfeed toward the
substation from the load center. with express feeder and backfeed
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 9
The FIGURE 3.5 shows a

radial-type phase-area
feeder arrangement in
which each phase of the
three-phase feeder
serves its own service
area
FIGURE 3.5 Radial-type phase-area feeder

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 10
3. Loop - Type Primary Feeder
The loop-type primary feeder arrangement, shown in FIGURE 3.6, is
especially beneficial to provide service for loads where high service
reliability is important.
Usually, the size of the feeder conductor is kept the same throughout
the loop. It is selected to carry its normal load plus the load of the other
half of the loop.
This arrangement provides two parallel paths from the substation to

the load when the loop is operated with normally open tie breakers or
disconnect switches.
The parallel feeder paths can also be connected to separate bus

sections in the substation and supplied from separate transformers.
In addition to main feeder loops, normally open lateral loops are also
used, particularly in underground systems.
3. Loop - Type Primary Feeder
FIGURE 3.6 Loop-type primary feeder

4. Primary Network
Primary network is a
system of interconnected
feeders supplied by a
number of substations as
shown in FIGURE 3.7.
The radial primary

feeders can be tapped off
the interconnecting tie
feeders.
FIGURE 3.7 Primary network

4. Primary Network
The reliability and the
quality of service of the
primary network
arrangement is much
higher than the radial
and loop arrangements.
However, it is more
difficult to design and
operate than the radial or
loop systems.
FIGURE 3.7 Primary network
5. Primary-Feeder Voltage Levels
The primary-feeder voltage level is the most important factor
affecting the system design, cost, and operation.
The primary-feeder voltage level selection are affected by many
factors, as shown in FIGURE 3.8.
FIGURE 3.8 Factors affecting primary-

feeder voltage-level selection decision.
TABLE 3.1 gives typical primary
voltage levels used in the United
States.
TABLE 3.1
Typical Primary Voltage Levels

Usually, primary feeders located in low-load density areas are
restricted in length and loading by permissible voltage drop rather than
by thermal restrictions,
Whereas primary feeders located in high-load density areas, e.g.,

industrial and commercial areas, may be restricted by the thermal
limitations.
In general, for a given percent voltage drop, the feeder length and
loading are direct functions of the feeder voltage level. This relationship
is known as the voltage-square rule.

Lokay explains it clearly, the feeder with the increased length feeds
more load.
Therefore the advantage obtained by the new and higher-voltage level

through the voltage-square factor, has to be allocated between the
growth in load and in distance.
Further, the same percent voltage drop will always result provided
that the following relationship exists:
where
and

The relationship between the voltage-square factor rule and the
feeder distance coverage principle is further explained in FIGURE 3.9 .
FIGURE 3.9 Illustration

of the voltage-square
rule and the feeder
distance coverage
principle as a function
of feeder voltage level
and a single load

There is a relationship between the area served by a substation and
the voltage-rule. Lokay defines it as the area-coverage principle, as
illustrated in FIGURE. 3.10,
FIGURE 3.10
Feeder area coverage
principle as related to
feeder voltage and a
uniformly distributed load.
For a constant percent voltage drop and a uniformly distributed load,
the feeder service area is proportional to
For example, if the new feeder voltage level is increased to twice the
previous voltage level, the new load and area that can be served with the
same percent voltage drop is
times the original load and area.
If the new feeder voltage level is increased to three times the previous
voltage level, the new load and area that can be served with the same
percent voltage drop is
times the original load and area.

6. Tie Lines
A tie line is a line that

connects two supply systems to
provide emergency service to
one system from another, as
shown in FIGURE 3.14.
FIGURE 3.14 One-line diagram of typical

two-substation area supply with tie lines

6. Tie Lines
Therefore tie lines are needed to perform either of the following two
functions:
To provide emergency service for an adjacent feeder for the

reduction of outage time to the customers during emergency
conditions.
To provide emergency service for adjacent substation systems,

thereby eliminating the necessity of having an emergency backup
supply at every substation.
Tie lines should be installed when more than one substation is

required to serve the area load at one primary distribution voltage.

7. Distribution Feeder Exit 7.1. Rectangular Type Development
The objective of this section is to provide an example for a uniform
area development plan to minimize the circuitry changes associated
with the systematic expansion of the distribution system.
Assume that underground feeder exits are extended out of a

distribution substation into an existing overhead system. Also assume
that at the ultimate development of this substation, a 6-mi2 service area
will be served with a total of 12 feeder circuits, 4 per transformer.
Assuming uniform load distribution, each of the 12 circuits would

serve approximately (1/2) mi2 in a fully developed service area.
This is called the rectangular-type development and is illustrated in

FIGURES 3.15 through 3.18.

FIGURE 3.15 Rectangular-type development

FIGURE 3.16 Rectangular-type development with two transformers

In general, adjacent service areas are served from different
transformer banks in order to provide for transfer to adjacent circuits in
the event of transformer outages.
The addition of new feeder circuits and transformer banks requires
circuit number changes as the service area develops.
FIGURE 3.17 Rectangular-type development with two transformers

FIGURE 3.18 Rectangular-type development with three transformers

7. Distribution Feeder Exit 7.2. Radial Type Development
This type of development resembles a wagon wheel with the
substation as the hub and the radial spokes as the feeders.
FIGURE 3.19 Radial-type development

8. Application of the A, B, C, D general circuit constants
to radial feeders
FIGURE 3.20 shows a single-phase or balanced three-phase
transmission or distribution circuit characterized by the general circuit
constants:
Assume that all data represent either per phase dimensional values or
per unit values.
FIGURE 3.20 A symbolic representation of a line

to radial feeders
As shown in FIGURE 3.21,

taking phasor ⊽r as the
reference,
FIGURE 3.21 Phasor diagram
where ⊽r is the receiving-end voltage phasor, ⊽S is the sending-end

voltage phasor, and Īr is the receiving-end current phasor.
8. Application of the A, B, C, D general circuit constants to
radial feeders
The sending-end voltage in terms of the general circuit constants can
be expressed as:
where
The receiving-end active and reactive powers can be expressed as:

radial feeders
The receiving-end voltage can be found as:
where
Therefore, the receiving-end current can be found as:
The phase angle of the sending-end voltage is obtained from the

equation below:

radial feeders
Equations (3.18), (3.19) and (3.21) could be adapted to the simpler
transmission consisting of a short primary voltage feeder where the
feeder capacitance is usually negligible, as shown in FIGURE 3.22.
FIGURE 3.22 A radial feeder
To achieve the adaptation, the general circuit constants can be

expressed as:

radial feeders
Therefore, for the feeder shown in FIGURE 3.22, Equations (3.18),
(3.19), and (3.21) can be written in terms of R and X.
or
or
where
Also, from Equation (3.21),

radial feeders
EXAMPLE 3.1
Assume that the radial express feeder, shown in FIGURE 3.25, is used on
rural distribution and is connected to a lumped-sum (or concentrated)
load at the receiving end.
Assume that the feeder impedance is 0.10 + j0.10 per unit (pu), the
sending-end voltage is 1.0 pu, Pr is 1.0 pu constant power load, and the
power factor at the receiving end is 0.80 lagging. Use the given data and
the exact equations for K, Pr and tanδ given previously and determine
the following:
(a) Compute Vr and δ by using the exact equations and find also the
corresponding values of the Ir and Is currents.
(b) Verify the numerical results found in part (a) by using those results in

to radial feeders
SOLUTION OF EXAMPLE 3.1
(a) Compute Vr and δ by using the exact equations and find also the
corresponding values of the Ir and Is currents.
Receiving-end voltage Vr using the exact equations
From Equation (3.29),

to radial feeders
Phase angle of the sending-end volage δ
Therefore
The Ir and Is currents


9. Design of Radial Primary Distribution systems
9.1. Overhead primaries with overhead laterals
FIGURE 3.23 shows an
arrangement for
overhead distribution
which includes a main
feeder and 10 laterals
connected to the main
with sectionalizing fuses.
Here, the feeder mains
are three-phase and of 10
short blocks length or
less.
The laterals, on the
other hand, are all of six
long blocks length and
are protected with FIGURE 3.23
sectionalizing fuses. An overhead radial distribution system
9.1. Overhead primaries with overhead laterals
In general, the laterals
may be either single-
phase, open wye-
grounded, or three-
phase.
Here, in the event of a

permanent fault on a
lateral line, only a
relatively small fraction
of the total area is
FIGURE 3.23
outaged. An overhead radial distribution system
9.2. Underground Residential Distribution (URD)
Although an URD costs somewhere between 1.25 and 10 times more
than a comparable overhead system, because of its certain advantages it
is used commonly.
Among the advantages of the underground system are:

The lack of outages caused by the abnormal weather conditions such
as ice, sleet, snow, severe rain and storms, and lightning
The lack of outages caused by accidents, fires, and foreign objects
The lack of tree trimming and other preventative maintenance tasks
The aesthetic improvement
FIGURE 3.24 shows an URD for a typical overhead and underground

primary distribution system of the two-way feed type.

9.2. Underground
Residential
Distribution (URD)
FIGURE 3.24 A two-way feed-

type underground residential
distribution system.

FIGURE 3.25 shows

apparatus, suggested by
Lokay, that is or has been
used to accomplish the
desired switching or
sectionalizing.
FIGURE 3.25 Single-line diagram of loop-type

primary-feeder circuits:
(a) with a disconnect switch at each transformer;
(b) without a disconnect switch at each transformer.
In FIGURE 3.25 (a), if
the cable "above” is
faulted, the switch at C
and the switch or cutout
"above" C are opened,
and, at the same time,
the sectionalizing switch
at B is closed.
Therefore, the faulted

cable above C and the
distribution
transformer at C are FIGURE 3.25 Single-line diagram of loop-type
primary-feeder circuits:
then out of service. (a) with a disconnect switch at each transformer;
(b) without a disconnect switch at each transformer.
FIGURE 3.26 shows a distribution transformer with internal high-
voltage fuse and with stick operated plug-in type of high-voltage load
break connectors.
Some of the commonly used plug-in types of load break connector

ratings include 8.66-kV line-to-neutral, 200-A continuous 200-A load
break, and 10,000-A symmetrical fault close-in rating.
FIGURE 3. 26
A distribution transformer with
internal high-voltage fuse and
load-break connectors

FIGURE 3.27 shows a distribution transformer with internal high-
voltage fuse and with stick operated high-voltage load break switches
that can be used in FIGURE 3.25a to allow four modes of operation,
namely:
1. The transformer is energized and the loop is closed
2. The transformer is energized and the loop is open to the right
3. The transformer is energized and the loop is open to the left
4. The transformer is deenergized and the loop is open.
FIGURE 3. 27
A distribution transformer with
internal high-voltage fuses and
load-break switches

9.3. Types of distribution load
Uniformly Distribution Load
Since the load is

uniformly distributed
along the main, as
shown in FIGURE 3.28,
the load current in the
main is a function of the
distance.
FIGURE 3.28 A uniformly distributed main feeder

9.3. Types of distribution load
Non-uniformly Distribution Load
The single-line diagram, shown in

FIGURE 3.29, illustrates a three-
phase feeder main which has the
tapped-off load increasing linearly
with the distance.
FIGURE 3.29 A uniformly

distributed main feeder

9.4. Voltage Drop
FIGURE 3.30 shows the Voltage Drops from the feed point (A) to the
ends of the laterals (a) or (a’).
The percent voltage drop from the feed point (A) to the end of the
lateral (a) is:
%VDAa = %VDAB + %VDBa
%VDBa %VDBa’
%VDAB
FIGURE 3. 30
Voltage drops illustration

9.4. Voltage Drop
Each Voltage is given by:
VD (pu) = S×K×Sn (pu)
In Equation (3.32), s is the effective length of the feeder main which

depends on the nature of the load. For example:
when the load is connected at the end of the main as lumped sum, the
effective feeder length is
when the load is uniformly distributed along the main,
when the load has an increasing load density,

9.4. Voltage Drop
In Equation (3.32), K is a
constant determined from
FIGURE 3.31 for various
voltages and copper
conductor sizes.
FIGURE 3.31 is developed

for three-phase overhead
lines with an equivalent
spacing of 37 inches
between phase conductors.
FIGURE 3.31 The K constant for
copper conductors, assuming a
lagging load power factor of 0.9.

EXAMPLE 3.2
The three-phase 4.l6-kV wye-grounded feeder main shown in FIGURE
3.32 has #4 copper conductors with an equivalent spacing of 37 inches
A lumped-sum load of 500 kVA with a lagging load power factor of 0.9 is
connected at the end of a 1-mi long feeder main. Calculate the percent
voltage drop in the main.
FIGURE 3.32 Feeder of Example 3.2.

The percent voltage drop in the main is given by:
The load is connected at the end of the main as lumped sum, the
effective feeder length is:
The K constant is determined from FIGURE 3.31 as:
By projection
(# 4 Copper ; VLL = 4.16 kV) K = 0.01

EXAMPLE 3.3
A lumped-sum load of 500 kVA with a lagging load power factor of 0.9 is
uniformly distributed along the feeder main. Calculate the percent
voltage drop in the main.
FIGURE 3.33 Feeder of Example 3.3.

The load is uniformly distributed along the main, the effective feeder
length is:
By projection
(# 4 Copper ; VLL = 4.16 kV) K = 0.01

EXAMPLE 3.4
A lumped-sum load of 500 kVA with a lagging load power factor of 0.9
and having a load increasing density is distributed along the feeder
main. Calculate the percent voltage drop in the main.
FIGURE 3.34 Feeder of Example 3.4

The load has an increasing load density, the effective feeder length is:
By projection
(# 4 Copper ; VLL = 4.16 kV) K = 0.01

EXAMPLE 3.5
Consider the layout of the area and the annual peak demands shown in
FIGURE 3.23.
Assume the following:
lagging load power factor of 0.90 at all locations in all primary circuits
at the time of the annual peak load.
the single-phase load is perfectly balanced among the three phases.
uniformly distributed load along all laterals.
nominal operating voltage when computing current from the KVA load.
maximum allowable voltage drop is limited to 4.0%.
Open-wire overhead primaries is with three-phase four-wire laterals,
the nominal voltage is used as the base voltage and is equal to
2400/4160 V for the three-phase four-wire grounded-wye primary
system with copper conductors,
equivalent spacing between phase conductors Dm = 37 inches.
EXAMPLE 3.5
Consider only the "longest” primary circuit Use ampacity-sized

conductors but in no case smaller than AWG#6 for reasons of mechanical
strength.
(a) Draw the one line diagram of the longest primary circuit.
(b) Determine the peak demands per lateral.
(c) Determine the peak demands on the main.
(d)Determine the percent voltage drops at the ends of laterals and main.
(e) If the 4% maximum voltage drop criterion is exceeded, find a
reasonable combination of larger conductors for the main and for the
laterals that will meet the voltage drop criterion.


(a) One line diagram of the longest primary circuit.
FIGURE 3.35
The "longest"
primary circuit.
(b) The peak demand per lateral is found as:

144 customers x 3.6 kVA/Customer ≅ 518 kVA
(c) The peak demand on the main feeder is found as:
518 x 2 ≅ 1036 kVA

(d) The percent voltage drops at the ends of the laterals and the main.
− The current in each lateral is:
− The current in the main is:
− Hence, from Table A.1, AWG #4 copper conductor with 180-A

ampacity is selected for the mains.
− Here, note that the AWG #5 copper conductors with 150-A ampacity
is not selected because of the resultant too-high total voltage drop.

9. Design of Radial
Primary Distribution
systems
SOLUTION OF
EXAMPLE 3.5
From Table A.1,

AWG #6 copper conductor
with 130-A ampacity is
selected for the laterals.
AWG #4 copper conductor
with 180-A ampacity is
selected for the main.

Voltage Drops calculation:
− From FIGURE 3.31, the K constants for the AWG #6 laterals and the
AWG #4 mains can be found to be 0.015 and 0.01, respectively.
− The load is assumed to be uniformly distributed along the lateral,
1 mi = 5280 ft
− The main is considered to have a lumped-sum load of 1036 kVA at
the end of its length,
− Therefore, the total percent primary voltage drop is:
which exceeds the maximum primary voltage drop criterion of 4.00%.

Here, note that if single-phase laterals were used instead of the three-
phase laterals, according to Morrison the percent voltage drop of a
single-phase circuit is approximately four times that for a three-phase
circuit, assuming the use of the same size conductors. Hence, for the
laterals,
Therefore, the new total percent voltage drop would be:
which would be far exceeding the maximum primary voltage drop

criterion of 4.00%.

(b) Therefore, to meet the maximum primary voltage drop criterion of
4.00%, from Table A.1 select 4/0 and AWG #1 copper conductors with
ampacities of 480 A and 270 A for the main and laterals, respectively.
Hence, the lateral Voltage Drop in % is given by:
and the main Voltage Drop in % is given by:

Therefore,
which meets the maximum primary voltage drop criterion of 4.00%.

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Chapter 3

It is made of circuits known as primary feeders or primary distribution

FIGURE 3.1 shows a one-line diagram of a typical primary distribution

In general, laterals and sublaterals located in residential and rural

The majority of the distribution transformers are single-phase and

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 3

This can be achieved through the coordination of the operation of all

The congested and heavy-load locations in metropolitan areas are

In some cases, the cable can be employed as suspended on poles. The

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 4

The capacitor ratings should be selected carefully to prevent the

The voltage conditions on distribution systems can also be improved

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 5

The main primary feeder

The current magnitude is the greatest in the circuit conductors that

FIGURE 3.3 shows a

FIGURE 3.3 Radial-type primary feeder

The section of the feeder

No subfeeders or laterals are

However, a subfeeder is allowed

The FIGURE 3.5 shows a

FIGURE 3.5 Radial-type phase-area feeder

This arrangement provides two parallel paths from the substation to

The parallel feeder paths can also be connected to separate bus

FIGURE 3.6 Loop-type primary feeder

The radial primary

FIGURE 3.7 Primary network

FIGURE 3.8 Factors affecting primary-

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 16

Whereas primary feeders located in high-load density areas, e.g.,

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 17

Therefore the advantage obtained by the new and higher-voltage level

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 18

FIGURE 3.9 Illustration

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 19

times the original load and area.

times the original load and area.

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 21

A tie line is a line that

FIGURE 3.14 One-line diagram of typical

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 22

To provide emergency service for an adjacent feeder for the

To provide emergency service for adjacent substation systems,

Tie lines should be installed when more than one substation is

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 23

Assume that underground feeder exits are extended out of a

Assuming uniform load distribution, each of the 12 circuits would

This is called the rectangular-type development and is illustrated in

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 24

FIGURE 3.15 Rectangular-type development

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 25

FIGURE 3.16 Rectangular-type development with two transformers

FIGURE 3.17 Rectangular-type development with two transformers

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 27

FIGURE 3.18 Rectangular-type development with three transformers

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 28

FIGURE 3.19 Radial-type development

FIGURE 3.20 A symbolic representation of a line